Spatial Variations in Terrestrial Water Storage with Variable Forces across the Yellow River Basin
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.3. Method
2.3.1. Mann–Kendall and Sen’s Slope
2.3.2. Pearson’s Correlation Analysis
2.3.3. Multiple Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS)
- (1)
- Constant term, i.e., intercept, which represents the possible intercept of other basic equations.
- (2)
- Hinge function in the form of max (0, x-knot), or max (0, knot-x), where MARS automatically selects the variable x and its corresponding node value (knot), where the knot point is a constant splitting the variable x into two sections in each of which MARS has a linear or non-linear form and joins at the node.
- (3)
- A product of two or more hinge functions indicating the interaction between two or more variables. In a two-variable case, the product represents the interaction between the variables.
2.3.4. Measures of Performance Assessment
3. Results
3.1. Spatial Variations in TWS Trend and Its Uncertainty
3.2. Spatial Trend Variations of Influencing Factors
3.3. Correlation between Variables
3.4. Variables and Their Interactions Identified by MARS
3.5. Assessment of MARS Model’s Performance
4. Discussion
4.1. Main Influencing Factors of TWS Spatiotemporal Variations
4.2. Impact of Factors’ Interaction on Spatiotemporal Variations in TWS
4.3. Uncertainty and Limitations
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Category | Variables | Resolution | Data Source |
---|---|---|---|
Climate | Precipitation | Daily, point-scale | China Meteorological Administration |
Maximum temperature | |||
Minimum temperature | |||
Hydrology | Net radiation | Monthly, 0.25° | Rodell et al. (2004) |
Evaporation | |||
Runoff | |||
Base runoff | |||
Water withdrawal | Domestic | Monthly, 0.5° | Huang et al. (2018) |
Electricity | |||
Irrigation | |||
Livestock | |||
Manufacturing | |||
Mining | |||
GRACE terrestrial water storage | TWSA | Monthly, 0.5° | CSR Mascon JPL Mascon |
Vegetation | NDVI | 15 Day, 1/12° | GIMMS NDVI3g.v1 |
Basis | Coefficient | P | Rs | Rsb | NDVI | ElecW | Tmin |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Function | |||||||
1 | −0.35 | 1(0) | |||||
2 | −0.48 | −1(0) | |||||
3 | −0.90 | −1(−1.47) | |||||
4 | 4.70 | 1(−2.32) | |||||
5 | 2.90 | −1(−2.32) | |||||
6 | −835.68 | 1(−0.000755) | |||||
7 | 0.51 | 1(1.95) | −1(0) | ||||
8 | 0.06 | −1(1.95) | −1(0) | ||||
9 | −770.94 | 1(−0.27) | 1(−0.000755) | ||||
10 | 243.01 | −1(−0.27) | 1(−0.000755) | ||||
11 | 0.32 | 1(−1.47) | 1(−1.89) | ||||
12 | −0.26 | 1(−7.30) | 1(−2.32) | ||||
13 | −0.58 | −1(−7.30) | 1(−2.32) | ||||
14 | −13.56 | −1(0) | 1(0.0145) | ||||
15 | −48.13 | −1(0) | −1(0.0145) |
Category | Input Variables | R2 | MAE | AIC |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | P, ET, Rs, Rsb | 0.65 | 1.84 | 2381.94 |
2 | DomW, ElecW, MinW, LivW, IrrW, MfgW | 0.66 | 1.70 | 2371.30 |
3 | NDVI, Tmin, Tmax, NetRad | 0.56 | 1.88 | 2631.62 |
4 | All factors | 0.83 | 1.18 | 1702.66 |
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Zhou, M.; Wang, X.; Sun, L.; Luo, Y. Spatial Variations in Terrestrial Water Storage with Variable Forces across the Yellow River Basin. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 3416. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13173416
Zhou M, Wang X, Sun L, Luo Y. Spatial Variations in Terrestrial Water Storage with Variable Forces across the Yellow River Basin. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(17):3416. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13173416
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhou, Meilin, Xiaolei Wang, Lin Sun, and Yi Luo. 2021. "Spatial Variations in Terrestrial Water Storage with Variable Forces across the Yellow River Basin" Remote Sensing 13, no. 17: 3416. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13173416