Lidar-Based Morphometry of Conical Hills in Temperate Karst Areas in Slovenia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas
2.2. Base Data
2.3. Method
3. Results
3.1. Density and Area Ratio
3.2. Size Parameters
3.3. Dimensionless Parameters
3.4. Peaks and Sinks in Higher Rank Forms
4. Discussion
- Theoretically, the two methods should result the same set of forms, i.e., they should, in principle, delineate the nested dolines and hills in the same way. The outlines of the forms are linked to a given elevation level by each method, so neither method solves the problem of complex delineation mentioned in the Introduction. Naturally, in further morphometric calculations, there are certain differences between the methods;
- In practice, the contour interval determines the accuracy of the delineation in case of the vector-based method. If contour lines are calculated based on a high-resolution DEM, then high accuracy can also be achieved with the vector method;
- With GIS software containing hydrological tools, the algorithm used in this article can be relatively easily implemented (although its application can be significantly accelerated by programming). The contour-based method (to our knowledge) requires the development of several stand-alone GIS tools but, once developed, they may be more efficient than the raster-based algorithm. In the absence of detailed information and analysis, this is so far only a hypothesis.
- addition of more morphometric indicators to the analyses that were not included in this paper (e.g., hill orientation, symmetry conditions, etc.);
- comparison of different study areas. One may even think of comparing karstic and non-karstic areas; but primarily the comparison of residual hills occurring in karst areas with different climates, different geological and topographic conditions using the same methodology can be an important goal.
5. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Site | Form Rank | Count | Area Ratio | Density (km-2) | Planform Area (m2) | Vertical Range (m) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Median | Max | Min | Median | Max | |||||
JAVORNIKI | DOL_R1 | 367 | 5% | 30.6 | 71 | 809 | 41,404 | 1.0 | 3.7 | 30.8 |
DOL_R2 | 57 | 7% | 4.8 | 452 | 5744 | 53,397 | 1.9 | 9.4 | 35.6 | |
DOL_R3 | 15 | 9% | 1.3 | 8279 | 22,067 | 57,585 | 9.5 | 16.3 | 37.4 | |
DOL_R4 | 7 | 9% | 0.6 | 19,846 | 27,239 | 29,484 | 12.4 | 19.2 | 24.6 | |
DOL_R5 | 5 | 10% | 0.4 | 26,226 | 35,155 | 82,404 | 12.9 | 24.9 | 29.0 | |
DOL_R6 | 2 | 10% | 0.2 | 35,005 | 40,979 | 46,954 | 17.1 | 22.5 | 27.9 | |
HILL_R1 | 184 | 8% | 15.3 | 62 | 2574 | 60,898 | 1.0 | 4.7 | 39.8 | |
HILL_R2 | 32 | 11% | 2.7 | 3628 | 13,751 | 122,984 | 4.3 | 14.9 | 50.6 | |
HILL_R3 | 15 | 15% | 1.3 | 13,834 | 40,884 | 143,134 | 6.0 | 25.2 | 53.4 | |
HILL_R4 | 7 | 17% | 0.6 | 49,233 | 72,179 | 212,276 | 20.7 | 29.8 | 51.8 | |
HILL_R5 | 4 | 17% | 0.3 | 71,553 | 88,116 | 159,686 | 23.7 | 27.1 | 36.1 | |
HILL_R6 | 2 | 17% | 0.2 | 86,341 | 93,424 | 100,506 | 27.6 | 28.8 | 30.0 | |
HRUŠICA | DOL_R1 | 2817 | 8% | 140.9 | 51 | 373 | 15,198 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 20.1 |
DOL_R2 | 395 | 11% | 19.8 | 270 | 2206 | 17,733 | 1.4 | 5.5 | 21.1 | |
DOL_R3 | 88 | 13% | 4.4 | 1542 | 8195 | 34,172 | 4.2 | 9.4 | 19.2 | |
DOL_R4 | 31 | 14% | 1.6 | 7713 | 20,755 | 61,738 | 7.0 | 14.0 | 21.1 | |
DOL_R5 | 15 | 14% | 0.8 | 22,770 | 44,549 | 103,544 | 9.3 | 19.5 | 23.5 | |
DOL_R6 | 10 | 15% | 0.5 | 29,734 | 64,627 | 128,604 | 10.5 | 20.5 | 25.5 | |
HILL_R1 | 572 | 8% | 28.6 | 42 | 975 | 36,511 | 1.0 | 2.4 | 39.0 | |
HILL_R2 | 68 | 12% | 3.4 | 301 | 7158 | 153,884 | 1.7 | 8.7 | 66.3 | |
HILL_R3 | 20 | 15% | 1.0 | 3636 | 45,364 | 261,077 | 7.0 | 30.9 | 76.6 | |
HILL_R4 | 11 | 18% | 0.6 | 22,279 | 161,160 | 451,903 | 10.2 | 50.4 | 104.4 | |
HILL_R5 | 9 | 19% | 0.5 | 50,956 | 192,972 | 493,279 | 23.8 | 52.7 | 108.6 | |
HILL_R6 | 5 | 20% | 0.3 | 109,180 | 266,729 | 329,912 | 44.9 | 57.2 | 77.4 | |
BANJŠICE | DOL_R1 | 1494 | 9% | 97.9 | 53 | 590 | 17,982 | 1.0 | 3.2 | 26.2 |
DOL_R2 | 259 | 13% | 17.0 | 318 | 3242 | 37,062 | 1.9 | 6.8 | 26.3 | |
DOL_R3 | 81 | 15% | 5.3 | 2427 | 10,474 | 48,129 | 3.9 | 11.7 | 22.1 | |
DOL_R4 | 43 | 17% | 2.8 | 6726 | 22,887 | 88,279 | 6.2 | 14.8 | 24.4 | |
DOL_R5 | 21 | 19% | 1.4 | 16,322 | 46,773 | 135,356 | 12.8 | 18.1 | 29.5 | |
DOL_R6 | 10 | 20% | 0.7 | 35,556 | 66,867 | 248,300 | 16.7 | 22.6 | 31.5 | |
HILL_R1 | 634 | 10% | 41.5 | 87 | 950 | 133,426 | 1.0 | 2.9 | 98.2 | |
HILL_R2 | 90 | 15% | 5.9 | 219 | 5854 | 76,199 | 1.5 | 8.2 | 54.4 | |
HILL_R3 | 35 | 17% | 2.3 | 2918 | 23,432 | 104,132 | 4.2 | 18.8 | 57.3 | |
HILL_R4 | 17 | 19% | 1.1 | 12,423 | 55,430 | 204,890 | 10.4 | 37.2 | 63.1 | |
HILL_R5 | 14 | 22% | 0.9 | 34,892 | 68,219 | 214,706 | 11.7 | 45.3 | 93.3 | |
HILL_R6 | 9 | 23% | 0.6 | 65,984 | 104,777 | 327,234 | 17.3 | 55.9 | 104.2 |
Site | Form Rank | Area ~ H | Circularity | H / D | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
r2 | exponent | Min | Median | Max | Min | Median | Max | ||
JAVORNIKI | DOL_R1 | 0.73 | 0.60 | 0.38 | 0.85 | 0.96 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.75 |
DOL_R2 | 0.68 | 0.52 | 0.35 | 0.61 | 0.88 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.34 | |
DOL_R3 | 0.59 | 0.51 | 0.31 | 0.57 | 0.86 | 0.07 | 0.11 | 0.16 | |
DOL_R4 | 0.31 | 1.05 | 0.34 | 0.44 | 0.71 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.13 | |
DOL_R5 | 0.58 | 0.62 | 0.29 | 0.48 | 0.59 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.12 | |
DOL_R6 | 0.50 | 0.53 | 0.57 | 0.08 | 0.10 | 0.11 | |||
HILL_R1 | 0.79 | 0.64 | 0.24 | 0.75 | 0.92 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.25 | |
HILL_R2 | 0.72 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 0.61 | 0.84 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.18 | |
HILL_R3 | 0.84 | 0.71 | 0.30 | 0.51 | 0.80 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.13 | |
HILL_R4 | 0.97 | 0.59 | 0.34 | 0.40 | 0.61 | 0.08 | 0.09 | 0.10 | |
HILL_R5 | 0.83 | 0.49 | 0.24 | 0.34 | 0.45 | 0.07 | 0.08 | 0.09 | |
HILL_R6 | 0.33 | 0.44 | 0.54 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.08 | |||
HRUŠICA | DOL_R1 | 0.71 | 0.55 | 0.37 | 0.88 | 0.97 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.77 |
DOL_R2 | 0.67 | 0.51 | 0.22 | 0.58 | 0.88 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.48 | |
DOL_R3 | 0.56 | 0.42 | 0.17 | 0.42 | 0.88 | 0.04 | 0.09 | 0.15 | |
DOL_R4 | 0.24 | 0.34 | 0.11 | 0.34 | 0.52 | 0.04 | 0.08 | 0.13 | |
DOL_R5 | 0.25 | 0.29 | 0.12 | 0.29 | 0.57 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.11 | |
DOL_R6 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.12 | 0.24 | 0.56 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.09 | |
HILL_R1 | 0.81 | 0.60 | 0.19 | 0.69 | 0.97 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.22 | |
HILL_R2 | 0.88 | 0.69 | 0.21 | 0.46 | 0.77 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.18 | |
HILL_R3 | 0.86 | 0.66 | 0.14 | 0.44 | 0.75 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.15 | |
HILL_R4 | 0.87 | 0.67 | 0.32 | 0.48 | 0.79 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.15 | |
HILL_R5 | 0.86 | 0.61 | 0.25 | 0.35 | 0.65 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 0.15 | |
HILL_R6 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 0.20 | 0.29 | 0.54 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.15 | |
BANJŠICE | DOL_R1 | 0.71 | 0.58 | 0.33 | 0.87 | 0.97 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.43 |
DOL_R2 | 0.64 | 0.49 | 0.22 | 0.58 | 0.96 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.27 | |
DOL_R3 | 0.46 | 0.38 | 0.17 | 0.44 | 0.77 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.19 | |
DOL_R4 | 0.32 | 0.31 | 0.13 | 0.32 | 0.74 | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.17 | |
DOL_R5 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.27 | 0.68 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.13 | |
DOL_R6 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.06 | 0.33 | 0.64 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.13 | |
HILL_R1 | 0.85 | 0.65 | 0.23 | 0.70 | 0.95 | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.24 | |
HILL_R2 | 0.89 | 0.70 | 0.22 | 0.48 | 0.81 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.23 | |
HILL_R3 | 0.87 | 0.76 | 0.11 | 0.40 | 0.72 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.22 | |
HILL_R4 | 0.82 | 0.73 | 0.09 | 0.35 | 0.73 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.20 | |
HILL_R5 | 0.72 | 0.86 | 0.08 | 0.34 | 0.69 | 0.06 | 0.11 | 0.20 | |
HILL_R6 | 0.67 | 0.84 | 0.11 | 0.38 | 0.61 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.19 |
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Telbisz, T. Lidar-Based Morphometry of Conical Hills in Temperate Karst Areas in Slovenia. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 2668. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13142668
Telbisz T. Lidar-Based Morphometry of Conical Hills in Temperate Karst Areas in Slovenia. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(14):2668. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13142668
Chicago/Turabian StyleTelbisz, Tamás. 2021. "Lidar-Based Morphometry of Conical Hills in Temperate Karst Areas in Slovenia" Remote Sensing 13, no. 14: 2668. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13142668