Analyzing Three-Decadal Patterns of Land Use/Land Cover Change and Regional Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Level: Case Study of Two Coastal Metropolitan Regions, Eastern China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas
2.2. Data Sources
2.3. Satellite Imagery Preprocessing, Classification, Accuracy Assessment, and Post-Classification
2.4. Computation of Class-Level Metrics for Measuring Landscape Fragmentation
2.5. Computation of Regional ESV
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. LULC Change
3.2. Variation of Class-Level Landscape Patterns
3.3. Variation in Spatiotemporal Pattern of ESV
3.4. Relationship between the Landscape Pattern and Allocation of Esv
4. Discussion
4.1. Revisiting the Cause-Effect Relationship between LULC Change, Landscape Fragmentation, and Ecosystems’ Functioning
4.2. Implications for Policies towards Sustainable Land Use and Ecosystem Management
4.3. Limitation of This Study
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Study Area | On-Board Sensor | Path/Row | Acquisition Date (DD-MM-YY) | Resolution (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Greater Shanghai | MSS | 127/038, 127/039 | 4-8-1979 | 60 |
TM | 118/038, 118/039 | 18-5-1987 | 30 | |
TM | 118/038, 118/039 | 11-4-1997 | 30 | |
Greater Hangzhou | TM | 118/038, 118/039 | 24-3-2008 | 30 |
MSS | 128/039 | 5-7-1978 | 60 | |
TM | 119/039 | 23-7-1991 | 30 | |
ETM+ | 119/039 | 11-10-2000 | 30 | |
ETM+ | 119/039 | 24-4-2008 | 30 |
Land Cover Type | Description |
---|---|
Developed land | Visually detectable urban and rural settlements, commercial areas, transportation lines, and industrial parks. |
Cropland | Paddy fields, fallow lands after harvest, and dry lands. |
Forest | Natural and artificial woodlands. |
Shrub | Wild scrubland and forest nurseries. |
Water | Rivers, creeks, reservoirs, lakes, fishponds, and dikes. |
Tidal land | Sandy flat periodically inundated by tides. |
Bare land | Bare rocks, gravel pits, quarries, mines, permanently enclosed tidal land, and vacant land after clearing vegetation for urban development. |
Formula | Description |
---|---|
where ni is counts of land cover patch (class) i, A is total area of all patches (m2). | |
where Pi is percentage of patch type (class) i within the landscape, aij is area (m2) of patch ij, and A is area of all patches (m2). | |
where aij is area (m2) of patch ij and A is total area of all patches (m2). | |
where ei is class i’s total length of edge for given grids; min ei is class i’s minimum total length of edge. | |
where Ai is class i’s area (m2), and Ni is number of class i. |
Region | Buffers Distance (km) | Synopotical Description |
---|---|---|
Greater Shanghai | 0–6 | The city core of downtown Shanghai. |
6–12 | The newly in-filling urban area between the inner and outer rings. | |
12–21 | The urban finge with intensive settlements and industrial parks. | |
21–35 | The rapidly urbaning areas with intensive settlements, industrial parks, harbors, and airport | |
>35 | The low-density developed rural areas with sparsely distributed towns and villages. Aside from some settlements and industrial parks, this zonal buffer is characterized with cropland and tidal land. | |
Greater Hangzhou | 0–3 | The city core of downtown Hangzhou. |
3–6 | The newly in-filling urban area between the city core and neiboring towns. | |
6–15 | The rapidly urbanizing areas expanding eastward and southward between the city core and well-developed urban area of Xiaoshan district. | |
15–25 | The mixing middle-density and low-density developed rural areas with sparsely distributed towns and villages. Aside from the well-developed urban area of Yuhang district, this zonal buffer is characterzied with hilly terrain, cropland, and river network. | |
>25 | The low-density developed rural areas with sparsely distributed towns and villages. This zonal buffer is characterzied with hilly and mountaineous terrain and tidal land. |
Ecosystem Services Category | Ecosystem Service Functions | Land Use Category | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Forest | Cropland | Water | Shrub | Bare Land | Tidal Land | ||
Regulating | Gas regulation | 3097.00 | 442.40 | 0.00 | 1769.70 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
Climate regulation | 2389.10 | 787.50 | 407.00 | 1588.30 | 0.00 | 203.50 | |
Supporting | Soil formation and retention | 3450.90 | 1291.90 | 8.80 | 2371.40 | 17.70 | 13.30 |
Waste purification | 1159.20 | 1451.20 | 16086.60 | 1287.20 | 8.80 | 8047.70 | |
Biodiversity protection | 2884.60 | 628.20 | 2203.30 | 1756.40 | 300.80 | 1252.10 | |
Provisioning | Water supply | 2831.50 | 530.90 | 18,033.20 | 1681.20 | 26.50 | 9029.90 |
Food production | 88.50 | 884.90 | 88.50 | 177.00 | 8.80 | 48.70 | |
Raw material | 2300.60 | 88.50 | 8.80 | 1194.60 | 0.00 | 4.40 | |
Cultural | Recreation and culture | 1132.60 | 8.80 | 3840.20 | 570.70 | 8.80 | 1924.50 |
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LULC Type | Developed Land | Cropland | Forest | Water | Tidal Land | Bare Land | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | |
Developed land | 75.00–87.10 | 62.50–71.15 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0–7.32 | 0–7.67 | 3.57–5.56 | 4.55–6.67 | 14.63–25.00 | 15.79–22.92 |
Cropland | 0 | 0 | 62.5–80.49 | 76.92–100.00 | 10.20–35.42 | 16.67–32.69 | 0 | 0 | 0–2.44 | 0–2.70 | 0–10.20 | 0–10.42 |
Forest | 0 | 0 | 0–20.45 | 0–23.08 | 76.09–100.00 | 67.31–83.33 | 0 | 0 | 0–4.35 | 0–4.55 | 0 | 0 |
Water | 0–2.33 | 0–2.86 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 77.78–86.05 | 84.85–100.00 | 11.63–23.91 | 11.36–29.73 | 0 | 0 |
Tidal land | 2.77–8.00 | 2.44–4.65 | 0 | 0 | 0–4.65 | 0–6.67 | 0–11.63 | 0–15.55 | 67.44–80.00 | 54.05–75.00 | 8.11–12.00 | 5.77–13.16 |
Bare land | 2.44–13.89 | 2.13–12.20 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3.23–12.5 | 2.27–11.11 | 75.00–90.24 | 62.50–71.15 |
UA (%) | 76.88–82.81 | |||||||||||
PA (%) | 76.93–83.48 | |||||||||||
OA (%) | 76.40–84.20 | |||||||||||
Kappa statistic | 0.72–0.79 |
LULC Type | Developed Land | Cropland | Forest | Shrub | Water | Tidal Land | Bare Land | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | R (%) | C (%) | |
Developed land | 68.90–84.80 | 83.09–92.01 | 0–1.71 | 0.76–4.29 | 0–1.78 | 0–2.33 | 0–0.67 | 0.65–4.24 | 0–4.11 | 0–2.89 | 0–5.15 | 0–8.21 | 0–4.90 | 0–5.32 |
Cropland | 1.75–11.59 | 0–4.66 | 69.90–95.81 | 83.75–92.31 | 2.79–13.10 | 3.61–11.44 | 0–11.26 | 0–9.71 | 0.56–9.58 | 0.32–2.35 | 2.11–13.16 | 0–3.17 | 0–6.80 | 0–23.61 |
Forest | 0–4.68 | 0–2.40 | 1.25–5.97 | 1.22–4.29 | 75.86–96.17 | 80.47–92.88 | 0–3.36 | 0–7.79 | 0–1.58 | 0–2.31 | 0–1.58 | 0 | 0–0.91 | 0–0.69 |
Shrub | 0.58–9.76 | 0–0.65 | 0–5.24 | 0–3.84 | 0–10.34 | 0–4.03 | 81.46–98.34 | 79.87–96.74 | 0–3.42 | 0–1.54 | 0–3.68 | 0–6.72 | 0–5.88 | 0–0.70 |
Water | 0–5.49 | 0–9.56 | 0.19–1.73 | 0.23–5.95 | 0–1.33 | 0–3.25 | 0–1.32 | 0–3.25 | 81.57–96.05 | 73.08–96.38 | 0–30.00 | 1.14–9.51 | 0–2.94 | 0–4.90 |
Tidal land | 0–6.43 | 0–4.41 | 0–0.76 | 0.77–5.73 | 0 | 0–1.49 | 0–5.96 | 0–4.00 | 0.49–10.57 | 0–21.79 | 49.12–96.32 | 74.63–95.43 | 0–2.90 | 0–31.47 |
Bare land | 0–10.55 | 0–3.27 | 0–9.43 | 0–3.44 | 0–1.63 | 0–1.49 | 0–1.34 | 0–1.63 | 0–1.72 | 0–0.64 | 0–13.24 | 0–4.48 | 83.33–100.00 | 59.44–100.00 |
UA (%) | 83.19–88.31 | |||||||||||||
PA (%) | 82.54–86.99 | |||||||||||||
OA (%) | 80.70–88.56 | |||||||||||||
Kappa statistic | 0.78–0.85 |
Ecosystem Service Category | Greater Shanghai | Greater Hangzhou | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1979 | 1987 | 1997 | 2008 | 1978 | 1991 | 2000 | 2008 | |
Regulating | 1101.19 | 916.58 | 844.39 | 747.97 | 780.93 | 658.26 | 616.03 | 563.7 |
Supporting | 9409.11 | 8514.57 | 8548.44 | 7725.88 | 1894.61 | 1620.96 | 1527.04 | 1442.6 |
Provisioning | 8264.66 | 7437.53 | 7489.05 | 6844.91 | 1343.87 | 1111.41 | 1055.24 | 1043.8 |
Cultural | 1595.93 | 1419.73 | 1425.49 | 1323.73 | 246.69 | 189.13 | 180.86 | 190.31 |
Sum | 21,966.82 | 19,708.14 | 19,732.86 | 17,966.22 | 4512.79 | 3768.89 | 3560.03 | 3430.7 |
Zonal Buffer | Year | Stage Change Rate | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1979 | 1987 | 1997 | 2008 | 1979–1987 | 1987–1997 | 1997–2008 | 1978–2008 | |
0–6 km | 59.84 | 39.87 | 35.25 | 41.05 | −33.36% | −11.61% | 16.48% | −31.39% |
6–12 km | 236.82 | 164.71 | 98.65 | 109.82 | −30.45% | −40.11% | 11.32% | −53.63% |
12–21 km | 780.60 | 650.36 | 660.73 | 484.66 | −16.69% | 1.60% | −26.65% | −37.91% |
21–35 km | 3748.93 | 3522.41 | 3682.43 | 3311.89 | −6.04% | 4.54% | −10.06% | −11.66% |
>35 km | 15,544.69 | 13,911.03 | 13,830.31 | 12,695.06 | −10.51% | −0.58% | −8.21% | −18.33% |
Zonal Buffer | Year | Stage Change Rate | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1978 | 1991 | 2000 | 2008 | 1979–1991 | 1991–2000 | 2000–2008 | 1978–2008 | |
0–3 km | 16.49 | 6.79 | 8.93 | 13.90 | −58.82% | 31.52% | 55.66% | −15.71% |
3–6 km | 92.68 | 62.35 | 55.42 | 67.41 | −32.73% | −11.11% | 21.63% | −27.27% |
6–15 km | 746.42 | 671.23 | 585.21 | 524.87 | −10.07% | −12.82% | −10.31% | −29.68% |
15–25 km | 1287.31 | 1191.25 | 1115.90 | 989.62 | −7.46% | −6.33% | −11.32% | −23.12% |
>25 km | 2123.18 | 1931.19 | 1965.73 | 1912.66 | −9.04% | 1.79% | −2.70% | −9.92% |
Multi-Linear Regression Model | R2 | |
---|---|---|
Ln ESVSH = 6.142 − 0.042 LPID + 0.001MPSC + 0.001 MPSF + 0.007 PLANDW+ 0.002 LSIT | 0.993 ** | (3) |
Ln ESVHZ = 2.355 − 0.011 LPID + 0.013 LSIC + 0.036 PLANDF − 0.002 MPSB + 0.178 MPST | 0.990 ** | (4) |
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Cai, Y.-B.; Li, H.-M.; Ye, X.-Y.; Zhang, H. Analyzing Three-Decadal Patterns of Land Use/Land Cover Change and Regional Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Level: Case Study of Two Coastal Metropolitan Regions, Eastern China. Sustainability 2016, 8, 773. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080773
Cai Y-B, Li H-M, Ye X-Y, Zhang H. Analyzing Three-Decadal Patterns of Land Use/Land Cover Change and Regional Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Level: Case Study of Two Coastal Metropolitan Regions, Eastern China. Sustainability. 2016; 8(8):773. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080773
Chicago/Turabian StyleCai, Yuan-Bin, Hui-Min Li, Xin-Yue Ye, and Hao Zhang. 2016. "Analyzing Three-Decadal Patterns of Land Use/Land Cover Change and Regional Ecosystem Services at the Landscape Level: Case Study of Two Coastal Metropolitan Regions, Eastern China" Sustainability 8, no. 8: 773. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8080773