The Influence of Paradoxical Leadership on Hotel Sustainable Service Performance: The Mediating Role of Organizational Citizenship Behavior

Abstract

This study examines the role of Paradoxical Leadership (PL) in enhancing sustainable service performance in Egypt’s hotel industry, with Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) serving as a key mediating mechanism. Moving beyond conventional performance frameworks, the research examines how the dual nature of PL behaviors encourages discretionary employee actions that advance social sustainability, employee well-being, responsible service delivery, and long-term organizational resilience. Employing a survey-based quantitative design, data were collected from 397 hotel employees in Egypt using a structured questionnaire assessing overall PL, its five core dimensions, and OCB. A structured questionnaire was used to measure overall PL, its five core dimensions, OCB, and sustainable service performance. The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 24 and WarpPLS 8, confirmatory factor analysis, reliability analysis, and regression-based mediation analysis to examine the relationships among the study variables. The findings reveal that PL positively influences sustainable service performance, while OCB not only enhances service outcomes but also significantly mediates the relationship between PL and performance. In addition, each dimension of PL—balancing self- and other-centeredness (SO), maintaining distance while fostering closeness (CD), treating employees uniformly while recognizing individuality (UI), preserving decision control while encouraging autonomy (CA), and enforcing work requirements while allowing flexibility (RF)—significantly strengthens employees’ citizenship behaviors.

1. Introduction

In the hospitality industry, organizations face a unique set of challenges arising from balancing conflicting demands. Hotel leaders must navigate tensions between fostering innovation and maintaining stability, ensuring high customer satisfaction while controlling costs, and adapting to changing market conditions without compromising service quality. These tensions create a paradoxical organizational environment that requires leadership capable of simultaneously addressing competing operational and strategic priorities [1].

Beyond operational and competitive pressures, hospitality organizations are increasingly expected to balance economic performance with environmental and social sustainability goals. Hotels are now required to deliver high-quality service while simultaneously reducing environmental impact, supporting employee well-being, and contributing to long-term community value. Such expectations further intensify the complexity of leadership in hospitality organizations, making sustainability-oriented service performance a critical outcome for contemporary hotel management [2,3]. Leaders in the hotel industry, particularly in Egypt, must manage a delicate equilibrium between organizational development and the existing business culture. Achieving this requires the ability to handle conflicting goals, such as enhancing employee performance while maintaining service standards and meeting customer expectations without escalating operational costs [4]. To address these challenges, effective leaders must foster a culture that embraces contradictions and encourages flexibility, thus enabling the organization to thrive in an increasingly competitive market [5].

In emerging hospitality markets such as Egypt, sustainability challenges—including resource efficiency, workforce stability, and long-term service quality—are closely intertwined with leadership effectiveness. As hotels strive to maintain competitiveness while addressing environmental and social responsibilities, leadership approaches that can reconcile short-term performance with long-term sustainability have become particularly important [6,7].

PL is a leadership style that emphasizes the “both–and” approach, in which leaders simultaneously embrace competing demands, enabling them to balance opposing goals [8]. PL is increasingly recognized as a critical factor in addressing the complexities of contemporary organizational life, especially in service sectors like hospitality [9]. This leadership approach equips hotel managers with the tools needed to navigate the complex demands of hotel operations, manage employee relations, and enhance performance outcomes despite competing pressures [10].

In the hotel sector, employees often face role ambiguity, heightened customer expectations, and fluctuating workload demands. These challenges can lead to feelings of stress, job insecurity, and burnout. Leaders who adopt PL approaches can mitigate these pressures by balancing structure with flexibility and providing both guidance and autonomy to employees. By providing clear role definitions, setting performance expectations, and granting employees autonomy, such leaders can enhance job satisfaction and improve overall performance [11,12]. Effective leaders are those who can manage these contradictions, align employee interests with organizational goals, and create an environment conducive to both personal and organizational growth [13]. Such leadership capabilities are also essential for sustaining service performance over time, as employee well-being, organizational support, and responsible management practices form the foundation of long-term service sustainability in hospitality organizations. Leaders who successfully balance control with flexibility and performance with employee support are more likely to foster resilient service systems capable of maintaining consistent quality and sustainable outcomes [14].

Several studies have explored the impact of PL on various organizational outcomes. For instance, a study investigating the link between PL and employee innovation through knowledge sharing found that PL played a moderate role in facilitating innovation. The study emphasized the need for leaders to adopt paradoxical approaches to encourage knowledge exchange and improve job performance [15]. Similarly, research on the relationship between PL and job design revealed that PL significantly supports leaders in defining job roles and enhancing task performance. This effect, however, was moderated by the leaders’ professional adaptability and flexibility [16]. Another study examined the relationship between PL and job engagement and reported a positive correlation. The research highlighted that effective leaders clarify job roles, provide autonomy, and offer training programs to help employees manage workplace contradictions [13]. Together, these studies suggest that PL can shape employee attitudes and discretionary behaviors that support organizational performance.

While prior research has examined PL in relation to innovation, engagement, and job performance, limited attention has been given to its potential role in shaping sustainable service performance in hospitality settings. As service organizations increasingly pursue sustainability-oriented strategies, understanding how leadership approaches influence long-term responsible performance becomes essential.

In the context of the hospitality industry, OCB has emerged as a critical concept for enhancing hotel performance. OCB refers to voluntary behaviors exhibited by employees that go beyond their formal job duties but contribute significantly to organizational effectiveness [17]. Research has demonstrated that OCB plays a vital role in improving both employee and organizational performance, influencing various dimensions such as service quality, customer satisfaction, and overall organizational effectiveness [18,19]. Numerous studies have linked OCB to key workplace variables. For example, job satisfaction has been consistently found to positively correlate with OCB [20]. Additionally, OCB has been associated with enhanced knowledge management practices [21] and perceptions of organizational justice [22,23]. Furthermore, high-quality leader–subordinate relationships have been shown to directly influence employees’ OCB practices [24]. Organizational support and perceived fairness have also emerged as strong predictors of OCB [25].

Consequently, the link between PL and OCB is particularly relevant in the hotel industry, where exceptional service and customer experience are central to competitive success. Leaders who practice PL are more likely to foster an environment in which employees feel empowered to exhibit OCB, thereby contributing to long-term organizational outcomes [26]. In Egypt’s highly competitive hospitality sector, promoting OCB can help hotels differentiate themselves, improve employee engagement, and enhance customer loyalty, thereby boosting profitability and market position [20]. Egypt provides a meaningful context for examining the relationship between PL, OCB, and sustainable service performance in the hospitality industry. As one of the leading tourism destinations in the Middle East and North Africa, Egypt’s hotel sector plays a critical role in national economic development and employment generation. Hotels in Egypt operate in a highly service-oriented environment where employees’ interpersonal interactions and discretionary behaviors significantly influence service quality and guest satisfaction.

Moreover, by encouraging behaviors that support cooperation, responsibility, and proactive service delivery, OCB may serve as a critical mechanism through which PL enhances sustainable service performance. Employees who demonstrate altruism, civic virtue, and compliance contribute to consistent service quality, efficient operations, and responsible organizational practices, all of which are essential for long-term sustainability in hospitality organizations.

OCB’s benefits in the hotel industry include fostering innovation, improving service quality, enhancing efficiency, and reducing turnover rates. Furthermore, OCB has been shown to increase employee engagement, reduce absenteeism, and strengthen organizational commitment [27]. Encouraging such behaviors may therefore enhance both employee engagement and organizational performance in hospitality settings.

Based on the preceding discussion, two key gaps emerge in the literature regarding the effects of PL in the hospitality sector. First, although numerous studies have examined the influence of PL on hotel outcomes [9,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35], most empirical evidence originates from developed countries, leaving limited research on its impact on OCB in developing hospitality contexts—particularly in the Middle East and Egypt—where sustainability challenges, workforce conditions, and socio-economic dynamics differ substantially [10]. Second, prior studies have largely conceptualized PL as a unified construct, with insufficient attention given to examining how its five individual dimensions independently shape employee outcomes such as OCB and related responsible and sustainability-oriented workplace behaviors [10,33].

Accordingly, this research examines the influence of the five PL dimensions—(1) integration of self-centeredness and other-centeredness (SO), (2) balance of relational distance and closeness (DC), (3) uniform treatment alongside individualized consideration (UI), (4) preservation of decision authority with autonomy (CA), and (5) enforcement of work requirements with flexibility (RF)—on hotel employees’ OCB in Egypt. In addition, the study investigates the direct influence of PL on sustainable service performance, the impact of OCB on sustainable service performance, and the mediating role of OCB in linking PL to sustainable service performance. By empirically testing these relationships, the study contributes to the measurement and operationalization of sustainability-related employee behavior, links leadership practices to long-term socio-economic and organizational sustainability, and provides evidence-based guidance for hotel managers seeking to enhance responsible performance, stakeholder value, and sustainable competitiveness.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Paradoxical Leadership (PL)

The concept of PL is grounded in paradox theory, which addresses the tensions and complexities inherent in organizational management, particularly when leaders must navigate competing demands and contradictions [36,37]. PL posits that leaders effectively manage these paradoxes to achieve gains that stem from addressing such tensions [32,38]. PL emphasizes the leader’s capacity to balance contrasting and interdependent behaviors within the workforce. This is achieved by fostering equilibrium in the work environment and enhancing employee performance simultaneously [39]. Central to PL is the dynamic harmonization of organizational contradictions—a process that enables organizations to function efficiently in paradoxical settings [9].

A hallmark of PL is the application of the “both–and” strategy, which enables leaders to address short- and long-term objectives concurrently, rather than adopting an “Either–Or” approach. This strategy facilitates the integration and behavioral alignment of employees while mediating their conflicting demands [9,40]. Through this approach, PL fosters innovation [41] and enhances organizational adaptability to external variables [42]. It also improves the organization’s ability to identify opportunities that distinguish it in competitive markets [40]. Importantly, sustainability in hospitality is frequently described as a “paradoxical” managerial challenge because hotels must simultaneously pursue service excellence, operational efficiency, and longer-term environmental and social responsibilities. In this sense, PL is theoretically well-suited to sustainability-oriented performance outcomes because it explicitly equips leaders to reconcile short-term service demands with long-term organizational resilience and responsibility. This alignment is consistent with sustainability perspectives emphasizing multi-dimensional performance (e.g., economic, social, and environmental value) and long-term orientation as defining elements of sustainability [2,6,43].

In general, the adoption of PL offers a critical mechanism for addressing the inherent tensions of the sector. For instance, hotels in Egypt, operating in a highly dynamic and competitive global tourism market, often encounter paradoxical demands such as maintaining cultural authenticity while embracing modernization, or balancing cost-efficiency with superior guest experiences. PL equips leaders with the tools to reconcile these contradictions [28], enabling sustainable performance and growth [44].

Building on this logic, PL may also support hotels’ ability to deliver sustainable service performance—an outcome that captures the organization’s capability to maintain high-quality service delivery while supporting longer-term environmental, social, and organizational well-being. In hospitality, sustainable performance is not merely an operational endpoint; it is an ongoing capability to sustain service systems under resource constraints, stakeholder expectations, and competitive pressures [2,6].

PL further supports employees in navigating the pressures and contradictions of their roles, fostering stability and reducing feelings of insecurity in the workplace [45]. This leadership style also cultivates an environment where employee well-being, job satisfaction, and organizational creativity can flourish [37]. For hotels in Egypt, where employee turnover is often a challenge, PL provides a structured approach to enhance employee retention and job satisfaction, aligning with broader organizational goals. One of PL’s defining characteristics is its ability to address conflicting organizational priorities without forcing a binary choice. Instead, it seeks to balance opposing forces, such as innovation and operational stability, through flexible decision-making [42]. In Egyptian hotels, this flexibility is particularly relevant in managing the balance between tradition and modernity, as well as local and international guest expectations. PL thus provides a foundation for responding to diverse and rapidly evolving market demands while ensuring internal harmony and alignment.

In light of the above, it is evident that PL is particularly valuable for navigating the complexities of Egypt’s hotel industry. Leaders who adopt PL can address paradoxical demands more effectively, fostering resilience in the organization. By reducing workplace instability, mitigating negative employee emotions, and promoting a balanced and supportive work environment, PL contributes to achieving organizational objectives, enhancing employee satisfaction, and sustaining competitive advantage in a globalized market.

2.2. Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) in the Hospitality Industry

OCB has been a critical area of interest in organizational studies, particularly for its role in enhancing the effectiveness and functionality of institutions, including service-oriented sectors like hospitality. OCB refers to discretionary behaviors exhibited by employees that extend beyond their formal job responsibilities and are not directly recognized by an organization’s formal reward system [46]. Such behaviors include acts of cooperation, support, and constructive engagement, which contribute significantly to achieving organizational goals without being explicitly mandated or rewarded [20,47].

In the context of hotels in Egypt, where the hospitality industry plays a vital role in the national economy, OCB becomes particularly relevant. Employees who engage in voluntary behaviors—such as assisting colleagues, providing exceptional customer service, and promoting the organization’s reputation—can create a competitive advantage by fostering guest satisfaction and loyalty. Given the dynamic and customer-focused nature of hotel operations, discretionary behaviors can complement formal service standards by enabling employees to respond flexibly to guest needs and operational challenges.

OCB encompasses multiple dimensions, such as altruism (helping behaviors), general compliance (conscientiousness), dedication beyond formal requirements, and civic virtue (involvement in organizational governance) [47,48]. These behaviors are particularly salient in hotel environments, where teamwork and guest interaction require flexibility, proactivity, and emotional labor. Prior research consistently links OCB to improved organizational performance, stronger employee engagement, and enhanced service quality [48,49,50].

Beyond immediate effectiveness, OCB is increasingly relevant to sustainability-oriented outcomes because discretionary employee behaviors often support responsible practices, service consistency, and organizational resilience over time. Related research on “Organizational Citizenship Behavior for the environment” (OCBE) highlights that voluntary, non-mandated employee behaviors can contribute to improved environmental practices and performance, complementing formal sustainability policies [51]. Although OCBE focuses specifically on pro-environmental actions, the broader logic extends to service settings, where discretionary behaviors such as helping, compliance, and civic participation contribute to operational reliability and responsible service delivery.

The dimensions of OCB provide a framework for understanding how employees in hotels voluntarily contribute beyond their formal job requirements to enhance organizational performance. These dimensions—altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, general compliance, and civic virtue—are particularly significant in the hospitality industry, where guest satisfaction and service excellence are critical. Examining these dimensions within the hospitality context can therefore provide deeper insights into how discretionary employee behaviors contribute to service performance and organizational effectiveness.

• Altruism

Altruism reflects voluntary behaviors aimed at helping colleagues or supervisors with work-related tasks. In Egyptian hotels, altruism can manifest as staff assisting teammates during peak guest traffic, sharing knowledge about cultural nuances to improve guest experience, or stepping in to resolve issues without direct instruction [37]. This behavior fosters teamwork and ensures smooth operational flow [48].

2.

Courtesy

Courtesy involves proactive actions to prevent interpersonal workplace conflicts. In hospitality environments, courtesy may involve communicating proactively with coworkers, coordinating service activities, or addressing potential misunderstandings before they escalate into workplace conflict. Courtesy is crucial in the hospitality context, where smooth interpersonal relationships enhance service quality [49].

3.

Sportsmanship

Sportsmanship denotes a willingness to tolerate less-than-ideal conditions without complaint. In Egyptian hotels, this dimension is evident when employees demonstrate resilience in the face of challenges such as high occupancy periods, resource shortages, or demanding guests. Sportsmanship reduces workplace negativity, fosters a positive organizational climate, and enhances overall guest satisfaction [48].

4.

General Compliance

General compliance refers to adherence to organizational rules and policies, often exceeding minimum expectations. For hotel employees in Egypt, this includes punctuality, maintaining cleanliness standards, and following safety protocols. This behavior ensures consistency in service delivery and operational efficiency, which are critical for maintaining the reputation of hotels in the competitive tourism industry [48,49].

5.

Civic Virtue

Civic virtue encompasses behaviors reflecting active participation and engagement in organizational governance. In the context of Egyptian hotels, this could include attending staff meetings, suggesting innovative ideas for improving guest services or volunteering for training programs to enhance skills. Civic virtue promotes a culture of involvement and responsibility, leading to organizational growth and innovation [52].

In Egypt, where cultural values emphasize hospitality and interpersonal relationships, OCB aligns well with societal expectations and can be a critical driver for organizational success in hotels. For example, employees’ willingness to assist colleagues during high-demand periods or provide personalized attention to guests can create memorable experiences that elevate a hotel’s reputation [44]. Such behaviors, although not explicitly rewarded, contribute to higher customer satisfaction and repeat business, essential for sustaining competitive advantage in the Egyptian hotel sector. Furthermore, OCB in the hotel industry can also manifest through behaviors such as guest orientation, team support, adherence to standards, and proactive problem-solving. Importantly, these forms of discretionary contribution can also support sustainable service performance by maintaining service reliability, improving internal coordination, and reducing wasteful service failures (e.g., rework, guest recovery costs). Thus, OCB provides a theoretically meaningful behavioral pathway linking leadership practices to sustainability-relevant performance outcomes in hospitality organizations.

2.3. The Conceptualized Model and Hypotheses Development

2.3.1. The Interplay Between Overall PL and OCB in the Hospitality Context

Studies have shown that OCB is influenced by factors such as leadership style, organizational culture, and job satisfaction [44]. Leadership practices are particularly important in fostering motivation for OCB by building trust, providing support, and enhancing employees’ self-awareness [48]. Among various leadership styles, PL has emerged as a particularly effective approach for influencing employees’ extra-role behaviors. PL, characterized by the simultaneous balance of opposing leadership dimensions, contributes to OCB through three key mechanisms: balancing relationships, fostering reciprocity, and amplifying the effects of both. First, it balances closeness and authority in leader–employee relationships, creating harmony that reduces perceived power distance and relational pressure. This, in turn, encourages employees to engage in extra-role behaviors beneficial to the organization [9,53]. Second, paradoxical leaders exhibit a distinctive combination of self-confidence and humility, fostering mutual respect and emotional connections with their subordinates. These connections inspire employees to exceed their formal roles and contribute additional efforts [9,54].

Finally, paradoxical leaders employ adaptive communication strategies tailored to the individual needs of their subordinates, ensuring clarity and mutual understanding of expectations. This approach motivates employees to align their efforts with organizational objectives and engage in OCB [37]. In light of the current emphasis on establishing high-performance work environments in the hotel industry, PL is particularly relevant. It fosters fairness, builds trust, and encourages employees to undertake extra-role behaviors aligned with their abilities, ultimately enhancing organizational performance. Previous studies have found a positive relationship between employee OCBs [20,28,29,32,34,37]. Thus, we posit that:

H1: 

PL is positively associated with employees’ OCB in hotels.

2.3.2. The Interplay Between the Dimension of PL and OCB in the Hospitality Context

PL is conceptualized as a multidimensional leadership style in which leaders simultaneously manage competing demands within organizational settings. Rather than treating these tensions as mutually exclusive, paradoxical leaders integrate opposing leadership behaviors through a “both–and” approach. Zhang et al. [9] Identify five core dimensions of PL that capture these leadership tensions: (1) SO, (2) DC, (3) UI, (4) CA, and (5) RF. In hospitality organizations, where service performance relies heavily on employee cooperation and discretionary effort, these leadership dimensions may play an important role in shaping employees’ OCB. The following subsections examine how each dimension of PL may influence OCB within the hospitality context.

The Relationship Between SO and OCB in Hotels

Stynen & Semeijn [33] argued that the SO demission of PL refers to the leader’s capacity to maintain their role as the primary source of influence in the workplace while simultaneously addressing employees’ needs and fostering shared leadership with their team members. Within this dimension, self-centeredness refers to leaders’ focus on organizational goals, performance standards, and managerial authority, whereas other-centeredness reflects leaders’ concern for employees’ needs, perspectives, and well-being. The abbreviation SO therefore represents the paradoxical integration of these two orientations—Self-centeredness (S) and Other-centeredness (O)—within the PL framework.

In the hotel business, leaders often face the challenge of balancing their own career goals with the needs of their varied team members [44]. Based on the SO dimension of PL, leaders should focus on self-development and care, while simultaneously providing support to employees. These factors become important assets when cultivating cohesive and motivated workforce in hospitality sector by means of empathy, humility and recognition to the contribution of team members [55,56]. Leaders who balance their self-interest with genuine care for their employees can create a supportive environment that encourages OCB, such as teamwork, voluntary efforts, and proactive contributions [10].

Due to the collectivist nature of the hospitality industry in Egypt, the other-centered aspect of SO is particularly vital in fostering trust and collaboration. Conversely, if leaders act too selfishly or do not show clear support for their teams, employees might feel unappreciated and/or undervalued resulting in a reduced inclination to engage in OCB [10,28,29,32,34].

Thus, balanced SO leadership- where individual aspirations align with team and organizational goals—can boost employee morale and commitment, thereby driving OCB. Zhang et al. [9] emphasizes that such leadership requires behaviors that, while seemingly contradictory, are complementary and enable leaders to navigate the competing demands of modern workplaces effectively. Thus, we propose the following:

H_1.1: 

PL’s SO is positively associated with employees’ OCB in hotels.

The Relationship Between DC and OCB in Hotels

Effective hotel management in Egypt requires leaders to strike a balance between authority and approachability. Pl’ DC refers to a leader’s capacity to maintain hierarchical roles in resolving work-related issues, while also fostering positive and supportive relationships with their team members [9,33]. Maintaining professional boundaries helps leaders command respect and maintain operational control through ensuring clarity in roles and future expectations, especially in hierarchical settings typical of Egyptian culture [22,57]. However, building strong personal relationships through genuine interactions and being approachable can increase trust and loyalty among employees. Simultaneously, by cultivating closeness through trust, empathy, and open communication, leaders create a supportive environment that encourages employees to go beyond their formal job responsibilities [9]. Thus, hotel leaders may encourage open communication and recognize individual contributions to reduce hierarchical gaps while preserving their leadership authority [58,59]. This duality helps employees feel valued and respected while respecting the boundaries of their job roles, collectively fostering a willingness to engage in discretionary behaviors that benefit the organization. However, failing to strike this balance may either create a detached atmosphere that discourages OCB or lead to overfamiliarity, potentially undermining authority and focus on organizational goals [31]. Consequently, we propose that:

H_1.2: 

PL’s DC is positively associated with employees’ OCB in hotels.

The Relationship Between UI and OCB in Hotels

PL’ UI focuses on achieving harmony between uniformity and individuality by treating employees fairly in accordance with established agreements and rules, while also recognizing and accommodating their unique preferences and talents [9,33]. Uniformity and equity are critical for maintaining morale and fairness in hotel operations, particularly in Egypt, where employees are highly sensitive to perceived favoritism or inequity [10]. Thus, prior research highlights that uniform treatment fosters perceptions of fairness and justice within teams [33]. This perception of fairness is critical for promoting organizational trust, minimizing conflicts, and ensuring that employees feel valued as equals within the organization [9]. In service industries like hospitality, uniform treatment ensures that employees adhere to standardized practices essential for maintaining service quality and guest satisfaction [30]. Consequently, leaders must apply consistent standards and policies while acknowledging the unique strengths and challenges of individual employees. For example, task assignments in hotels can be standardized to avoid discrimination yet tailored to leverage the unique skills and preferences of staff, ensuring both fairness and efficiency [60,61]. On the other hand, individualization emphasizes leaders’ efforts to understand and cater to the diverse needs, preferences, and strengths of their team members. Leaders practicing individualization create a more inclusive and supportive environment, enabling employees to thrive and contribute effectively [22]. For instance, providing tailored feedback, flexible working conditions, or opportunities for skill development allows employees to feel recognized and motivated.

In the context of the hospitality industry, individualization is particularly critical due to its workforce diversity. Employees may have varying cultural backgrounds, skill sets, and personal circumstances. Leaders who adapt to these differences are more likely to foster engagement, job satisfaction, and loyalty [30] and OCB [10,28,35]. However, excessive individualization without consistency can lead to perceptions of favoritism, undermining team cohesion and trust [9]. PL integrates uniform treatment and individualization, recognizing them as interdependent rather than conflicting approaches. Zhang et al. [9] suggest that successful leaders employ both practices strategically to address the complexities of modern organizational environments. By applying uniform rules as a baseline and layering personalized approaches as needed, leaders can achieve fairness while fostering a supportive environment. Hence, this balance is particularly relevant in the hospitality industry, where operational consistency is critical, yet employee adaptability and personalized service are equally important. Studies indicate that leaders who excel in managing this paradox create an environment that promotes OCB and enhances overall team performance [28]. Thus, we posit that:

H_1.3: 

PL’s UI is positively associated with employees’ OCB in hotels.

The Relationship Between CA and OCB in Hotels

In a rapidly changing industry like hospitality, a key challenge is finding the right balance between maintaining decision control and granting autonomy to employees. While leaders can establish structures to facilitate decision-making, staff can work more flexibly to meet guests’ needs and therefore improve guest satisfaction and business responsiveness [62]. PL’ CA refers to a leader’s ability to maintain significant control over certain organizational decisions while simultaneously empowering employees to make decisions within their own roles [33]. This balance is vital to establishing a work environment where employees feel both supported and trusted, which then contributes to behavior, including OCB voluntary conduct aimed at supporting organizational effectiveness beyond formal responsibilities.

According to Gagné [63], employees are more likely to participate in OCB when their leaders maintain control over major decisions while allowing subordinates the autonomy to make decisions about daily operations. This approach gives employees a sense of responsibility and increases their motivation to succeed in hotels. Studies have confirmed that employees with more autonomy exhibit OCB more frequently as they feel trusted and valued [44,64]. Yet maintaining an effective balance between control and autonomy is critical, since excessive control impedes initiative while too much autonomy can result in inconsistent service standards [9,44]. Hence, PL’ CA is an important enabler of an environment conducive to organizational commitment and individual initiative. Prior research has confirmed that achieving this balance can help foster a workplace environment that supports employees’ OCB in hotels [9,10,28,29,31,32,34]. When employees are given autonomy within a defined framework set by their leaders or managers, they are more likely to exhibit behaviors that benefit their organization: helping one another, performing extra-role tasks, and taking responsibility for their team’s success in accomplishing goals, which in turn helps improve hotel operations [44]. Thus, we posit that:

H_1.4: 

PL’s CA is positively associated with employees’ OCB in hotels.

The Relationship Between RF and OCB in Hotels

This dimension is crucial in the hotel industry, where adherence to standards and flexibility must coexist. Egyptian hotel leaders must ensure employees meet rigorous quality and service requirements while allowing flexibility to accommodate guests’ cultural and individual preferences. Leaders may, for instance, enforce punctuality and professional conduct while permitting employees some latitude in resolving guest issues creatively or accommodating last-minute schedule adjustments. Such flexibility fosters a supportive work environment while maintaining high service standards [9].

H_1.5: 

PL’s RF is positively associated with employees’ OCB in hotels.

A conclusion of the study framework is shown in Figure 1.

2.3.3. Sustainable Service Performance

Sustainable service performance reflects a hotel’s capability to consistently deliver high-quality service while supporting longer-term environmental, social, and organizational well-being. In hospitality, sustainability is widely framed as a multi-dimensional (triple-bottom-line) pursuit that integrates economic viability with environmental stewardship and social responsibility, rather than treating sustainability as a standalone initiative [43]. Importantly, sustainability is inherently time-sensitive: it concerns an organization’s ability to maintain value creation and responsible practices over a longer horizon, rather than optimizing short-term outcomes [2]. Within hospitality specifically, research emphasizes that sustainability must be embedded into operational and service processes (e.g., service delivery systems, resource efficiency, and stakeholder expectations), which makes “sustainable service performance” a meaningful outcome for hotels seeking resilient competitiveness.

PL is expected to positively influence sustainable service performance because it equips leaders to reconcile contradictory but interdependent demands that are central to sustainability in hotels (e.g., service excellence vs. cost control; standardization vs. customization; short-term guest satisfaction vs. long-term resource responsibility). The “both–and” logic of paradox theory suggests that leaders who actively embrace and manage tensions can create higher-order solutions that support stability, adaptability, and long-term viability—capabilities that are closely aligned with sustainability outcomes. In hospitality, sustainability challenges are often described as requiring integrated decision-making across operations and service quality, reinforcing the expectation that PL—by balancing competing goals rather than privileging one—can foster service systems that remain high-performing and responsible over time.

H2: 

PL has a positive impact on sustainable service performance in hotels.

OCB is expected to positively influence sustainable service performance because discretionary behaviors strengthen service reliability, internal coordination, and proactive problem-solving—reducing service failures and stabilizing service delivery over time. In sustainability research, a closely related stream on OCBE demonstrates that employees’ voluntary, unrewarded behaviors can complement formal sustainability practices and contribute to improved environmental performance. Although the present study operationalizes OCB using traditional dimensions (altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, compliance, civic virtue), the underlying mechanism is consistent: discretionary contributions (helping, compliance, and civic engagement) enhance the organization’s capacity to implement responsible practices, maintain consistent service standards, and build resilience—key elements of sustainable service performance in hospitality organizations.

These perceptions encourage employees to engage in OCB, which refer to discretionary actions that go beyond formal job responsibilities to support colleagues, customers, and the organization. In service-intensive industries such as hospitality, sustainable service performance depends not only on employees’ formal job performance but also on their voluntary contributions, cooperation, and proactive service behaviors. Therefore, OCB serves as an important mechanism through which PL translates into sustainable service performance.

H3: 

OCB has a positive impact on sustainable service performance in hotels.

OCB is further proposed to mediate the relationship between PL and sustainable service performance. PL shapes the social and operational context in which employees work by balancing control and autonomy, distance and closeness, and uniformity and individualization. These balanced leadership behaviors can foster trust, fairness perceptions, and psychological safety—conditions that motivate employees to go beyond formal requirements and engage in discretionary behaviors. In turn, such discretionary behaviors support sustainable service performance by strengthening cooperation, preventing avoidable service breakdowns, and enabling continuous improvement in responsible service delivery. This mediation logic is consistent with sustainability-oriented behavior research showing that voluntary employee behaviors can translate leadership and organizational support into measurable sustainability-related performance outcomes (e.g., via OCBE and environmental performance). Accordingly:

H4: 

OCB mediates the relationship between PL and sustainable service performance in hotels.

3. Methods

3.1. Research Population and Sample

The research population comprised front-line employees working in five-star hotels in Egypt, as these employees play a central role in delivering service experiences and maintaining service quality in the hospitality industry in five-star hotels in Egypt. The data were analyzed using SPSS Version 24 and WarpPLS 8. Front-line staff includes employees who interact directly with guests, such as front-desk agents, concierge staff, food and beverage servers, and housekeeping employees. Because these employees represent the primary interface between hotels and customers, they are particularly influenced by managerial leadership practices and are more likely to demonstrate discretionary behaviors [65,66], such as OCB, which can ultimately influence sustainable service performance.

Five-star hotels were selected because they represent the highest service category within the hospitality sector, characterized by complex service operations, high guest expectations, and intensive employee–guest interactions [44,67]. In such environments, employees are required to maintain high service standards while simultaneously responding flexibly to diverse customer needs. This operational context makes five-star hotels particularly suitable for examining the role of PL, which emphasizes balancing competing demands such as control and autonomy, uniformity and individual consideration, and discipline and flexibility [68].

According to the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (2023), Egypt hosts approximately 200 five-star hotels employing an estimated 48,000 front-line staff. To enhance the representativeness of the study, employees were drawn from several operational departments, including front office, food and beverage, and housekeeping, which constitute the primary service interface between hotels and guests. Including employees from different functional areas allowed the study to capture diverse work experiences and reduce potential departmental bias.

To test the study’s hypotheses, the sample was selected to represent the population with a 95% confidence level, adhering to established statistical sampling principles [69]. This approach helps ensure that the findings can be generalized to the broader population of frontline hotel employees. Given the high employee turnover rates and seasonal employment patterns commonly observed in the hospitality industry, constructing a comprehensive sampling frame covering all hotel employees would have been difficult. Therefore, a proportionate stratified sampling technique was employed to ensure that employees from different departments were proportionally represented in the sample, thereby enhancing the representativeness and reliability of the collected data [70]. Thus, the sample size was calculated using the following formula:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{N{Z}^{2}p(1-p)}{E^2 \left(N-1\right)+Z^{2}P(1-p)}}$$

where

• $n$ = required sample size;
• N = population size (48,000);
• Z = Z-score corresponding to the desired confidence level (1.96 for 95%);
• $p$ = estimated population proportion (assumed 0.5 for maximum variability);
• E = margin of error (typically 5%).

To ensure the reliability of the research findings, the margin of error was set at 5%, based on the sample size calculation formula. Applying this equation, the minimum required sample size for front-line employees in five-star hotels in Egypt was determined to be 397 employees. The proportionate stratified sampling method was used to allocate the sample across key hotel departments based on their respective proportions within the total workforce. According to industry reports, the estimated distribution of employees is as follows: Front office staff (42%): This includes receptionists, concierge staff, and guest relations officers, resulting in a required sample size of 167 employees. Food and Beverage Staff (33%): Comprising waiters, bartenders, and kitchen assistants, with a corresponding sample size of 131 employees. Housekeeping and Support Staff (25%): Including room attendants, maintenance workers, and laundry staff, requiring 99 employees for the sample. This sampling structure ensures that all relevant employee categories are adequately represented, enhancing the study’s generalizability and the robustness of its conclusions.

3.2. Measurement and Procedures

A structured survey was employed to gather data from front-line employees in five-star hotels in Egypt. This method was selected for its effectiveness in capturing employees’ perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors related to the study variables established through an extensive literature review [71]. The questionnaire was designed using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “1 = Strongly Disagree” to “5 = Strongly Agree,” ensuring precise measurement of subjective perceptions [72]. In addition to using the in-person survey method, Google Forms was also used for online distribution, enhancing accessibility and simplifying data collection and management [73]. The questionnaire consisted of four sections, see Appendix A: Measurement of perceived PL, OCB, sustainable service performance, and participant demographics. PL is operationalized through a multidimensional variable encompassing 22 items (Questions 1–22): SO, DC, UI, CA, and RF, as outlined by Zhang et al. [9]. Measurement of OCB includes 15 items: Questions 23–37 assessed employees’ extra-role behaviors, such as altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue, drawing on, and Konovsky & Pugh [74]. Sustainable Service Performance foundational contributions from Organ [75], was operationalized as a unidimensional reflective construct capturing both long-term service quality and sustainability outcomes. While traditional service performance measures such as the SERVQUAL scale [76] provide a basis for evaluating service quality perceptions, recent hospitality studies have extended performance measures to include environmental and social sustainability dimensions. Therefore, the SSP scale in the present study integrates core service quality perceptions with sustainability considerations relevant to hotel operations. Consequently, seven items were retrieved from previous studies [76,77]. Demographic Information: Questions 38–42 collected personal and professional characteristics, such as age, gender, educational background, and years of experience, enabling contextual analysis. Prior to the current study, the researchers adhered to strict ethical guidelines throughout all phases. Ethical approval was obtained prior to data collection. In addition, participation was entirely voluntary, and informed consent was obtained before any questionnaire was distributed.

Prior step, all English scale items were translated into Arabic using the translation-back translation method by Brislin [78]. To enhance the validity of the Arabic questionnaire, a comprehensive back-translation method was implemented. Initially, the English questionnaire was translated into Arabic by a bilingual academic with specialized knowledge in hotel management. Subsequently, an independent bilingual professional, who had no access to the original document, back-translated the Arabic version into English. A comparison was then conducted between the original and the back-translated English questionnaires to identify any discrepancies and evaluate semantic equivalence. Furthermore, the revised Arabic questionnaire was reviewed by three expert panels in hospitality and organizational and employee behavior, gathering professional feedback on the appropriateness, linguistic quality, and conceptual equivalence of the translated items. Based on their suggestions, minor adjustments were made to enhance contextual accuracy and ensure that the final questionnaire was linguistically and culturally suitable for the Egyptian hospitality environment.

3.3. Data Collection

Data were collected from front-line employees working in five-star hotels in Egypt using both online and in-person survey distribution methods. To reach potential respondents, the researchers first contacted the human resources departments of several major hotels in Egypt, including Greater Cairo, Sharm El-Sheikh, Hurghada, Ras Sedr, Al Quesir, Dahab, Taba, Luxor, Aswan, and Alexandria, where there is a high concentration of five-star hotels. Formal permission was obtained from hotel management to distribute questionnaires to frontline employees in operational departments, including front office, food and beverage, and housekeeping.

The questionnaires were distributed through two channels. First, printed questionnaires were administered in person by seven research assistants to employees during working shifts, with assistance from departmental supervisors, allowing respondents to complete the survey voluntarily during break periods. Second, an online version of the questionnaire was distributed through internal employee communication channels (e.g., WhatsApp) and professional networks to reach additional frontline staff who were unable to participate in person or at a low number of hotels in a faraway city. Prior to completing the questionnaire, participants were informed of the purpose of the study and assured that their responses would remain anonymous and would be used solely for academic research.

The data collection process was conducted over a five-month period from August 2025 to December 2025. During this period, a total of 400 questionnaires were distributed to frontline employees across the participating hotels. After the completion of the data collection phase, 300 questionnaires were returned, resulting in a 75% response rate. To ensure the accuracy and reliability of the statistical analysis, the returned questionnaires were screened for completeness and consistency. Ninety-seven incomplete questionnaires were excluded, leaving 203 valid responses for the final data analysis.

3.4. Common Bias Method

A mix of procedural and statistical strategies was utilized to tackle potential common method variance (CMV). To minimize the risk of bias, measures such as ensuring respondent privacy, delivering precise instructions, and designing items to mask anticipated connections were implemented. After collecting the data, Harman’s single-factor test was carried out through principal component analysis. The results from the unrotated solution showed that the primary factor represented only 34.62% of the overall variance, which is below the 50% threshold. This finding suggests that no single factor dominated the variance, supporting the notion that significant standard method variance was absent. Additionally, collinearity diagnostics were conducted to further substantiate these results. All variance inflation factor (VIF) values remained under the suggested limit of 5 [79]. Furthermore, the average variance explained greatly surpassed the method variance, reinforcing the conclusion that CMV did not artificially enhance the relationships between constructs [67]. These findings confirm that CMV’s effect on construct validity was minimal.

3.5. Data Analysis and Hypotheses Testing

Several analytical steps were undertaken using statistical software to examine the proposed research model. First, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted to assess the measurement model, including construct validity and reliability. This step ensures that the observed indicators adequately represent the latent constructs—PL, OCB, and Sustainable Service Performance—before testing the relationships between them.

Second, after confirming the adequacy of the measurement model, descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were employed to examine the relationships among the study variables and test the proposed hypotheses. Descriptive and correlation analyses were initially conducted to provide an overview of the data and the relationships between constructs, while regression analysis was used to assess the direction and significance of the hypothesized effects using SPSS version 24.

Finally, the mediation effect was examined using PROCESS Macro Model 4, which was employed to test the indirect effect of OCB in the relationship between PL and Sustainable Service Performance.

3.5.1. Validity Assessment

We used Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the research framework in five-star hotels in Egypt. In light of the quality indicators for PL, OCB, and sustainable service performance presented below, the factor loadings for all indicators exceed the critical threshold of 0.70, confirming the robustness of the constructs. These results suggest that the measurement model exhibits strong convergent validity, meaning the observed variables effectively reflect the underlying latent constructs.

Furthermore, the composite reliability values exceed 0.70 [67,79], ensuring internal consistency, while the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values surpass 0.50, indicating that more than half of the variance in the indicators is explained by the latent variables. This finding underscores the reliability of the construct, providing a solid foundation for subsequent statistical analyses.

These quality indicators, see

Table 1. Results of quality indicators for PL, OCB, and sustainable service performance.

Test the Quality of the Model Acceptance Condition [80]	PL	OCB
	Test Value	Test Value
X2/Degree of freedom > 5	7.719	5.945
p value > 0.5	0.000	0.000
Goodness of fit Index (GFI) > 0.90	0.812	0.827
Tuker-Lewis Index (TLI) > 0.95	0.913	0.888
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) > 0.90	0.925	0.915
Normed Fit Index (NFI) > 0.90	0.902	0.901
Incremental Fit Index (IFI) > 0.95	0.925	0.915
Relative Fit Index (RFI) > 0.90	0.886	0.817
Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) < 0.5	0.040	0.054
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) < 0.5	0.097	0.135

Source: Authors’ preparation.

, lay a reliable groundwork for conducting further statistical tests and regression analysis to test the study’s hypotheses and examine the relationships between perceived PL, OCB, and sustainable service performance in hotels. The high reliability and validity of the measurement model ensure that the results from these analyses will be trustworthy and contribute valuable insights into leadership dynamics and employee behavior in the hospitality industry.

3.5.2. Reliability Assessment

Table 2. Reliability of PL, OCB, and sustainable service performance.

Variables	Dimension	No. of Statement	ACC
PL	SO	5	0.932
	DC	4	0.906
	UI	5	0.917
	CA	4	0.933
	RF	4	0.938
	Total Measurement	22	0.979
OCB	Altruism	3	0.950
	Courtesy	3	0.913
	Sportsmanship	3	0.878
	General Compliance	3	0.901
	Civic Virtue	3	0.891
	Total Measurement	15	0.969
Sustainable service performance			0.892
	SSP1		0.822
	SSP2		0.715
	SSP3		0.801
	SSP4		0.814
	SSP5		0.845
	SSP5		0.773
	SSP6		0.781
	Total Measurement	7

Source: Authors’ preparation.

presents the reliability analysis of the perceived PL, OCB, and Sustainable service performance constructs. The results of the reliability tests confirm the internal consistency of all dimensions, as evidenced by Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient (ACC) values for each construct.

The reliability analysis results indicate a high level of internal consistency across all study variables. PL was measured using 22 items across five dimensions. The SO dimension included five items with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) of 0.932, while DC consisted of four items with α = 0.906. The UI dimension comprised five items with α = 0.917, whereas the CA included four items with α = 0.933. The RF dimension also consisted of four items, demonstrating strong reliability with α = 0.938. Overall, the total PL scale (22 items) achieved an excellent reliability level of α = 0.979.

Similarly, OCB was assessed using 15 items distributed across five dimensions. The Altruism dimension (three items) showed excellent reliability with α = 0.950, followed by Courtesy (three items) with α = 0.913, Sportsmanship (three items) with α = 0.878, General Compliance (three items) with α = 0.901, and Civic Virtue (three items) with α = 0.891. The overall reliability for the OCB scale (15 items) was α = 0.969, indicating excellent internal consistency.

Finally, Sustainable Service Performance (SSP) was measured using seven items, yielding an overall reliability coefficient of α = 0.892, which indicates good internal consistency. The item-level reliability values ranged from 0.715 to 0.845, reflecting acceptable consistency among the measurement indicators. Collectively, these results confirm that all constructs in the study demonstrate satisfactory to excellent reliability, supporting their suitability for further statistical analysis.

3.5.3. Means and Standard Deviation

According to

Table 3. The mean and standard deviations of the research constructs.

Variables	The Dimension	Mean	Standard Deviation
PL	SO	3.31	1.03
	DC	2.88	0.911
	UI	2.97	0.899
	CA	2.95	0.937
	RF	3.01	0.935
	Total Measurement	3.62	0.885
OCB	Altruism	3.48	1.20
	Courtesy	3.01	0.968
	Sportsmanship	3.26	1.08
	General Compliance	3.08	1.00
	Civic Virtue	3.23	1.08
	Total Measurement	3.21	0.972
Sustainable service performance	SSP1	3.167	1.136
	SSP2	2.917	1.083
	SSP3	3.11	1.141
	SSP4	3.06	1.033
	SSP5	3.233	1.072
	SSP5	3.137	1.102
	SSP6	3.197	1.09

Source: Authors’ preparation.

, the data indicate that the respondents generally exhibit a SO (M = 3.31, SD = 1.03), suggesting a balanced approach to leadership where individuals may prioritize both personal and others’ needs. Furthermore, respondents demonstrated a tendency to maintain DC (M = 2.88, SD = 0.911), implying a moderate approach to leader–follower relationships, neither too distant nor overly personal.

Additionally, the results reflect a leadership style where leaders treat subordinates uniformly while still allowing individualization (M = 2.97, SD = 0.899), and maintain decision control while permitting autonomy (M = 2.95, SD = 0.937). These findings suggest that while leaders retain control over decision-making processes, they provide their employees with the freedom to act within certain boundaries. Respondents also indicated that leaders RF (M = 3.01, SD = 0.935), pointing to a balance between adherence to work rules and adapting to changing circumstances. The total perceived PL score was (M = 3.62, SD = 0.885), indicating that the overall perception of leadership is moderately positive among the respondents.

Regarding OCB, the findings show that most respondents identified the presence of altruism (M = 3.48, SD = 1.20), suggesting a willingness to help colleagues beyond formal duties. Courtesy was also prevalent (M = 3.01, SD = 0.968), indicating efforts to prevent conflicts and maintain a respectful workplace. Respondents displayed moderate levels of sportsmanship (M = 3.26, SD = 1.08), implying a positive attitude even during challenging situations. General compliance (M = 3.08, SD = 1.00) was noted, indicating adherence to organizational rules and regulations. The civic virtue dimension also received a moderate score (M = 3.23, SD = 1.08), suggesting active participation in organizational activities. The total OCB score was (M = 3.21, SD = 0.972), reflecting overall moderate engagement in OCBs.

Finally, the descriptive results indicate a moderate perception of sustainable service performance among the sampled hotels. Respondents reported that their hotels achieve high service performance in a sustainable manner (M = 3.167, SD = 1.136), suggesting a reasonable but not strong alignment between service excellence and sustainability principles. Similarly, the balance between customer satisfaction and environmental responsibility recorded the lowest mean among the items (M = 2.917, SD = 1.083), implying that integrating environmental considerations with customer service remains a relative challenge for some hotels.

Employees’ contribution to long-term service excellence rather than short-term outcomes showed a moderate evaluation (M = 3.110, SD = 1.141), reflecting partial orientation toward sustainability-driven performance continuity. In addition, maintaining socially responsible practices while providing services scored (M = 3.060, SD = 1.033), indicating that social responsibility is present but not deeply embedded in operational routines.

Notably, efficient and environmentally conscious service operations achieved the highest mean score (M = 3.233, SD = 1.072), highlighting operational efficiency combined with environmental awareness as the most visible sustainability dimension within hotels. Perceptions regarding the long-term sustainability of service quality were also moderate (M = 3.137, SD = 1.102), reinforcing the notion that sustainable quality maintenance is recognized but still developing. Furthermore, the overall statement that the hotel demonstrates strong sustainable service performance yielded (M = 3.197, SD = 1.090), confirming a generally moderate yet positive evaluation of sustainability-oriented service outcomes.

Overall, these findings suggest that while sustainable service practices are evident, they are not yet fully institutionalized across hotel operations. The moderate mean values and relatively noticeable standard deviations indicate variation in sustainability implementation, which may be influenced by managerial commitment, resource availability, or organizational culture. This pattern underscores the importance of leadership approaches and organizational behaviors in strengthening long-term sustainable service performance within the hospitality sector.

These findings indicate that respondents demonstrate a balanced orientation toward leadership practices, employees’ OCB, and hotels’ sustainable performance, whereby leaders simultaneously maintain control and flexibility while employees engage in positive behaviors that extend beyond formal job requirements.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. The Correlation Results

Results of the study indicate that there is a strong positive correlation (R = 0.877, p < 0.05) between overall PL and OCB in Egyptian hotels, which supports H1. This overall correlation reinforces the idea that leadership behaviors, as defined in this study, play a crucial role in influencing OCB in the hotel industry.

Thus, the high correlation values between various dimensions of perceived PL and OCB suggest that effective leadership practices significantly contribute to fostering OCB among employees. In the context of five-star hotels in Egypt, leadership that balances control with autonomy, uniformity with individualization, and distance with closeness, encourages employees to engage in positive extra-role behaviors. These results highlight the importance of leadership in promoting a supportive work environment that can lead to improved organizational outcomes, including higher employee engagement and better customer service quality.

Based on

Table 4. Correlation matrix between PL and OCB.

Research Variables		1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1	Overall PL	1
2	SO		1
3	DC		0.832 **	1
4	UI		0.847 **	0.857 **	1
5	CA		0.794 **	0.842	0.849 **	1
6	RF		0.788 **	0.834 **	0.853 **	0.936 **	1
7	OCB	877 **	0.925 **	0.815 **	0.841 **	0.750 **	0.760 **	1

NB: ** p < 0.01. Source: Authors’ preparation.

, the correlation results indicate significant positive relationships between the dimensions of perceived PL and OCB. These correlation values suggest that the leadership behaviors measured within the study are strongly associated with the occurrence of OCB among front-line employees in five-star hotels in Egypt.

PL’ SO and OCB: The correlation value of 0.925 is exceptionally high, indicating a very strong positive relationship between PL’SO and OCB, supporting H_1.1. This suggests that leaders who successfully balance self-interest with concern for others are more likely to foster behaviors like altruism, courtesy, and sportsmanship among their employees.

The correlation value of 0.815 between PL’ DC and OCB suggests a strong positive relationship, meaning that leaders who strike a balance between maintaining distance and closeness with their subordinates can also encourage OCB. Employees are likely to exhibit positive behaviors when they feel their leaders maintain appropriate professional relationships. Moreover, the correlation value of 0.841 between PL’UI and OCB reflects a strong positive association. This indicates that leaders who treat employees fairly and acknowledge their differences are more likely to elicit OCB, such as helping behaviors and positive attitudes.

On the other hand, the correlation value of 0.750 between PL’ CA and OCB indicates a moderate to strong positive relationship. Leaders who maintain control over decision-making while allowing autonomy appear to foster a supportive environment where employees are more likely to engage in OCB. Finally, the value of correlation between PL’RE and OCB, 0.760, suggests a moderate to strong positive relationship, indicating that leaders who enforce work requirements while also allowing flexibility are more likely to promote behaviors like civic virtue and general compliance among employees.

4.1.1. PL’SO and OCB

As

Table 5. MRA results for SO and OCB.

SO	Beta	R	R2
SO1:	0.112 **	0.710	0.504
SO2:	0.279 **	0.848	0.719
SO3:	0.176 **	0.813	0.660
SO4:	0.265 **	0.862	0.743
SO5:	0.200 **	0.858	0.736
MCC DC Calculated F Degree of Freedom Indexed F Level of Significance	0.927 0.859 358.003 5294 3.01 0.000

Note: ** p < 0.01. Source: Authors’ preparation.

demonstrates, the Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) results indicate a strong relationship between the five indicators of perceived PL, specifically SO, and OCB. The R-value of 0.927 shows a very strong positive relationship between PL’SO and OCB, suggesting that PL’SO significantly influences OCB.

e R² value of 0.86 indicates that the five independent variables of PL’ SO collectively explain 86% of the variance in OCB. This is a high explanatory power, which demonstrates that perceived PL, particularly SO, has a substantial impact on the occurrence of OCBs among employees. These findings provide empirical evidence supporting H_1.1. The MRA results, with an R of 0.927 and R² of 0.86, strongly suggest that PL’SO has a significant and substantial effect on the promotion of OCB. This provides robust support for the hypothesis that leadership practices, specifically those that combine self-centeredness with concern for others, play a critical role in fostering extra-role behaviors that contribute to the overall success of the organization. In the hospitality industry, particularly in five-star hotels, these results imply that leaders who successfully balance self-interest with a focus on their employees’ needs are likely to encourage behaviors such as altruism, courtesy, and sportsmanship, which contribute to higher organizational performance and customer satisfaction.

4.1.2. PL’DC and OCB

As

Table 6. MRA results for DC and OCB.

DC	Beta	R	R2
DC1:	0.102 *	0.672	0.451
DC2:	0.255 **	0.746	0.556
DC3:	0.337 **	0.756	0.571
DC4:	0.227 **	0.712	0.506
MCC DC Calculated F Degree of Freedom Indexed F Level of Significance	0.822 0.676 153.531 4295 3.31 0.000

Note: ** p < 0.05; * p < 0.01. Source: Authors’ preparation.

demonstrates, the MRA results show that the four indicators of PL, specifically PL’DC, have a significant explanatory power over OCB. The R-value of 0.822 indicates a strong positive relationship between the independent variables of PL’DC and the dependent variable, OCB, supporting H_1.2.

The R² value of 0.68 reveals that the four independent variables of PL’DC collectively explain 68% of the variance in OCB. While not as high as the previous model with PL’SO, this still represents a substantial contribution, highlighting that PL’DC plays a significant role in shaping OCBs among employees in five-star hotels. Based on these results, the analysis indicates that DC is a key factor influencing OCB.

The MRA results, with an R-value of 0.822 and an R² value of 0.68, clearly show PL’DC significantly explains OCB. This finding emphasizes the importance of perceived leadership in encouraging extra-role behaviors among employees in the hospitality sector, especially in high-end environments like five-star hotels. For leaders in the hospitality industry, particularly in five-star hotels, these results underscore the importance of striking an appropriate balance between professional distance and personal closeness with employees. Leaders who manage this balance effectively can foster positive behaviors such as altruism, courtesy, and sportsmanship, which are essential for organizational success and customer satisfaction.

4.1.3. PL’UI and OCB

As

Table 7. MRA results for UI and OCB.

UI	Beta	R	R2
UI1:	0.143 **	0.715	0.511
UI2:	0.367 **	0.743	0.552
UI3:	0.219 **	0.751	0.564
UI4:	0.208 **	0.728	0.529
UI5:	0.056	0.707	0.499
MCC DC Calculated F Degree of Freedom Indexed F Level of Significance	0.855 0.730 159.182 5294 3.01 0.000

Note: ** p < 0.05. Source: Authors’ preparation.

demonstrates, the MRA results indicate a significant relationship between perceived PL’UI and OCB. The R-value of 0.855 suggests a strong positive relationship, highlighting the significant explanatory power of PL’UI on OCB.

The R² value of 0.730 indicates that the five independent variables of PL’UI collectively explain 73% of the variance in OCB. This is a strong explanatory power, demonstrating that the leadership behaviors associated with UI have a significant impact on promoting OCBs among employees in five-star hotels. Based on these results, there is sufficient empirical evidence to accept H_1.3, which suggested that there is a positive relationship between PL’UI and OCB.

The MRA results, with an R-value of 0.855 and an R² value of 0.730, provide robust evidence that the PL’s UI significantly influences OCB. These results suggest that when leaders treat all employees fairly and acknowledge their differences, they are more likely to encourage positive extra-role behaviors, such as helping, courtesy, and sportsmanship. For leaders in the hospitality industry, particularly in five-star hotels, these findings underscore the importance of a leadership style that balances uniformity and individual recognition. Leaders who can provide equal treatment while catering to the unique needs of their employees can foster a work environment that encourages OCB. This, in turn, can lead to improved employee engagement, customer satisfaction, and organizational success.

4.1.4. PL, OCB, and Sustainable Service Performance

As

Table 8. MRA results for CA and OCB.

CA	Beta	R	R2
CA1:	0.330 **	0.712	0.506
CA2:	0.152 **	0.663	0.439
CA3:	0.164 **	0.688	0.473
CA4:	0.176 **	0.676	0.456
MCC DC Calculated F Degree of Freedom Indexed F Level of Significance	0.753 0.567 96.613 4295 3.31 0.000

NB: ** p < 0.01. Source: Authors’ preparation.

demonstrates, the MRA results indicate a significant relationship between the four independent variables of perceived PL, specifically CA, and OCB. The R-value of 0.753 suggests a moderate to strong positive relationship, indicating that PL’CA significantly explains OCB.

The R² value of 0.57 shows that the four independent variables of PL’CA collectively explain 57% of the variance in OCB. While this is lower than some other models in the study, it still represents a meaningful proportion of the variance, indicating that leadership behaviors associated with decision control and autonomy have a notable influence on OCB.

The MRA results, with an R-value of 0.753 and an R² value of 0.57, provide evidence that PL’CA plays a significant role in explaining OCB, supporting H_1.4. This finding suggests that employees who experience a balance of control in decision-making with autonomy are more likely to engage in extra-role behaviors that contribute to organizational success. For leaders in the hospitality industry, particularly in five-star hotels, these results highlight the importance of balancing decision control with employee autonomy. Leaders who strike this balance are more likely to foster a work environment where employees feel empowered to engage in behaviors like altruism, courtesy, and sportsmanship, all of which are integral to organizational success and customer satisfaction.

4.1.5. PL’RF and OCB

As

Table 9. MRA results for RF and OCB.

RF	Beta	R	R2
RF1:	0.193 **	0.694	0.481
RF2:	0.264 **	0.706	0.498
RF3:	0.112	0.686	0.470
RF4:	0.260 **	0.706	0.498
MCC DC Calculated F Degree of Freedom Indexed F Level of Significance	0.762 0.580 102.042 4295 3.31 0.000

NB: ** p < 0.01. Source: Authors’ preparation.

demonstrates, the MRA results indicate a significant relationship between perceived PL, specifically RF, and OCB. The R-value of 0.762 suggests a moderate to strong positive relationship, signifying that PL’RF plays a significant role in explaining OCB.

The R² value of 0.58 indicates that the PL’RF explains 58% of the variance in OCB in hotels. Although this value is lower than some other models in the study, it still represents a meaningful contribution, indicating that leadership behaviors associated with enforcing work requirements while allowing flexibility have a significant impact on OCB. The analysis indicates that PL’RF significantly influences OCB.

The MRA results, with an R-value of 0.762 and an R² value of 0.58, provide evidence that the leadership dimension of RF significantly influences OCB, supporting H1.5. This finding suggests that leadership behaviors that enforce work requirements while also providing flexibility help foster positive extra-role behaviors among employees. For leaders in the hospitality industry, particularly in five-star hotels, these results highlight the importance of striking a balance between enforcing necessary work requirements and offering employees the flexibility to manage their work–life balance. Leaders who achieve this balance are more likely to encourage behaviors such as altruism, courtesy, and sportsmanship, all of which contribute to improved organizational outcomes and customer satisfaction.

Finally, a mediation analysis was conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4) with 5000 bootstrap samples to further examine OCB’s mediating role in the relationship between PL and sustainable service performance in hotels. The results indicated that PL has a significant positive effect on sustainable service performance (β = 0.80, p < 0.05), supporting H2. Furthermore, OCB was found to positively influence sustainable service performance (β = 0.12, p < 0.05), confirming H3.

The bootstrapping results also revealed a significant indirect effect of PL on sustainable service performance through OCB (β = 0.10, p < 0.05). This finding indicates that OCB partially mediates the relationship between PL and sustainable service performance in hotels. Therefore, H4 is supported.

5. Conclusions

5.1. General Discussions

The findings of this study underline the critical role of PL in enhancing OCB within the hotel industry in Egypt. A statistically significant relationship exists between the independent variable, represented by overall PL, encompassing sub-dimensions such as SO, DC, UI, CA, and RF, and OCB. By skillfully navigating the inherent contradictions of managerial responsibilities, paradoxical leaders foster environments where employees are more likely to demonstrate discretionary behaviors that exceed formal job requirements. Such leadership practices enable organizations to reconcile competing managerial demands while fostering higher levels of employee engagement and discretionary behavior. Consequently, this study reaffirms the importance of PL in addressing modern organizational complexities while driving service excellence and organizational effectiveness.

Beyond its influence on organizational citizenship behavior, the present study extends existing knowledge by demonstrating the role of PL in promoting sustainable service performance within five-star hotels in Egypt. The findings indicate that leadership approaches capable of reconciling competing operational and human resource demands contribute not only to immediate service outcomes but also to the long-term sustainability of service delivery. By fostering balanced decision-making and adaptive management practices, PL supports the development of resilient service systems that can maintain consistent quality while responding to evolving environmental, social, and market expectations [2,6].

Furthermore, the results highlight the relevance of PL in aligning employee behavior with organizational goals, thereby ensuring a sustainable competitive advantage in a highly dynamic and customer-centric industry. In the context of five-star hotels in Egypt, paradoxical leaders foster an environment characterized by open communication and operational autonomy. By encouraging employees to voice their opinions and promoting flexibility within work teams, such leaders enable the generation of innovative ideas [9]. Simultaneously, this leadership approach strengthens the teams’ alignment with organizational goals [81], thereby enhancing their capacity to deliver exceptional performance outcomes [82].

Importantly, the findings also demonstrate that OCB plays a significant role in strengthening sustainable service performance. Employees who engage in discretionary behaviors—such as assisting colleagues, maintaining service standards, and proactively addressing operational challenges—contribute to the stability and continuity of service delivery. These voluntary actions enhance organizational resilience, improve coordination, and support responsible service practices, thereby reinforcing the sustainability of service performance over time [51].

PL also exhibits a distinctively adaptive mindset, marked by its ability to integrate diverse suggestions from frontline employees. This adaptability is especially critical in the hospitality industry, where dynamic guest preferences and market fluctuations demand agility [30]. Paradoxical leaders prioritize fostering collaboration among employees, facilitating the transfer of tacit and explicit knowledge across the workforce. This knowledge-sharing culture enhances organizational learning and cultivates diversity in problem-solving approaches, enabling the organization to access valuable external insights. Such practices are instrumental in empowering hotels to navigate and thrive in Egypt’s competitive and rapidly evolving luxury tourism sector [10].

Moreover, the mediating role of OCB between PL and sustainable service performance provides important insight into the underlying mechanism through which leadership influences long-term organizational outcomes. By cultivating trust, fairness, and psychological safety, paradoxical leaders motivate employees to exceed formal role expectations and actively contribute to organizational effectiveness. These discretionary efforts, in turn, support sustainable service performance by maintaining service consistency, reducing operational disruptions, and strengthening organizational adaptability. This mediation highlights the importance of employee behavior as a key pathway linking leadership practices to sustainability-oriented outcomes in hospitality organizations.

The duality embedded in PL offers a nuanced framework for addressing contradictions faced by leaders and employees alike. Leaders who engage employees in task definitions and grant them autonomy while ensuring performance standards create an environment of trust and collaboration. These approaches not only mitigate the negative impacts of job insecurity and workplace anxiety but also improve job satisfaction, enhance employee performance, and ultimately contribute to achieving organizational objectives. By addressing paradoxical demands effectively, organizations can create a balanced workplace conducive to well-being and productivity. The importance of this balance is further amplified in service industries like hospitality, where employee behavior directly impacts customer satisfaction and organizational reputation [9].

Overall, this study underscores the strategic importance of integrating PL and OCB to achieve not only operational effectiveness but also sustainable service performance. By linking leadership practices to long-term service sustainability, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of how hospitality organizations in emerging markets can strengthen resilience, enhance responsible performance, and maintain competitive advantage in an increasingly sustainability-driven global tourism environment.

5.2. Theoretical Implications

This study contributes significantly to the theoretical understanding of PL by extending its application to the hospitality industry, particularly within the context of Egyptian hotels. It introduces a comprehensive framework that integrates PL’s five core dimensions: SO, maintaining distance while fostering closeness, UI, balancing control with empowerment, and RF [9]. These dimensions collectively offer a robust lens through which leadership practices can be examined in environments marked by high complexity and ambiguity.

Beyond extending PL theory within hospitality settings, this study advances leadership and sustainability research by integrating sustainable service performance as a key organizational outcome. While prior studies have primarily focused on immediate performance indicators such as job satisfaction, engagement, and task performance, this research conceptualizes performance through a sustainability-oriented lens, emphasizing long-term service continuity, responsible organizational practices, and organizational resilience [2,6]. By positioning sustainable service performance as an outcome of PL, the study broadens the theoretical scope of leadership research and aligns it with the growing emphasis on sustainability within hospitality and tourism scholarship.

The findings highlight the “Both–and” strategy as a pivotal element of PL [8]. Unlike traditional “Either–Or” approaches, which often oversimplify leadership challenges, the “Both–and” methodology acknowledges and leverages the coexistence of competing demands. This theoretical model provides a fresh perspective on leadership, addressing how cognitive complexity, confidence, conflict management, and communication skills enable leaders to reconcile contradictions effectively. By demonstrating the efficacy of PL in fostering OCB, the study enriches existing leadership theories and provides a basis for future research on leadership practices in service-oriented sectors. This aligns with earlier studies by Jiang et al. [82] and Shehata et al. [10], which confirm the necessity of adaptive and inclusive leadership models in dynamic organizational contexts.

Furthermore, by empirically examining the relationship between PL, organizational citizenship behavior, and sustainable service performance, this study contributes to the theoretical integration of leadership theory and sustainability research. The inclusion of OCB as a mediating mechanism provides a behavioral explanation for how leadership practices translate into sustainability-oriented performance outcomes. This mediating framework extends existing organizational behavior theories by demonstrating that discretionary employee behaviors serve as a critical pathway through which leadership influences long-term organizational effectiveness and resilience. Such findings are consistent with emerging research suggesting that voluntary employee behaviors play a central role in supporting sustainability initiatives and responsible organizational performance [51].

Additionally, the study highlights the role of PL in cultivating a knowledge-sharing culture within organizations. By promoting collaborative adaptability and reflective flexibility, paradoxical leaders enhance organizational learning, enabling teams to navigate dynamic market conditions effectively. Such knowledge-sharing practices align with the findings of Lee et al. [30], who asserts that a culture of collaboration and adaptability is essential for organizational resilience in volatile industries. The study’s theoretical contribution is particularly significant in understanding how PL can bridge the gap between traditional hierarchical leadership and contemporary participative leadership approaches.

The study also contributes to paradox theory by demonstrating how leadership that embraces contradictions can generate not only immediate behavioral outcomes but also longer-term sustainability-oriented performance. By linking PL to sustainable service performance, the findings support the theoretical proposition that effectively managed organizational tensions can lead to higher-order outcomes, including resilience, adaptability, and sustainable competitiveness. This reinforces paradox theory’s central premise that embracing rather than eliminating tensions can enhance organizational effectiveness over time [62].

Finally, the findings underscore the interplay between PL and employee well-being. By addressing the psychological needs of employees through a balanced approach, paradoxical leaders mitigate workplace stress and foster a sense of purpose and belonging. This theoretical insight provides a pathway for future research to explore the impact of PL on employee mental health and its subsequent effect on organizational performance.

Overall, the study enriches the theoretical discourse by positioning PL as a multidimensional construct capable of shaping not only employee behaviors but also sustainability-oriented service outcomes. By integrating leadership theory, organizational behavior, and sustainability perspectives into a unified framework, the research provides a foundation for future studies examining how leadership practices can support long-term value creation and sustainable competitiveness in hospitality and other service-intensive industries.

5.3. Practical Implications

For practitioners, this study offers actionable strategies to harness the benefits of PL. Hotel managers, particularly those operating in competitive and rapidly evolving markets like Egypt, can adopt PL practices to foster a culture of citizenship behavior. In addition, the findings carry implications beyond firm-level practice by suggesting how tourism policymakers, industry associations, and hospitality development agencies may support leadership capability building across the sector. We recommend the following practices based on the research results.

First, enhancing employee engagement: managers should set clear performance standards while allowing flexibility in how tasks are executed. This approach fosters innovation and creativity while maintaining alignment with organizational goals. Regular brainstorming sessions and structured training programs can facilitate knowledge sharing and enhance team effectiveness. For instance, Ghasemy & Akbarzadeh [83] highlight that training initiatives focusing on collaborative problem-solving can significantly improve team dynamics and organizational outcomes. Such initiatives also support sustainable service performance by enabling employees to continuously improve service delivery processes while maintaining operational efficiency and responsible resource utilization.

Second, promoting trust and collaboration: building mutual trust between managers and subordinates is crucial. Managers can achieve this by maintaining open communication channels, actively listening to employees, and addressing their needs. Trust-based relationships not only enhance employee satisfaction but also improve organizational commitment and performance. Jiang et al. [82] emphasize that trust-driven leadership practices are instrumental in fostering a sense of ownership and accountability among employees. A trust-based environment further encourages employees to engage in discretionary behaviors that support consistent and responsible service delivery, thereby strengthening sustainable service performance over time.

Third, implementing balanced control mechanisms: leaders should establish control systems that permit a degree of error, creating a learning-oriented work environment. By embracing a balance between control and autonomy, managers can empower employees to take initiative while ensuring accountability. Zhang et al. [9] propose that such balanced control mechanisms enhance employee resilience and adaptability in challenging work environments. This balance is particularly important for sustaining service performance, as it enables hotels to maintain quality standards while adapting to changing guest expectations, environmental considerations, and market fluctuations.

Fourth, fostering individualization and equity: UI requires a nuanced approach. Personalized feedback, tailored development opportunities, and equitable recognition programs can enhance employee motivation and satisfaction. These practices strengthen inclusivity, fairness perceptions, and organizational cohesion. By strengthening fairness perceptions and employee commitment, such practices encourage OCBs that contribute to stable, reliable, and sustainable service performance.

Fifth, training for paradoxical competencies is essential for embedding PL within organizational practice. Hospitality organizations should invest in structured leadership development programs that equip managers with the cognitive and behavioral capabilities required to manage contradictions effectively [84,85]. Such training may incorporate case studies, simulations, and practical scenarios that strengthen cognitive complexity, conflict resolution, and strategic communication skills, thereby enabling leaders to operationalize the “both–and” logic central to PL. Lee et al. [30] emphasizes that these developmental initiatives are critical for helping leaders balance the dual imperatives of stability and change—an ability closely associated with organizational adaptability and sustainable performance. Equipping leaders with paradoxical competencies enables them to integrate sustainability considerations into daily service operations while maintaining service excellence and organizational efficiency.

Sixth, encouraging innovation and knowledge sharing represents another key pathway through which PL can support sustainability in hospitality organizations. Regular brainstorming sessions, cross-functional collaboration, and structured knowledge-exchange platforms allow employees to share expertise, co-create solutions, and continuously improve service processes. These interactions cultivate a culture of organizational learning and innovation that is fundamental to maintaining competitive advantage while also supporting long-term sustainable growth. Ghasemy & Akbarzadeh [83] highlight the strategic importance of knowledge-sharing mechanisms in enhancing collective learning capacity and strengthening sustainable organizational development. Such knowledge-sharing practices contribute to sustainable service performance by reducing service failures, improving coordination, and promoting continuous improvement in responsible service delivery.

Finally, addressing employee well-being is a central sustainability outcome of PL. By proactively mitigating workplace stressors and fostering supportive, inclusive environments, paradoxical leaders contribute to healthier and more resilient workforces [86]. Initiatives such as mental-health support, work–life balance policies, and systematic recognition of employee contributions can enhance job satisfaction, reduce turnover intentions, and reinforce social sustainability within hospitality workplaces. These practices align with broader organizational commitments to responsible human resource management and inclusive organizational culture. Supporting employee well-being not only enhances job performance but also ensures the long-term sustainability of service operations by maintaining a stable, engaged, and resilient workforce.

Moreover, the mediating role of OCB suggests that managers should actively cultivate discretionary employee behaviors that support organizational effectiveness. Encouraging helping behaviors, proactive problem-solving, and civic engagement among employees can strengthen the link between leadership practices and sustainable service performance. Managers who create supportive environments that value employee contributions are more likely to achieve sustained improvements in service quality, operational efficiency, and organizational resilience.

Collectively, integrating these leadership practices enables hotel managers to strengthen employees’ OCB while simultaneously advancing customer satisfaction, service quality, and long-term organizational sustainability. The practical implications highlight the transformative capacity of PL to address contemporary workplace challenges and to support resilient, adaptive, and sustainability-oriented hospitality organizations. As service firms navigate increasingly dynamic and uncertain environments [87], PL offers a strategic pathway for achieving both operational stability and continuous innovation, thereby reinforcing sustainable organizational growth and competitiveness.

Overall, the findings underscore that sustainable service performance is not achieved solely through technological or operational initiatives but through leadership practices that align employee behavior with long-term organizational goals. By adopting PL approaches, hospitality managers can create work environments that simultaneously enhance employee engagement, service excellence, and sustainability-oriented organizational outcomes.

6. Limitations and Further Research

This study focuses exclusively on the role of PL in enhancing OCB within five-star hotels in Egypt. While the findings provide significant insights, they are constrained by several factors.

One limitation is the context-specific nature of the research [88]. Conducted exclusively in luxury hotels in Egypt, the study’s findings may not be fully applicable to other industries or geographical locations with different cultural and organizational practices. Additionally, the study employs a structured self-reported survey-based methodology, which effectively captures broad trends but may introduce potential biases such as social desirability bias, perceptual bias, and common method bias while also lacking the depth to uncover nuanced and subjective experiences of employees and leaders. Furthermore, although the study incorporates sustainable service performance as an outcome variable, its operationalization is limited to the hotel context examined, and future research is needed to validate this construct across different service settings and cultural environments.

The cross-sectional design of the study also limits its ability to observe changes in PL and OCB over time or in response to dynamic organizational factors Hoechle [89]. Similarly, the cross-sectional nature restricts the ability to examine how PL and OCB influence sustainable service performance over extended periods. Sustainability-oriented outcomes typically evolve gradually, and longitudinal studies would provide stronger evidence regarding causal relationships and long-term organizational impact. Furthermore, the research focuses primarily on frontline employees, excluding perspectives from middle and upper management or customers, who might also play a role in shaping or experiencing the effects of PL and OCB.

While the stratified sampling technique ensures representativeness within the luxury hotel sector, the sample excludes employees from other hotel categories, limiting the generalizability of the findings. This country-specific focus also requires caution in generalizing the results beyond Egypt, as cultural norms, institutional environments, labor market conditions, and leadership expectations may differ across hospitality contexts.

To deepen these findings, future research could explore the relationship between PL and OCB across various industries and geographical locations. This would help identify how industry-specific and cultural nuances influence the dynamics between leadership practices and employee behavior [90]. Expanding research to include diverse hospitality segments—such as mid-scale hotels, boutique accommodations, and tourism service providers—would further clarify how PL contributes to sustainable service performance across different organizational contexts. Additionally, employing longitudinal designs could shed light on how PL impacts OCB over time and in response to organizational changes, such as leadership transitions or policy reforms. Longitudinal approaches would also enable researchers to examine whether sustainable service performance improvements are maintained over time and how leadership practices influence long-term organizational resilience.

Incorporating qualitative methodologies, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic studies, would allow researchers to uncover employees lived experiences of PL and its impact on their behaviors. Such approaches could reveal subtle interpersonal dynamics and contextual factors that shape the PL-OCB relationship. Including perspectives from multiple stakeholders, such as managers, team leaders, and customers, would further provide a holistic understanding of how PL influences organizational culture, employee engagement, and customer satisfaction. Qualitative approaches may also uncover how sustainability-oriented practices are interpreted and implemented by employees and managers in daily service operations, thereby enriching understanding of the mechanisms linking leadership and sustainable service performance.

Future studies could also examine the psychological and organizational factors mediating or moderating the PL-OCB connection, including trust, job satisfaction, organizational justice, and team dynamics. Comparative analyses across organizations with varying leadership styles could highlight the distinct advantages of PL in fostering OCB and achieving competitive advantages. Further research may also investigate additional mediators and moderators influencing sustainable service performance, such as organizational sustainability climate, environmental commitment, corporate social responsibility orientation, and employee pro-environmental attitudes. Exploring these variables would provide deeper insight into the mechanisms through which leadership contributes to sustainability-oriented outcomes.

Qualitative case studies could explore how organizational characteristics, such as size, structure, and strategy, affect the implementation and effectiveness of PL. Research could also focus on developing and evaluating training programs aimed at enhancing PL competencies. Such studies could investigate the impact of these programs on leaders’ ability to manage paradoxes and foster OCB among employees.

By broadening the scope and implementing a more nuanced approach, future research can extend the understanding of PL and OCB. This would offer actionable insights for organizations striving to cultivate high-performing, engaged, and adaptive workforces in complex and dynamic environments. Overall, continued investigation into the relationships among PL, organizational citizenship behavior, and sustainable service performance will help advance theoretical development and provide practical guidance for hospitality organizations seeking long-term resilience and sustainability-oriented competitiveness.