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Article

Eco-Physiological Vulnerability of Quararibea funebris in Peri-Urban Landscapes: Integrating Gender and Nature-Based Solutions in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico

by
Yolanda Donají Ortiz-Hernández
1,*,
Marco Aurelio Acevedo-Ortiz
2,*,
Gema Lugo-Espinosa
2,
Fernando Elí Ortiz-Hernández
3,
Edgar García-Sánchez
2 and
Salatiel Velasco-Pérez
2
1
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CIIDIR Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán 71230, Oaxaca, Mexico
2
Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación (SECIHTI)—Instituto Politécnico Nacional, CIIDIR Oaxaca, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán 71230, Oaxaca, Mexico
3
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, ESIME Culhuacán, Coyoacán, Ciudad de Mexico 04440, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2026, 18(3), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031630
Submission received: 28 December 2025 / Revised: 2 February 2026 / Accepted: 3 February 2026 / Published: 5 February 2026
(This article belongs to the Topic Nature-Based Solutions-2nd Edition)
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Abstract

Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are essential for peri-urban resilience; however, a critical research gap exists regarding the lack of species-specific eco-physiological validation for interventions within complex biocultural systems. This study addresses this gap by assessing the vulnerability of Quararibea funebris, a shade-tolerant tree and biocultural keystone for the tejate economy in Oaxaca, Mexico, currently caught in an anthropogenic ecological trap. A mixed-methods approach was employed, integrating a geospatial analysis of land-use change (1992–2021), microclimatic monitoring, and ethnographic assessment of gendered management. Results reveal the loss of 1552 ha of forest buffer, which has degraded the thermal niche below the species optimum. Urban specimens are subjected to a Daily Light Integral exceeding 38 mol m−2 d−1, triggering biometric stunting and oxidative stress. Furthermore, given that seed recalcitrance limits ex situ conservation, the species’ persistence relies strictly on a domestic monopoly of irrigation managed by women, who effectively subsidize the environmental deficit. The study concludes that the current backyard conservation model has hit its ecological ceiling; sustainability requires a transition toward landscape-scale NbS—specifically biocultural corridors governed by local female knowledge—to restore the multi-strata canopy required to regulate the species’ eco-physiological limits.

1. Introduction

The current context of climate crisis and biodiversity loss has driven the global emergence of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) as an essential paradigm for resource management [1,2,3]. These strategies are fundamental for ensuring critical ecosystem services such as food security and human health [4,5,6]; however, their implementation in urban and peri-urban environments often faces the challenge of reconciling biological conservation with local development dynamics [1,3,5,6,7].
A paradigmatic example of this tension occurs in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico, the home of Quararibea funebris. This tree, native to the tropical rainforests of Mesoamerica [8,9], is not only a symbol of identity in the municipality of San Andrés Huayapam, where it is locally known as “Rosital”, but also holds immense biocultural value as the source of the “rosita de cacao”. This flower is a fundamental ingredient of “tejate”, an ancestral beverage made with maize dough, cacao (Theobroma cacao), “pixtle” (toasted seed of Pouteria sapota), and oak ash (Quercus sp.) [8,10,11]. Beyond its cultural importance, recent investigations have validated the nutraceutical potential of its flowers, which are rich in bioactive compounds such as salicylic acid, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, and linoleic acid, conferring significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties against human pathogens [12].
Ecologically, Q. funebris is native to the mid-canopy stratum of tropical rainforests [8,13]. In this natural habitat, the tree functions under a protective vegetative ceiling that filters direct solar radiation and maintains high humidity. Consequently, its photosynthetic machinery is evolutionarily adapted to low-light environments, when exposed to full sun conditions [14,15,16] typical of urban heat islands, the plant creates an energy imbalance. Instead of fueling biomass accumulation, excess energy triggers oxidative stress, leading to photo-inhibition and tissue necrosis. This physiological constraint forces a trade-off: the tree reallocates resources from vertical growth to cellular survival mechanisms, often resulting in biometric stunting [17].
However, this system faces a critical socio-ecological paradox: the commercial success of “tejate” drives gastronomic tourism and accelerated urbanization. Ironically, these very forces degrade the microclimate and habitat of the tree that sustains such an economy [10,11,18], transforming the peri-urban landscape into an ecological trap [19,20,21] where the species persists due to its cultural value, but under environmental conditions that compromise its survival. Women producers (tejateras), who act as custodians of ecological knowledge and germplasm through intensive backyard management, directly face this vulnerability, which puts both the biological resource and their financial autonomy at risk [10,22,23,24].
This study addresses a critical information gap regarding these dynamics, as NbS interventions often lack validation of the specific eco-physiological limits of species in altered environments [5,6,7]. In the case of Q. funebris, it remains unclear how urban abiotic stressors—specifically irradiance and ambient humidity—compromise the physiology of this tropical forest species isolated within heat islands [25,26]. To address this gap, our research is guided by three fundamental questions: (1) how has the peri-urban landscape structure changed and fragmented over the last three decades; (2) what are the specific physiological stress indicators on Q. funebris within this altered environment; and (3) how do traditional gendered management practices respond to these biological constraints?
Based on the theoretical framework of urban ecology [19,20,27,28], our central hypothesis posits that the peri-urban expansion of San Andrés Huayapam acts as an ecological trap for Q. funebris. Specifically, we argue that while anthropogenic maintenance (irrigation) acts as a positive cue promoting species persistence, the degradation of the microclimatic niche exceeds the species physiological plasticity, compromising its vegetative structure and reproductive viability.
Given that Q. funebris seeds are recalcitrant and lose viability rapidly [29], traditional ex situ conservation is unfeasible, making it essential to understand how the empirical knowledge of women producers (tejateras) compensates for these biological deficiencies. In this context, analyzing the role of gender is a methodological requirement to assess eco-physiological vulnerability, as the intensive care provided by the tejateras effectively subsidizes the environmental deficit, potentially masking the true extent of abiotic stress through supplementary irrigation. Therefore, the objective of this work is to assess the eco-physiological vulnerability of Q. funebris through a multi-scale diagnosis that integrates geospatial analysis of land-use changes, monitoring of physiological stress, and an assessment of gender-based management. This comprehensive approach aims to establish the scientific and social foundations required to transition toward landscape-scale NbS, such as biocultural corridors, capable of restoring ecosystem functionality.
To articulate this comprehensive diagnosis, the subsequent sections follow an integrated narrative of our findings and methodology. Section 2 describes the mixed-methods and geospatial approach used for this territorial analysis, Section 3 presents results regarding landscape transformation, the physiological stress documented in the Q. funebris trees, and the gender dynamics that sustain the current management system, while Section 4 discusses the main results and Section 5 synthesizes the conclusions and outlines the proposed NbS to ensure the future of this biocultural heritage.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Geographic Context and Hydrological Importance

The research focused on San Andrés Huayapam, a Zapotec community located in the Central Valleys region of Oaxaca [30]. Huayapam is known as the “cradle of tejate”, and its identity is indissolubly linked to this ancestral beverage [31,32]. Geographically, the municipality is located at coordinates 96°40′ West longitude and 17°06′ North latitude, at an altitude of 1710 masl. The climate in the urban area is semi-warm subhumid with summer rains, characterized by a mean annual precipitation of 687.6 mm and a mean annual temperature of 25.9 °C, with fluctuations ranging from 0 °C (November to December) to 39 °C (April to July) [33,34,35].
Historically, this territory held critical importance due to its environmental suitability for forest conservation and its role in regional hydrological regulation. The municipality is situated within a strategic recharge section of the Río Atoyac RH-20-A hydrological region. The “Río Grande”, which originates in the spring zone (at 2750 masl), has traditionally represented a primary source of potable water for both the local community and the broader Oaxaca City metropolitan area [30]. However, as analyzed in this study, landcover transformation challenges this function. Furthermore, the land tenure regime is predominantly communal [33,34,35], which acts as a determining factor for the collective management and governance of these biocultural resources.

2.2. The Rosital Tree: Study System and Biological Characteristics

This member of the Malvaceae family, native to the tropical rainforests of Mesoamerica, serves as the biocultural keystone of San Andrés Huayapam [8,9,36]. The Q. funebris, is locally known as “Rosital”, while its fragrant white flowers, which are edible and possess antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [12], are called “Rosita de cacao” or “Cacahuaxochitl”. It is essential to clarify that, despite these common names, the species is not botanically related to the cacao bean (Theobroma cacao); however, they converge in the ancestral “tejate” beverage [10,32].
While Q. funebris is unusual in other regions of Oaxaca, it was adopted and protected in Huayapam (Figure 1), becoming an emblematic element of the community [36]. In Huayapam, the “rositales” are cultivated as ornamental trees within the domestic courtyards of the urban area (Figure 1), comprising a population that includes both young specimens and mature individuals older than 50 years. The biometric inventory conducted within the urban matrix of San Andrés Huayapam (Figure 1) established the current structural status of the Q. funebris population. To assess the environmental pressures acting on these individuals, an eco-physiological monitoring protocol was implemented. Due to the strict regime of private land tenure (domestic backyards), which limits unrestricted access for continuous instrumentation, a “sentinel tree” approach was adopted. This representative specimen was selected based on its spatial isolation from architectural or vegetative obstructions, ensuring free exposure to solar radiation without shading interference.
On sunny days, Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR, µmol m−2 s−1) was recorded over four consecutive weeks in March 2025 on both the east and west sides of the tree (Figure 2). Readings were taken hourly from 07:00 to 18:00 h using a LI-191SA® quantum sensor (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA) with a 127 cm2 sensitive area, calibrated for the visible light band (400–700 nm), and connected to a LI-1400® Data Logger (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA). The sensor was positioned at a height of 1 m above the ground and at a distance of 2 m from the trunk. Simultaneously, ambient temperature and relative humidity were monitored using LI-1400-101 and LI-1400-104 sensors, respectively.
While the quantum sensor measures the instantaneous photon flux (µmol m−2 s−1), the use of units in mol m−2 d−1 is recommended [16,37] as plant growth is determined by the daily integrated light flux. Therefore, once hourly average PAR values were obtained, the Daily Light Integral (DLI) was calculated [16] using the following equation: DLI (mol m−2 d−1) = (hourly readings in mmol m−2 s−1 × 0.0036), where 0.0036 is derived from the conversion factor: (60 s/min × 60 min/h)/1000,000 mmol mol−1. Data visualization (mean values and standard error) was performed using Microsoft Excel®, and a mean comparison test (Tukey, p ≤ 0.05) was conducted using SAS software version 9.0 [38].
Finally, phenological monitoring focused on flowering and fruiting cycles, which are driven by these climatic factors and plant age. Floral buds were sampled on branches located at a height of 1.20 to 1.5 m, specifically selected with an eastern orientation due to the higher abundance of flowers (Figure 3). Data recording spanned from floral bud emergence to full bloom and subsequent fruiting.

2.3. Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Landscape Transformation

Landscape transformation was analyzed using vector data of Land Use and Vegetation from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) for the years 1992 (Series I) [39], 2001 (Series II) [40], 2005 (Series III) [41], 2009 (Series IV) [42], 2013 (Series V) [43], 2017 (Series VI) [44] and 2021 (Series VII) [45]. All spatial data were processed using ArcGIS PRO (v.3.5.4) software [46]. To ensure temporal comparability across the 30-year period, a standardization of projections (WGS 84/UTM Zone 14N) and cartographic categories was implemented [47].
To address the heterogeneous nomenclature used by INEGI across three decades, a harmonization process was implemented. This involved grouping 55 specific original labels into four standardized functional categories (Table 1) based on their structural role in the peri-urban landscape of Huayapam. This reclassification was essential to quantify the transition from mature forest cover to secondary stages and human expansion [47]. The quantitative analysis utilized transition matrices via the Tabulate Intersection tool to identify tipping points in habitat degradation, particularly the structural loss of mature ecosystems.
Complementarily, to contextualize the prevailing abiotic conditions during this period of transformation, historical records from the Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA) were processed [48]. Climatological Normals (1991–2020) from meteorological station 20,079 (Oaxaca de Juárez) were analyzed, extracting specific variables: monthly mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures (°C) and cumulative precipitation (mm) [48]. This station was selected due to its geographic contiguity with San Andrés Huayapam and its temporal correspondence with the land-use change data. The analysis of these datasets served as the selection criterion for the field monitoring period, allowing for the identification of the window of maximum environmental pressure—defined by the historical intersection of the prolonged drought season (November–April) and the highest annual thermal peaks. This ensures that the eco-physiological assessment of the Rosital tree is conducted during the most critical stage of the annual cycle, providing a robust baseline for the design of Nature-based Solutions (NbS).

2.4. Ethnographic Approach and Biocultural Triangulation

A mixed-methods approach was adopted to bridge ecological data with the social dimensions of Q. funebris management [49,50,51]. The social component involved semi-structured interviews with 30 tejate producers (tejateras), who were selected based on their status as primary custodians of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and their active participation in local production unions [10,24,31,32,52]. The interviews were designed to document local perceptions regarding tree health, flowering patterns, and the socio-economic impacts of environmental change (Figure A1 and Figure A2).
The qualitative data from interview transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis [49,50,51]. This process involved a manual coding system to categorize narratives into four analytical nodes: (1) perceived changes in phenology, (2) management strategies against water scarcity, (3) barriers to natural and domestic propagation, and (4) the role of gender in resource governance.
This social information was then subject to a biocultural triangulation process [53], acting as a participatory monitoring system. Methodologically, this involved cross-referencing the categorized narratives of the tejateras with the quantitative metrics obtained from the physiological (DLI) and geospatial analysis (transition matrices). The objective of this convergence was to perform a multidimensional diagnosis of the territory, ensuring that the proposed Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are grounded in a participatory monitoring system that validates scientific evidence through local social reality [54,55,56,57].

3. Results

3.1. Spatio-Temporal Landscape Dynamics (1992–2021)

The geospatial analysis reveals a continuous structural transformation of the territory, involving dynamic shifts among the four functional categories identified (Figure 4, Table 2). The temporal assessment segregates this degradation process into three distinct chronological phases, each characterized by specific drivers of change ranging from natural succession to urban competition:

3.1.1. Reconfiguration and Successional Recovery (1992–2001)

During the first decade, the landscape was dominated by mature structures, totaling 1552 ha of Primary Forest (Pine, Oak, and Pine-Oak). Between 1992 and 2001, the data reveal a positive trend of ecological succession: the Pine-Oak Forest category expanded significantly from 534 ha to 858 ha. This increase coincides with the reduction in Secondary Shrub Vegetation of Low Deciduous Forest, which decreased from 402 ha in 1992 to just 9 ha in 2001. This suggests that the shrub layer matured and integrated into the mixed forest canopy. In this period, human settlements remained below detectable cartographic thresholds (Figure 5).

3.1.2. Structural Collapse and Successional Transition (2001–2005)

A critical tipping point occurred between 2001 and 2005. During this interval, the three primary forest categories disappeared from the record, being quantitatively replaced by secondary vegetation categories. The data reveal a direct transition pathway: the 858 ha of mature Pine-Oak Forest recorded in 2001 were fragmented into exactly 858 ha of secondary pine-oak vegetation (419 ha arboreal and 439 ha shrub) by 2005. Similarly, mature Pine and Oak forests were replaced by their respective secondary stages, marking the replacement of complex canopy structures with simplified successional stages (Figure 6).

3.1.3. Urban Consolidation and Fragmentation (2009–2021)

The most recent phase is defined by the sustained growth of Human Settlements, which emerged in 2009 with 33 ha and reached 150 ha by 2021. This expansion coincided with a steady decline in active productive land: Temporal Agriculture fell from its 2005 peak of 926 ha to 536 ha by the end of the study period. Concurrently, Induced Grassland appeared in the record in 2009 (199 ha) and stabilized around 160 ha by 2021. This trend indicates a process of soil sealing and the conversion of productive zones into induced pastures within the peri-urban matrix (Figure 7).

3.2. Eco-Physiological Stress and Structural Vulnerability

The biological performance of the Q. funebris population is strictly conditioned by the local abiotic baseline. Analysis of climatological normals (1991–2020) indicates a defined drought season from November to April, coinciding with maximum annual temperatures ranging between 33.3 °C and 34.9 °C (Table 3). Under these limiting conditions and lacking the original forest buffer identified in Section 3.1, the urban specimens exhibit specific morphological adjustments.

3.2.1. Biometric Stunting and Radiative Stress

The biometric inventory established the structural status of the population within the urban matrix (Figure 1). Measurements indicate that adult trees (>50 years) average a maximum height of 12.5 m. This recorded value corresponds to 50% of the maximum potential height (25 m) described for the species in its native tropical rainforest range [8].
Regarding canopy health, the inventory revealed that trees exposed to the West (afternoon sun) present higher incidences of chlorosis and apical desiccation compared to protected specimens (Figure 8).
This aligns with the physiological monitoring of the Daily Light Integral (DLI). The data reveal a significant differential in radiative load: the West-facing canopy receives 38.81 ± 0.77 mol m−2 d−1, significantly higher than the East-facing side (29.33 ± 0.83 mol m−2 d−1) (Table 4) (Figure 9 and Figure 10).
This high irradiance coincides spatially with the necrotic lesions (sunscald) observed on the foliage (Figure 11).

3.2.2. Phenological Dynamics and Productive Yield

Phenological monitoring indicates that “Rosital” trees begin their reproductive phase approximately five years after transplantation, with vigor increasing with age. Although the species has the physiological capacity to flower year-round, field records show a marked decrease in floral production during the dry season (November–April), followed by a blooming peak with the onset of rains (Figure 12).
The reproductive cycle, from floral bud emergence to full anthesis, spans a period of 45 to 65 days (Figure 13). Following pollination, the transition from petal fall to the formation of the immature fruit (locally known as “jarrito”) takes approximately 60 to 75 days.
Following pollination, the transition to the immature fruit stage (“jarrito”) takes approximately 60 to 75 days. Regarding productivity, ethnobotanical data indicate that mature trees (>50 years) yield an estimated average of 10 to 12 kg of dry flower annually, despite the high dehydration rate of the biomass (94% loss) (Table 5).

3.3. Reproductive Biology and Seed Recalcitrance

Following the reproductive phenology described in Table 5, the cycle concludes with the maturation of the fruit (Figure 14), an indehiscent berry. Post-harvest monitoring indicates that the fruit structure lacks mechanisms to retain moisture once detached from the parent tree (Figure 14a). Quantitative observations show that fresh fruits lose 43% of their biomass within six days under ambient conditions (Figure 14b).
Regarding propagation potential, the species exhibits characteristics of seed recalcitrance. The seeds are encased in a thick testa (Figure 14c), but the embryo is highly sensitive to desiccation. While germination in controlled nursery conditions occurs between 15 and 20 days, natural regeneration in the peri-urban understory is virtually absent. This field observation aligns with the physiological constraints documented for the species, which reports a rapid decay in viability, dropping from 99.3% at collection to 71.3% after 12 months, and significantly lower in non-controlled humidity environments [29]. This biological trait prevents the formation of persistent soil seed banks in the study area.

3.4. Gender-Based Management and Local Ecological Knowledge (TEK)

The ethnographic assessment conducted with the “Union of tejate Producers” (n = 30) characterized the sociotechnical system sustaining the Q. funebris population. Results indicate that 100% of the active germplasm is managed within the domestic sphere, specifically in backyards owned or managed by women (Figure 15). This structure constitutes a “domestic monopoly” of the resource, where access to the tree is strictly linked to family lineage and membership in the producer’s union.

3.4.1. Management Intensity and Environmental Subsidy

Regarding management practices, the primary strategy recorded is supplementary irrigation, which acts as an environmental subsidy. Interviews revealed that irrigation regimes vary significantly based on water availability: while some producers apply approximately 500 L per tree to individuals >15 years old, others are limited to applying 100 L every two days. Notably, producers report that trees lacking this supplementary input during the dry season suffer high mortality rates.

3.4.2. Harvest Dynamics and Economic Valorization

Harvesting is driven by phenological and market constraints. While the onset of the rainy season triggers a peak in blooming, it introduces a phytosanitary trade-off: wet-season flowers require immediate harvesting to prevent fungal decay or staining caused by excess moisture, which compromises their quality.
This intensive management is justified by the high market value of the resource. Market analysis indicates that fresh flowers are sold for 0.057 to 0.29 USD per unit, while the processed dry flower reaches a value of approximately 91.48 USD per kilogram. Given that a mature tree (>50 years) yields an estimated average of 10 to 12 kg annually (Table 5), the tree represents a significant pillar of the household economy.

3.4.3. Post-Harvest Technology and Perception

In terms of processing, a technological duality was documented: while traditional drying in the shade (on palm mats or “petates”) preserves quality but requires 5 days, producers increasingly resort to accelerated sun-drying on metal surfaces (2 days) to meet market demand, despite the trade-off in organoleptic quality (Figure 16).
The Local Ecological Knowledge (TEK) held by the tejateras has also identified a decline in ecosystem services. A substantial majority of interviewees (90%) reported a perceived decrease in floral yield per tree compared to previous decades, attributing this loss to “excess heat” and “lack of root space” (Table 6).

4. Discussion

4.1. Landscape Transformation and the Mechanism of the Ecological Trap

The integration of geospatial analysis with climatological normals confirms the hypothesis that the Q. funebris population in San Andrés Huayapam is caught in an anthropogenic ecological trap [19,20,21]. In ecological theory, a trap occurs when an organism prefers or persists in a habitat due to attractive cues, even though the habitat quality lowers its survival or reproductive success. In Huayapam, the attractive cue is the supplementary irrigation provided by the tejateras, which masks the hydrological deficit. However, our results show that the structural quality of the habitat has degraded below the physiological optimum of the species [8,9].
The disappearance of 1552 ha of primary forest buffer, documented in Section 3.1.2, removed the regional thermal regulator [18,25,30,33,34,35]. Consequently, the current urban matrix (150 ha) functions as a heat island, exposing a species evolutionarily adapted to the tropical rainforest understory [26,59,60] to maximum temperatures exceeding 33 °C. This creates a functional mismatch: the tree receives water (anthropogenic subsidy) that allows it to survive, but is exposed to an atmospheric demand (DLI > 38 mol m−2 d−1) that limits its development [8,26]. This validates that unplanned urbanization has compromised the functional niche of the “Rosital”, transforming the territory into a sink habitat sustained only by human intervention [26,59,60].

4.2. Biometric Constraints and Physiological Stress Impact

The biometric stunting observed in the urban population, averaging 12.5 m compared to the potential 25 m documented in natural habitats [8,29,61], should be interpreted as an adaptive response to the restrictive urban environment, rather than simple variability [27,62,63]. This phenotypic plasticity reflects the evolutionary constraints of a species native to the rainforest mid-canopy [8,13,14,64]. Lacking the protective vegetative ceiling of its original habitat, the urban specimens face a metabolic conflict: they must prioritize cellular repair over biomass accumulation.
As noted in the literature regarding shade-tolerant tropical trees [4,14,64], when the Daily Light Integral (DLI) exceeds the species saturation point (confirmed here by values > 38 mol m−2 d−1 on the West face), the plant limits its vertical growth to reduce the surface area exposed to dehydration [15,16,17]. This energy trade-off explains the structural simplification observed: the tree stays small to minimize the radiative load it cannot physiologically process [14,17,65].
This restriction comes with a physiological cost. The chlorosis and apical necrosis observed in the upper canopy (Section 3.2.1) are physical manifestations of this oxidative stress [17,62,63,66]. This has critical implications for the tejate economy. Since the flowers of Q. funebris are valued for their antioxidant metabolites and specific flavor profile [10,12,32], the chronic stress observed suggests that the tree is diverting energy towards survival (cellular repair) rather than optimal phytochemical synthesis [12,67,68]. Therefore, the environmental degradation identified not only affects the tree’s survival but also potentially compromises the organoleptic quality of the harvest [29,68,69], threatening the heritage value managed by the tejateras [11,32,69].

4.3. Reproductive Vulnerability and the Impossibility of Ex Situ Conservation

Beyond individual stress, our results confirm that the system faces a reproductive lock-in [8,9,29]. The rapid dehydration of fruits (43% biomass loss in 6 days) and the absence of natural regeneration align with the recalcitrant nature of Q. funebris seeds [29]. The rapid decay in viability (<12 months) renders the formation of persistent soil seed banks impossible in the paved peri-urban environment [19,63,64].
This biological constraint has a profound management implication: traditional ex situ conservation strategies (seed banks) are unfeasible for this species. Consequently, the survival of germplasm relies exclusively on the continuous maintenance of living individuals [15,64]. This validates the critical role of the domestic monopoly identified in Section 3.4; without the immediate propagation and care provided in backyards, the species lacks the biological mechanisms to persist in this landscape naturally [64,70].

4.4. The Gendered Environmental Subsidy

The survival of Q. funebris in this hostile abiotic context is actively subsidized by the labor of women producers. The daily irrigation regimes (up to 500 L/tree) documented in the ethnographic results effectively mask the hydrological deficit of the territory [25,33,34,35,48]. From a political ecology perspective, this constitutes a gendered environmental subsidy, where women’s unpaid care work compensates for the loss of ecosystem services caused by the deforestation analyzed in Section 3.1.
However, this model faces a growth paradox [22,27,71]. The economic success of tejate drives tourism and urbanization [10,11,18,23,58,72], which in turn degrades the microclimate required by the tree. The reported decline in floral yield by 90% of producers suggests that the “domestic gardening” strategy has hit an ecological ceiling. Backyards alone can no longer buffer the extreme DLI and temperature. Therefore, sustainability requires a shift toward Nature-based Solutions (NbS) at a landscape scale [1,2,3,71]. Specifically, the implementation of Biocultural Biological Corridors [19,20] is required to restore the multi-strata canopy along hydrological tributaries. Unlike isolated domestic planting, restoring the forest buffer would regulate DLI and ambient humidity, dismantling the ecological trap while validating the governance and TEK of the local women.

5. Conclusions

The comprehensive diagnosis presented in this study confirms that the unplanned urbanization of San Andrés Huayapam has generated a functional ecological trap for the Quararibea funebris population. By integrating geospatial analysis with eco-physiological monitoring, we conclude that the loss of the forest buffer has degraded the microclimatic niche below the species physiological optimum, subjecting the remnant specimens to a chronic radiative load that exceeds their biological limits. This environmental mismatch has forced a negative plastic response in the trees, manifested as stunting and oxidative stress, which currently compromises the material base of the tejate cultural heritage. While this diagnosis establishes a robust baseline, we recognize that our sentinel-tree approach and reliance on regional seed viability data represent specific methodological limitations; therefore, future research must expand sampling across the canopy gradient and conduct in situ germination trials to refine these eco-physiological thresholds.
Biologically, the study validates that preserving this resource cannot depend on ex situ germplasm banks due to the recalcitrant nature of the seeds. Consequently, the persistence of the species relies strictly on in situ conservation. However, our findings suggest that the current strategy of domestic gardening has hit its ecological ceiling: the supplementary irrigation provided by families is no longer sufficient to buffer the evapotranspirative demand of the urban heat island. Furthermore, given the oxidative stress documented, there is an urgent need to investigate the phytochemical profile of urban flowers in future studies to determine if this chronic abiotic stress is altering the organoleptic quality—specifically flavor and antioxidant content—valued by the market, thereby linking environmental health directly to product quality.
Socially, this research confirms that the system’s sustainability relies on a gendered environmental subsidy, where women tejateras compensate for the territory’s environmental deficit through unpaid care work. However, this model faces a critical growth paradox, where the economic success of the beverage drives the very urbanization that degrades the tree’s habitat. To resolve this contradiction, sustainability requires a paradigm shift from private conservation to landscape-scale Nature-based Solutions (NbS). Since our diagnosis proves that the core vulnerability is the loss of the shade-tolerant niche, simple reforestation is insufficient; we must reconstruct the forest architecture. Therefore, we propose the implementation of Biocultural Biological Corridors to restore the multi-strata canopy along hydrological tributaries. This intervention implies a major governance challenge: moving from a domestic monopoly to a collective management model led by the Union of tejate Producers, ensuring that the restoration of the landscape validates their Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and reinforces their economic sovereignty.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; methodology, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; software, Y.D.O.-H. and M.A.A.-O.; validation, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; formal analysis, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and E.G.-S.; investigation, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O., G.L.-E., F.E.O.-H. and S.V.-P.; resources, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O., G.L.-E., F.E.O.-H. and S.V.-P.; data curation, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; writing—review and editing, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; visualization, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and G.L.-E.; supervision, Y.D.O.-H., M.A.A.-O. and E.G.-S.; project administration, Y.D.O.-H. and E.G.-S.; funding acquisition, Y.D.O.-H., F.E.O.-H. and E.G.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN), project SIP-20251329.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study by Institution Committee of Instituto Politécnico Nacional due to ethical guidelines and data regulations established by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional and current Mexican legislation.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent for publication was obtained from all identifiable human participants.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study is available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) México, Secretaría de Investigación y Posgrado, and CIIDIR Oaxaca for their support, as well as Secretaría de Ciencia, Humanidades, Tecnología e Innovación (SECIHTI), and Sistema Nacional de Investigadoras e Investigadores (SNII-SECIHTI).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
NbSNature-based Solutions
DLIDaily Light Integral
PARPhotosynthetically Active Radiation
TEKTraditional Ecological Knowledge

Appendix A

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Figure A1. Consent agreement for structured interview.
Figure A1. Consent agreement for structured interview.
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Figure A2. Structured Interview Format.
Figure A2. Structured Interview Format.
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Figure 1. Location of the sampled Q. funebris specimens within the urban matrix of San Andrés Huayapam, Oaxaca. The map highlights the fragmented distribution of the “Rosital” trees (green icons) embedded within the municipality layer.
Figure 1. Location of the sampled Q. funebris specimens within the urban matrix of San Andrés Huayapam, Oaxaca. The map highlights the fragmented distribution of the “Rosital” trees (green icons) embedded within the municipality layer.
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Figure 2. Schematic representation of the tree’s cardinal orientation used for the weekly monitoring of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) and microclimatic variables.
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the tree’s cardinal orientation used for the weekly monitoring of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) and microclimatic variables.
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Figure 3. (a) “Rosital” in full bloom; (b) different flower development phases, from buds to opening, also showing “jarritos”; (c) flower ready for harvest.
Figure 3. (a) “Rosital” in full bloom; (b) different flower development phases, from buds to opening, also showing “jarritos”; (c) flower ready for harvest.
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Figure 4. Spatio-temporal evolution of land use in San Andrés Huayapam (1992–2021). The map series, derived from INEGI vector data [39,40,41,42,43,44,45].
Figure 4. Spatio-temporal evolution of land use in San Andrés Huayapam (1992–2021). The map series, derived from INEGI vector data [39,40,41,42,43,44,45].
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Figure 5. Ecological succession and canopy integration (1992–2001). The spatial analysis identifies a recovery period where Secondary Shrub Vegetation (Low Deciduous Forest) transitioned into mature Pine-Oak Forest structures, increasing the area’s biological density prior to urbanization.
Figure 5. Ecological succession and canopy integration (1992–2001). The spatial analysis identifies a recovery period where Secondary Shrub Vegetation (Low Deciduous Forest) transitioned into mature Pine-Oak Forest structures, increasing the area’s biological density prior to urbanization.
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Figure 6. The structural tipping point (2001–2005). Visual representation of the critical transition where 1552 ha of primary forest were fragmented and quantitatively replaced by secondary vegetation and agricultural zones, marking the loss of the microclimatic buffer.
Figure 6. The structural tipping point (2001–2005). Visual representation of the critical transition where 1552 ha of primary forest were fragmented and quantitatively replaced by secondary vegetation and agricultural zones, marking the loss of the microclimatic buffer.
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Figure 7. Peri-urban land-use competition (2009–2021). The map highlights the “sealing” of the territory, where the expansion of Human Settlements (reaching 150 ha) and Induced Grassland competes directly with productive agricultural land.
Figure 7. Peri-urban land-use competition (2009–2021). The map highlights the “sealing” of the territory, where the expansion of Human Settlements (reaching 150 ha) and Induced Grassland competes directly with productive agricultural land.
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Figure 8. Q. funebris. (a) Specimen showing apical chlorosis and foliage reduction, symptoms consistent with the “urban ecological trap” effect; (b,c) Comparative view of specimens with healthy foliage density.
Figure 8. Q. funebris. (a) Specimen showing apical chlorosis and foliage reduction, symptoms consistent with the “urban ecological trap” effect; (b,c) Comparative view of specimens with healthy foliage density.
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Figure 9. Condition of mature Q. funebris (>50 years). (a) General view exhibiting structural stunted growth and canopy thinning; (b) Detail of leaf sunscald and oxidative stress on the West-facing canopy; (c) Contrast with healthy foliage density.
Figure 9. Condition of mature Q. funebris (>50 years). (a) General view exhibiting structural stunted growth and canopy thinning; (b) Detail of leaf sunscald and oxidative stress on the West-facing canopy; (c) Contrast with healthy foliage density.
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Figure 10. Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR, µmol m−2 s−1) received by the Q. funebris tree in full sun on the East and West sides. Data represents the average of five measurements ± standard error per hour of the day.
Figure 10. Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR, µmol m−2 s−1) received by the Q. funebris tree in full sun on the East and West sides. Data represents the average of five measurements ± standard error per hour of the day.
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Sustainability 18 01630 g011
Figure 11. Details of foliar damage. (a,b) Chlorotic leaves showing marginal necrosis (sunscald), typical of exposure to high evapotranspiration demand; (c) Healthy leaf morphology from a protected canopy section.
Figure 11. Details of foliar damage. (a,b) Chlorotic leaves showing marginal necrosis (sunscald), typical of exposure to high evapotranspiration demand; (c) Healthy leaf morphology from a protected canopy section.
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Sustainability 18 01630 g012
Figure 12. Phenological behavior of Quararibea funebris in relation to local climatic variables in San Andrés Huayapam. The ombrothermic diagram displays monthly precipitation (blue bars) and temperature profiles (minimum, mean, and maximum). The horizontal bars at the top illustrate the intensity of reproductive phases: flowering (pink scale) and fruiting (orange/brown scale) throughout the annual cycle, classified by abundance (<, +, >).
Figure 12. Phenological behavior of Quararibea funebris in relation to local climatic variables in San Andrés Huayapam. The ombrothermic diagram displays monthly precipitation (blue bars) and temperature profiles (minimum, mean, and maximum). The horizontal bars at the top illustrate the intensity of reproductive phases: flowering (pink scale) and fruiting (orange/brown scale) throughout the annual cycle, classified by abundance (<, +, >).
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Sustainability 18 01630 g013
Figure 13. Q. funebris. (a) Full anthesis of the “Rosita de cacao” marking the start of the harvest window (45–65 days); (b) Transition phase showing tepal dehiscence and initial fruit formation (“jarrito”); (c) Immature fruit development prior to harvest.
Figure 13. Q. funebris. (a) Full anthesis of the “Rosita de cacao” marking the start of the harvest window (45–65 days); (b) Transition phase showing tepal dehiscence and initial fruit formation (“jarrito”); (c) Immature fruit development prior to harvest.
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Figure 14. Mature Fruit. (a) Mature indehiscent fruits transitioning to yellow; (b) Structural tearing of the berry due to rapid water loss (43% biomass loss in 6 days); (c) Exposed seed showing the thick testa, which fails to protect the recalcitrant embryo from dehydration.
Figure 14. Mature Fruit. (a) Mature indehiscent fruits transitioning to yellow; (b) Structural tearing of the berry due to rapid water loss (43% biomass loss in 6 days); (c) Exposed seed showing the thick testa, which fails to protect the recalcitrant embryo from dehydration.
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Figure 15. The Domestic Monopoly system. The image illustrates how Q. funebris management is restricted to private backyards, where trees compete for space with housing infrastructure but survive due to the direct care and gray-water recycling provided by tejateras.
Figure 15. The Domestic Monopoly system. The image illustrates how Q. funebris management is restricted to private backyards, where trees compete for space with housing infrastructure but survive due to the direct care and gray-water recycling provided by tejateras.
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Figure 16. Harvest and post-harvest technological duality [58]. (a) Volumetric quantification of floral yield using standard containers, the traditional unit of measure; (b) Accelerated sun-drying process on metal surfaces (2 days), a modern adaptation to meet market demand despite the trade-off in organoleptic quality compared to traditional shade drying.
Figure 16. Harvest and post-harvest technological duality [58]. (a) Volumetric quantification of floral yield using standard containers, the traditional unit of measure; (b) Accelerated sun-drying process on metal surfaces (2 days), a modern adaptation to meet market demand despite the trade-off in organoleptic quality compared to traditional shade drying.
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Table 1. Harmonization of INEGI Land Use and Vegetation labels (1992–2021).
Table 1. Harmonization of INEGI Land Use and Vegetation labels (1992–2021).
Standardized CategoryOriginal INEGI Labels (as Identified in Series I to VII)Functional Criteria
Primary ForestPine Forest, Oak Forest, and Pine-Oak ForestMature forest ecosystems with closed canopy and high microclimatic buffering
Secondary VegetationSecondary Arboreal and Shrub Vegetation of Pine, Oak, Pine-Oak, and Low Deciduous Forest.Successional stages resulting from disturbance; fragmented cover with reduced capacity to regulate irradiance.
Agriculture & GrasslandRainfed Agriculture and Induced Grassland.Areas of complete canopy removal and high soil exposure, forcing dependency on manual irrigation.
Human SettlementsHuman Settlements.Urban expansion and soil sealing that creates urban heat islands.
Table 2. Land use changes in San Andrés Huayapam (hectares).
Table 2. Land use changes in San Andrés Huayapam (hectares).
Land Type Use1992200120052009201320172021
Pine Forest3534320000
Secondary Arboreal Vegetation of Pine Forest00432432429429429
Oak Forest6655720000
Secondary Shrub Vegetation of Oak Forest00533533533533533
Pine-Oak Forest5348580000
Secondary Arboreal Vegetation of Pine-Oak Forest00419419419419419
Secondary Shrub Vegetation of Pine-Oak Forest00439439439439439
Agriculture804886926612567567536
Secondary Shrub Vegetation of Low Deciduous Forest4029991919191
Induced Grassland000199160160160
Human Settlements00033119119150
Table 3. Climatological Normals (1991–2020) Oaxaca de Juárez Station (20079) [48].
Table 3. Climatological Normals (1991–2020) Oaxaca de Juárez Station (20079) [48].
Normal Climate ParameterJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecAnnual
Mean Temperature (°C)19.621.423.525.425.323.723.023.022.621.920.620.022.5
Maximum Temperature (°C)28.931.133.334.933.830.930.130.029.129.329.028.930.8
Minimum Temperature (°C)10.311.613.615.816.716.715.915.916.114.512.311.014.2
Precipitation (mm)2.44.617.647.397.9188.3118.6131.8163.663.19.19.0853.3
Table 4. Daily Light Integral (DLI) and microclimatic parameters recorded on Q. funebris canopy.
Table 4. Daily Light Integral (DLI) and microclimatic parameters recorded on Q. funebris canopy.
LocationDLI
(mol m−2 d−1)		Temperature
(°C)		Relative Humidity
(%)
East29.33 ± 0.83 b28.26 ± 0.38 b30.31 ± 1.36 a
West38.81 ± 0.77 a31.19 ± 0.26 a31.52 ± 1.45 a
Means with different letters within a column indicate significant differences (Tukey, p ≤ 0.05).
Table 5. Phenological dynamics and productive performance of Q. funebris under peri-urban management.
Table 5. Phenological dynamics and productive performance of Q. funebris under peri-urban management.
CategoryParameterQuantitative ValueCondition/Context
Reproductive CycleAnthesis development45–65 daysFrom bud appearance to full opening (in situ)
Fruit set duration60–75 daysFrom petal fall to “jarrito” stage (immature fruit)
Post-Harvest DynamicsBiomass loss rate94% reductionTotal weight loss (Fresh to Dry)
Drying time (Traditional)5 daysShade drying on petate/metal
Drying time (Accelerated)2 daysDirect solar exposure
Productive YieldAnnual harvest estimate10–12 kg (dry weight)Mature trees (>50 years) with supplementary irrigation
Table 6. Summary of Management Practices and Local Ecological Knowledge (TEK) regarding Q. funebris.
Table 6. Summary of Management Practices and Local Ecological Knowledge (TEK) regarding Q. funebris.
CategoryIndicator/PracticeConsensus Result
Resource TenureAccess Regime100% Domestic/Private (Backyards). No communal forest extraction reported.
Gender RoleWomen control harvest, processing, and sale. Men assist in pruning and planting.
Water ManagementIrrigation Frequency (Dry Season)Daily (Trees > 50 years); 2–3 times/week (Young trees).
Water SourcePotable municipal network and private wells.
Post-harvest HandlingHarvesting TechniqueManual collection with “carrizo” (reed) poles to avoid damaging buds.
Drying MethodDual practice: Shade drying (5 days) for quality vs. Sun drying on metal (2 days) for speed.
Ecological PerceptionThreat Identification90% identify “Heat/Drought” as the main threat.
Replacement Strategy60% have planted replacement saplings but report high mortality rates.
Economic ValueMarket PriceHigh value: ~91.48 USD/kg (Dry) driving intensive care.
Rainy Season ConstraintImmediate harvest is required to prevent fungal decay/staining.
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Ortiz-Hernández, Y.D.; Acevedo-Ortiz, M.A.; Lugo-Espinosa, G.; Ortiz-Hernández, F.E.; García-Sánchez, E.; Velasco-Pérez, S. Eco-Physiological Vulnerability of Quararibea funebris in Peri-Urban Landscapes: Integrating Gender and Nature-Based Solutions in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. Sustainability 2026, 18, 1630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031630

AMA Style

Ortiz-Hernández YD, Acevedo-Ortiz MA, Lugo-Espinosa G, Ortiz-Hernández FE, García-Sánchez E, Velasco-Pérez S. Eco-Physiological Vulnerability of Quararibea funebris in Peri-Urban Landscapes: Integrating Gender and Nature-Based Solutions in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. Sustainability. 2026; 18(3):1630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031630

Chicago/Turabian Style

Ortiz-Hernández, Yolanda Donají, Marco Aurelio Acevedo-Ortiz, Gema Lugo-Espinosa, Fernando Elí Ortiz-Hernández, Edgar García-Sánchez, and Salatiel Velasco-Pérez. 2026. "Eco-Physiological Vulnerability of Quararibea funebris in Peri-Urban Landscapes: Integrating Gender and Nature-Based Solutions in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico" Sustainability 18, no. 3: 1630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031630

APA Style

Ortiz-Hernández, Y. D., Acevedo-Ortiz, M. A., Lugo-Espinosa, G., Ortiz-Hernández, F. E., García-Sánchez, E., & Velasco-Pérez, S. (2026). Eco-Physiological Vulnerability of Quararibea funebris in Peri-Urban Landscapes: Integrating Gender and Nature-Based Solutions in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico. Sustainability, 18(3), 1630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031630

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