Between Nature and City: Translating Nature’s Inspiration into Ecosystem Services Solutions for Hot Climate Resilience

Abstract

The increasing challenges of urbanization and environmental degradation have led to a greater need for built environments that minimize ecological consequences while actively contributing to ecosystem services (ES). Bio-Inspired Design (BID) is a promising approach that translates natural-system ideas into architectural and urban solutions. This study investigates how BID can be used to deliver and improve ecosystem services, like climate regulation, air purification, and energy, in the built environment, focusing on applications in hot climates and at the meso scale. The study conducts a qualitative and integrative analysis of bio-inspired concepts derived from existing research and innovative practices. It examines specific ecosystem services—selected based on previous studies—and illustrates how these strategies can improve environmental performance in urban contexts. A conceptual framework for linking biological analogies to urban functions is proposed. The framework emphasizes the interdisciplinary relationships between architecture, urban design, material science, and environmental engineering. This provides a helpful guide for researchers and practitioners on how to use BID to enhance sustainability results. The study suggests that incorporating BID principles into urban design procedures can potentially transform built environments into active contributors to ecosystem functioning, enabling them to provide ES rather than merely consuming resources. While this conclusion is conceptual, the framework highlights pathways for more resilient and sustainable urban futures.

1. Introduction

Urban sprawl and industrialization are causing global environmental change, increasing land surface temperature, destroying natural habitats, and affecting ground water quality and air quality. Future changes in urban land cover will further degrade the thermal environment, increasing urban heat island (UHI) phenomena and carbon emissions. Understanding these consequences is crucial for sustainable development planning and better future livelihoods [1,2,3,4]. Since one of the main causes of ecosystem change was urbanization, there is global concern about how urbanization affects ecosystems. According to recent studies, the mechanisms by which urban processes affect ecosystem services, which refer to the direct or indirect advantages that ecosystems provide to humans, are highly complex and exhibit either positive or negative correlations in various urban areas [5]. Ecosystem Services (ES) emphasizes how important natural ecosystems are to human health [6].

Several studies have examined how urbanization affects services. For example, Li et al. [7] investigated the impacts of urbanization on ES supply and demand in old, new, and non-urban areas in China. According to the study, as cities grow, they create new areas with high demand for ecosystem services but low supply, which increases ES deficits. The supply-demand ratio for ES is lowest in new urban regions, followed by non-urban and older areas. The sensitivity of ES to urbanization indices such as built-up land proportion, population density, and economic activities differs among urban contexts, highlighting the importance of context-specific, place-based policies for promoting sustainable and resilient urban areas. Another study by E. Ersoy Tonyaloğlu [8] examines how changes in land cover and uses affect ES in Turkey’s Aydın province, which are consistent with global trends of deforestation, agricultural growth, and urbanization. Future land use forecasts highlight the trade-offs between development and environmental services. The ecosystem service-based development model demonstrates that ecological concerns can conserve carbon storage and habitat quality, whereas economic development leads to urban growth, which may exacerbate environmental problems. These findings highlight the importance of including ecosystem service optimization into land-use planning to ensure sustainable landscapes.

To explore the evolution of research in “ecosystem services” and “built environment” over the past decade (2015–recent) for disciplines connected to architecture, urban planning, engineering, ecology, and environment, two integrated bibliometric visualizations were conducted using data from the Scopus database for the last decade. Prior to conducting the bibliometric analysis, all terms were carefully standardized to account for singular/plural forms and synonyms. Together, these figures demonstrate the relative frequency of terms, the conceptual structure of the field, and the importance of frequent themes for the 855 documents appeared. The map displays 147 keywords, with the minimum appearance for each keyword set at 10. The co-occurrence network generated by VOSviewer 1.6.20 (Figure 1) illustrates the intellectual structure of the field by mapping the connections between key terms. As evidenced by the many research clusters, research topics have evolved around issues such as land use, biodiversity, environmental protection, sustainable development, urbanization, land use, and green spaces. While the network focuses on keyword associations, frequency-based analysis provides a thorough overview of the most common research subjects. Together, the figures allow for an in-depth analysis of the literature by displaying both the structural linkages between concepts and their quantitative importance in the area. The frequency network shows the structural relationships between concepts, and the frequency order identifies the quantitative importance of the subject areas (Figure 2). Sustainable development, land use, and environmental protection are common topics in the interdisciplinary field of ecosystem services research in the built environment, which has expanded over the past decade.

When the term “bio” is added to the search combining “ecosystem services” and “built environment,” ten publications are found, as shown in Figure 3, demonstrating the literature’s conceptual structure. With fewer clusters and weaker connections, the structure is substantially less dense than the larger network shown in Figure 1. The concepts most closely associated with bio, such as bio-inspired design, biomimicry-based methods, and bioengineering, are secondary and unrelated, yet ecosystem services and the built environment remain key nodes. Stronger clusters, on the other hand, grow around more generally recognized ideas such as ecosystems, biodiversity, and GIS, which are more representative of mainstream ecological study than the addition of bio-inspired strategies to the current discussion about the built environment. Even though bio concepts were mostly launched after 2020, the temporal overlay also shows that they have not yet developed into strong study clusters. This fragmented and limited presence highlights a clear deficiency: while bio-inspired ideas are recognized, they are not always linked to the research of ecosystem services in the built environment.

The frequency ranking of phrases is displayed in Figure 4. According to the results, only a few terms appear multiple times: ecosystem services (7), bio-inspired design (3) built environment, biomimicry and ecosystems (2 each). bioengineering, and biodiversity are among the other terms that are used only once.

This sharp contrast with the frequency distribution highlights the inadequate integration of bio-inspired approaches into the discussion. Even though there is a wealth of literature on sustainable urban design, bio-inspired ideas are still marginal and poorly incorporated into frameworks for ecosystem services, especially in hot regions. This gap is especially critical given that, beyond environmental performance, bio-inspired design involvement in hot-climate cities is closely linked to social dimensions such as outdoor thermal comfort, public health, and urban equity [9]. By linking ecosystem services with these social dimensions, such strategies support both ecological sustainability and human well-being. This analytical study creates a new, transdisciplinary framework to close this gap. It moves beyond generic sustainability to demonstrate how specific bio-inspired strategies, applied at the meso scale, can be explicitly mapped onto and enhance the provision of ecosystem services in hot urban environments. This study is presented as an analytical and integrative review rather than an experimental or simulation-based investigation.

2. Materials and Methods

Based on the bibliometric analysis findings and the identified gap in applying bio-inspired design (BID) to enhance ecosystem services (ES) within the built environment, the novelty of this study is to investigate the built environment’s capacity to positively influence the provision and improvement of ES via BID. This is accomplished in a series of steps, as depicted in Figure 5. This begins with defining ES, classifying them, and determining which services to prioritize. This step is followed by identifying the notion of BID and the approaches used to select the best approach. The study’s application context is then defined based on climate and scale. The study employs a qualitative and integrative analytical approach, and hence does not intend to perform quantitative or statistical analysis of individual design features supported by descriptive case references. This is consistent with the specified scale, where complexity and interdependence limit the value of standalone quantitative analysis. All of the above is used to analyze the integration of bio-inspired design and ecosystem services, ultimately leading to a framework for BID–ES interdisciplinary integration. Factors from diverse domains were not treated separately. Instead of conducting in-depth analyses of individual aspects, they were systematically organized and synthesized within the framework to promote proper integration and cross-domain alignment.

2.1. Ecosystem Services (ES)

Ecosystems are systems of biotic communities that interact with their abiotic environment, combining living and non-living elements. Their content, function, and structure, which vary depending on the local environment and management practices, distinguish them. Ecosystems play an important role in biodiversity monitoring and surveillance because they relate species and populations to land use and landscapes [10]. Numerous services are offered by these ecosystems. Ecosystem services (ES) are generally defined as “the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, either directly or indirectly” [11].

The modern history of ES may be traced back to the late 1970s, when beneficial ecosystem functions were framed as services that helped to conserve biodiversity [12]. Ecological economics evolved in the 1980s, bringing together political science, psychology, and earth system studies. Interest in assessing economic worth persisted in the 1990s [13]. In the 2000s, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) placed a strong emphasis on ES on policy agendas, and as shown in Figure 6, several classifications of these services started to appear [14].

The most common classification used in research is MEA, which divides these services into provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting services. Accommodating a wide range of ecosystem services, this study focuses on the most essential ones, as identified by Ismail et al. [15]. In their work, they extracted and evaluated the most prevalent and common services across several classification systems to create an evaluation matrix for using Ecosystem Services (ES) in the Built Environment (BE). These services are provided in Figure 7. Provisioning services supply natural goods such as food, clean water, and energy, which directly benefit human life. Regulation services are the results of natural processes that regulate, moderate, or cleanse environmental conditions, such as climate regulation, air and water purification, and extremes management. Cultural services provide non-material benefits such as spiritual inspiration, recreation, and aesthetic enjoyment, all of which help to improve social and psychological health [16,17,18].

Figure 6. ES classification systems over years. Source: Authors based on [19,20,21,22,23].

Figure 6. ES classification systems over years. Source: Authors based on [19,20,21,22,23].

Figure 7. Most applicable ES in BE. Source: Authors based on [15,24].

Figure 7. Most applicable ES in BE. Source: Authors based on [15,24].

It is widely accepted that urban environments significantly harm ecosystems and the free services they offer to people. Creating or redesigning urban areas to offer, integrate with, or support ecosystem services is one strategy to lessen or even reverse this and lessen the strain on ecosystems. This is crucial as cities keep expanding and the climate keeps changing [11].

Several benefits can be obtained by providing ecosystem services in built environments as follows:

2.1.1. Economic Benefits

In urban areas, the loss of ecosystem services frequently has some kind of economic impact. For instance, avoided cost methods demonstrate that the removal of urban greenery raises the energy costs associated with cooling during the summer. Similarly, the development of expensive water purification plants is required to replace the loss of water control services caused by land-use change in the city catchments [24]. Moreover, health issues associated with the loss of ecosystem services, such as air purification, noise reduction by plant walls, carbon sequestration by urban trees, climate extreme buffering by vegetation barriers, and water flow regulation, result in additional economic expenses [24,25]. Moreover, Flooding in cities increases the risk of economic concerns such as building damage, lost income due to delayed transportation, and higher commodity pricing. Ecosystem services regulating functions can reduce runoff by supporting the presence of permeable soils that support green soils in a number of areas, including parking lots, squares, flower beds, rooftops, backyards, and bioswales [26].

2.1.2. Social and Health Benefits

All services have varying effects on human well-being. Air pollution and other environmental degradation can exacerbate respiratory and cardiovascular conditions in the elderly. Health can be enhanced by lowering indoor and outdoor temperatures and improving air quality. Numerous health advantages come from spending time in nature, such as better respiratory and cardiovascular health, decreased incidence of diabetes and obesity, and enhanced mental wellness. Recreation, rural tourism, and aesthetic ideals are examples of cultural services that promote social, physical, and mental health. Recreation lowers the harmful impacts of some diseases, promotes active lifestyles, and decreases obesity and aging. Additionally, cultural services foster identity, communal cohesion, and mental wellness [27].

2.1.3. Environmental Benefits

Ecosystem services provide major environmental benefits such as increased biodiversity, climate regulation, pollution control, and resilience to environmental challenges, thereby promoting the health, resilience, and sustainability of natural and man-made systems. For example, heatwaves in urban areas can have negative ecological effects, such as wilting crops, animal losses, and a reduction in forest cover. By shading streets, sidewalks, and buildings, ecosystem services regulation mechanisms and planning techniques can assist in reducing urban heat [26]. Furthermore, droughts and water scarcity in urban areas can have serious consequences for the environment and society. Water stress occurs when there is a low supply of water and a high demand for it. By securing storage, ecosystem provisioning services provide fresh water to cities. Water purification in cities can be facilitated by control functions of ecosystem services linked to planning efforts. The woods and vegetation cover of the metropolitan catchment also have an impact on the amount of accessible water [26,28].

2.2. Bio-Inspired Design (BID)

Bio-inspired design (BID) is an interdisciplinary field that solves technical challenges by applying biological functional principles. Its strong interdisciplinarity and high standards for sustainability have contributed to its rise in popularity. The public and scientific community find bio-derived technical solutions appealing since architects and designers take inspiration from living nature. The growing body of research on BID indicates that it can be used to solve technical problems [29]. Biomimicry, nature-based solutions (NbS), and biophilic design are examples of BID that use biology to solve problems, promote sustainability, and enhance human experience. Biomimicry replicates regenerative solutions from biological systems, while NbS incorporates principles of ecologically sensitive development [15,30]. The term “bio-inspired design” is widely regarded as an umbrella term encompassing design and engineering approaches, including biomimicry, that leverage biology as a source of solutions.

There are two main approaches to bio-inspired design as shown in Figure 8: top-down (problem-based) and bottom-up (solution-based), which have also been referred to as “technology pull” and “biology push,” respectively [31]. The bio-inspired design process in a problem-based approach starts with design problems, which must then be systematically linked to biological creatures’ solutions in a process called “design by analogy.”. It is believed that the problem-based approach begins by shifting the built environment from an unsustainable configuration to one that is more effective. It is required for biologists and designers to pinpoint their design issues and then connect and relate them to creatures that have resolved similar issues. This method likewise begins by addressing the designers’ initial objectives and determining the design’s specifications [32]. On the other hand, solution-based approach, which takes into account natural phenomena as a starting point, is based on prior biological research information and solutions rather than looking for solutions in nature and then applying that knowledge to the current design problem [32].

This study employs a top-down approach because the main goal is to solve the built environment’s lack of ES, which is a complicated issue that calls for strategic prioritizing. By beginning with the high-level issue of insufficient ecosystem service provision, the plan guarantees that future design and policy initiatives are in accordance with the most urgent challenges.

2.3. Application Context

The concept of using BIDs to supply ES in an urban setting will have a very broad reach based on the urban level and climate, which influence BID selection. With an emphasis on the following urban elements (UE): roofs, facades, pavements, shades, furniture, and others as shown in Figure 9, this study aims to identify the dry (BWh, BSh) climate based on the Koppen classification and select a meso-urban scale. This scale, which is here described as include streets, pavements, and neighborhoods, connects individual buildings to the city-wide system.

2.4. Integration Analysis of BID to Provide ES

Since ecosystem services are the main issue, the study aims to address, a top-down approach is employed to evaluate how bio-inspired designs can enhance ES supply in the built environment. The research focuses on the three main ES categories—provisioning, regulating, and cultural services—in order to systematically evaluate BID strategies and their contributions. The sequence of analytical processes that this method guides is depicted in Figure 10.

The selected cases for analysis were chosen based on four essential criteria:

• Climatic Relevance: To ensure environmental applicability, it must come from desert or semi-arid regions (BWh/BSh Köppen classifications).
• Contribution to Ecosystem Services: One or more essential ecosystem services, such as providing, regulating, or cultural, must be properly provided.
• Bio-inspiration Specificity: Every case must express a particular principle from the same chosen climate in a clear and concise manner.
• Implementation Scale: It must be implemented at the meso scale or show that scaling to this level is clearly possible.

Because many bio-inspired projects are still in their early stages, discussions about environmental relevance and potential performance implications were based on peer-reviewed literature whenever possible, with descriptive professional sources carefully chosen to document design concepts and applications. Furthermore, while some bio-inspired strategies operate at the micro scale, their significance to our study stems from their ability to function as modular components of the urban fabric. When distributed repeatedly throughout streets, blocks, and public areas, these features collaborate to regulate the environment at the meso-scale and ES.

2.4.1. Provisioning Ecosystem Services (PES)

Ecosystems provide essential services for people’s survival, health, and livelihoods [35]. Provisioning services include all nutritional, non-nutritional, and energy outputs from living systems as well as abiotic outputs [16]. In this analysis we focus on four main services: food, water, energy, and raw material.

Table 1. Analytical synthesis of literature on BID and provisioning services.

ES	Bio-Inspiration		Urban Element						Bio-Inspired Design (BID)		Ref.
	Inspiration	Concept	Roof	Facade	Pavement	Shade	Furniture	Other	Application	Illustration
Food	Green spaces and natural ecosystem	Provide spaces for vegetation	●						Green roof Provide various advantages, including food production.		[36]
		Provide spaces for vegetation		●					Green Façades/vertical farming Provide foods, mitigating high temperatures and air pollution.		[37,38]
		Provide spaces for vegetation						●	Edible Green Corridors Provide food production		[39,40]
								●	Mixed-Use Green Zones (Edible Parks) Provide community gathering and food production by creating green spaces.
Fresh Water	Cactus	Cactus spines’ conical shape facilitates water absorption from the atmosphere, with water droplets initially gathered at the spine tips eventually migrating towards the spine.		●					Water Harvesting Facade Gains water by façade panels inspired by the hydrophilic spines of cactus and transports it by Voronoi-patterned gutters.		[41]
	Namibian beetles	Namibian desert beetles’ striated bumps and hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas on their backs allow them to quickly collect water in humid air.				●			Water Harvesting Shade Increases the adhesion of small droplets in the air by the hydrophilic hydrogel surface, and the water film generated on the surface accelerates the droplet transit rate, thus improving water collection.		[42]
				●					Water Harvesting Facade Condense water particles in humid air by specifically designed façade feature panels, facilitating their collection		[43]
	Plant’s Roots	Water infiltration is effectively managed by the roots of desert plants.			●				Permeable pavements Enable water to infiltrate the underlying layers, reducing temperatures mainly through evaporative cooling and significantly enhancing urban stormwater management.		[44]
	The Socotra dragon tree	The Socotra dragon tree, native to the Arabian Sea, inspires Energy Trees and Water Trees due to its dense shade and adaptation to arid conditions.				●			Water Trees Utilize a passive dew-collecting technique, generating water droplets from the cooler inner cone surface, irrigating the performative landscape below and providing thermal comfort for visitors.		[45]
Fuel/Energy	Sunflower	Sunflower and the way it turns to face the sun	●						The sunflower Roof Spins around a central stem and generates up to 40% more energy than static panels. Battery seeds store unused energy, rainfall collects for watering, and a secondary spinning mechanism protects the structure from sun radiation.		[46]
	drought-resistant Ghaf Tree	A drought-tolerant tree, which can remain green even in harsh desert environments, essential for the survival of animal and plant species alike				●			Roof Canopy Features a wide canopy equipped with solar panels that provide heat protection and facilitate rainwater collection.		[45]
	The Socotra dragon tree	Its dense shade and adaptation to arid conditions.				●			Rotating Energy Trees Generate electricity while offering much-needed shade for visitors.		[47]
	Photosynthesis process	Photosynthesis process: absorbing CO2 and sunlight to produce energy		●					Bio-reactive façade Provide benefits such as CO2 sequestration, oxygen production, solar radiation conversion, dynamic shading, acoustic isolation, and a dynamic exterior look via color and air bubble variations		[48]
	Plants	Plants’ Solar Responsive Aspects		●					Solar Adaptive Facades Adapt by a modular, highly integrated dynamic building facade. Its energetic behavior and architectural expression may be regulated with high spatio-temporal resolution using individually addressable modules.		[49]
	Green spaces and photosynthesis process	Mimicking the structure and function of natural ecosystems and the process of photosynthesis where plants use sunlight to produce chemical energy	●						PV-Green roof Reduces surface temperature through evapotranspiration which can increase the yield of rooftop photovoltaic panels, which have a temperature-dependent conversion efficiency.		[50]
	Cartilage	The electrical charges that the cartilage naturally produces as a joint move.			●				Energy Harvesting pavements Depend on the tiles’ soft downward movement of 10 mm with each step. This vertical motion is translated to rotary motion inside the generators, and electromagnetic induction is then used to turn it into electrical potential energy.		[51,52]
	Photosynthesis process	Converting sunlight to energy					●		Solar Bench Works as a source of electricity for LED lighting systems and mobile phone charging stations that uses photovoltaics to save electricity		[53]
Raw Material	Photosynthesis process	Photosynthesis process: absorbing CO2 and sunlight to produce energy		●					Bio-reactive façade Provide benefits such as CO2 sequestration, oxygen production, solar radiation conversion, dynamic shading, acoustic isolation. The algae biomass it cultivates is a tangible, harvestable resource.		[48]
	decomposition and nutrient cycling	Creating circular material systems that follow nature’s “waste-to-resource” model.						●	Green Waste Recycling Uses advanced techniques like composting, wood-plastic composites, and mushroom cultivation to divert GW from landfills. Energy recovery applications include incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, anaerobic digestion, and ethanol fermentation.		[54]

The symbol of (●) indicates a confirmed applicability, based on functional relevance, compatibility with the urban element, and support from the literature.

shows the ability of BID to provide these services.

2.4.2. Regulating Ecosystem Services (RES)

Regulating ecosystem services (RES) are the advantages that come from ecosystem processes that lessen the negative effects of both natural and man-made activities that endanger ecosystem quality and human health. Through processes including pollination, climate regulation, soil erosion control, flood protection, water purification, waste treatment, air quality maintenance, pollination, and natural hazards flow regulation, RES protecting the environment [17]. In this analysis we focus on three main services: Climate regulation, purification, and prevention of disturbance and moderation of extremes.

Table 2. Analytical synthesis of literature on BID and regulating services.

ES	Bio-Inspiration		Urban Element						Bio-Inspired Design (BID)		Ref.
	Inspiration	Concept	Roof	Facade	Pavement	Shade	Furniture	Other	Application	Illustration
Climate Regulation	Cactus	The ribs and spines of cacti improve thermal performance by shielding the outer surface from sun irrigation.		●					Adaptive façade Allows sufficient air circulation and heat dispersion through ribbed metal panels mounted off the building and resembles the fins of the cactus.		[55,56]
	Saguaro Cactus	Its ribbed shell allows for dynamic expansion and contraction, adding structural stability and flexibility that are essential for water storage. The spines of the cactus have the practical function of shading, which reduces exposure to direct sunlight.		●					Adaptive façade Increase the level of environmental responsiveness in building design by introducing elements such as movable fins or louvers that emulate the shading processes identified in the cactus.		[57]
	Saharan silver ants	Ants’ silvery appearance is due to triangular hairs, which increase reflectivity in the visible and near-infrared wavelengths and emissivity in the mid-infrared.	●						Cool Roof Replaces traditional roofs with high-albedo materials to lessen the absorption of solar radiation has become an essential way to mitigate the UHI effect.		[58,59,60]
				●					Cool façade (Reflective façade) Enhance surface cooling by using cool-colored facades with high solar reflectance and thermal emissivity, reducing absorbed solar radiation and reducing heat released to built and urban environments.		[61]
					●				Cool pavements (Reflective Pavement) Absorb less heat energy while remaining cooler due to their light color. They are recommended for long-exposure locations in hot, dry conditions to reduce heat absorption.		[62]
	Plant’s Roots	Water infiltration is effectively managed by the roots of desert plants.			●				Permeable pavements Allow water to percolate into the layers under their surfaces, which lower temperatures primarily by evaporative cooling.		[44]
	Elephant	Elephants cool themselves with wrinkles on their skin that limit heat intake, store water, and disperse heat through evaporative cooling.		●					Textured Façade: Features an evaporative cooling surface by using elephant skin-inspired tiles.		[63]
		They can control their body temperature by spraying it with water or taking mud baths, fanning their ears to create wind, utilizing trans-epidermal evaporation through skin design, and actively regulating blood flow to create thermal windows.		●					Evaporative cooling wall Transfers heat trapped by the wall to an active heat exchanger or other building parts through a wall assembly containing pipes woven into drywall or hollow brick-and-mortar configurations.		[64]
	Raw cotton	Based on the micro structured pores found in raw cotton, a porous polymer was developed to enable passive cooling through controlled light scattering and heat regulation.	●						Radiative Cool Roof Uses a porous polypropylene structure with regulated air holes. The material is appropriate for energy-efficient roofing because it efficiently reflects sunlight, lowers heat absorption, and enhances thermal insulation.		[65]
	Desert snail	To survive in deserts, the Desert Snail Envelope consists of a reflective outer shell surface, shading through the shell form, placing the body on top of the shell, and forming an air barrier to insulate the snail from the high ground surface temperature.	●						Separated Roof Enhance passive cooling techniques by separating the roof structure from the main interior space. Installing a vented, perforated clay or brick ceiling will effectively circulate air. As cool air is drawn in through lower-level vents and warm air exits through the holes above, natural ventilation is promoted.		[66]
	Date Palm	Shading by date palm leaves				●			Cluster Shading Creates a sustainable microclimate through artificial trees with convex leaves that reflect sunlight and retain condensation, offering a cool haven for native plants while shielding the ground level from rising temperatures.		[67]
	Natural oases	Like natural oases or wadis (desert valleys), it stores water underground safely.						●	Constructed wetland Provide cost-effective, low-maintenance, and environmentally friendly wastewater treatment solutions, particularly beneficial for developing regions and rural communities, while aiding in climate regulation and improving water quality.		[68,69]
	Green spaces	Natural layering and evapotranspiration, thermal regulation	●						Green roof Provide various advantages, including urban heat island reduction, enhanced air quality, and environmental preservation		[36]
	Green spaces and photosynthesis process	Mimicking thermal regulation of green spaces and the process of photosynthesis where plants use sunlight to produce chemical energy	●						PV-Green roof Lower surface temperatures by evapotranspiration, allowing green roofs to provide evaporative cooling that improves the temperature-dependent efficiency of rooftop photovoltaic panels.		[50]
	Green spaces	Natural layering and evapotranspiration, thermal regulation		●					Green Façades/vertical farming Provide foods, mitigating high temperatures and air pollution.		[37]
	Acacia	Some species fold their leaves at night				●			Kinetic Canopy Serves as a responsive shade system that retracts when shading is not required and dynamically unfolds to block solar radiation when necessary.		[70]
						●			Kinetic shade structures. Block sunlight, lowering urban heat island effects by movable panels or wings. Solar canopies provide shade and renewable energy, and are commonly utilized over parking lots and pathways to lower temperatures while creating clean power.		[47]
	The Socotra dragon tree	The Socotra dragon tree, native to the Arabian Sea, inspires Energy Trees and Water Trees due to its dense shade and adaptation to arid conditions.				●			Rotating Energy Trees Generate electricity while offering much-needed shade for visitors.		[47]
Purification	Photosynthesis process	Photosynthesis process: absorbing CO2 and sunlight to produce		●					Bio-reactive façade (Microalgae façade) Uses microalgae in photobioreactors built onto a building’s façade are to cleanse the air by releasing oxygen and absorbing carbon dioxide.		[48]
						●			Bio-reactive shades Uses photosynthetic organisms like spirulina and other microalgae that are more efficient at absorbing CO2, oxygenating the atmosphere, and containing vital nutrients than big trees. Additionally, the biodigital canopy produces fuel and food.		[71]
	Welwitschia mirabilis	The giant leaves of the conifer Welwitschi a mirabilis exhibit square meters of superhydrophobic surfaces covered by nonacosan-10-ol crystals.		●					Hydrophobic Façade (self-cleaning façade) Maintains the super-hydrophobic properties by using paints based on particles embedded into a hydrophobic silicone resin (such as Lotusan) or TiO2.		[72]
	Trees	Emulate the carbon filtration qualities of trees.					●		Artificial trees (Treepods) Use a “humidity swing” mechanism to remove CO2 from the air. It creates electricity using solar panels and an interactive seesaw and is entirely made of recycled plastic from drink bottles, which includes titanium dioxide.		[73,74]
		The natural air-purifying abilities of trees					●		Moss-covered City Tree bench Uses the “living wall” system to fight pollution. Moss, which absorbs pollutants, is used in the system to filter out nitrogen dioxide and particles. In order to provide an urban setting where mosses can flourish, the design makes use of plants that provide shade. The system gathers rainwater for irrigation and is run by solar panels.		[75]
								●	Smog free tower Release positive ions into the atmosphere through an electrode, allowing fine dust particles to attach to them. The ion particle clusters are then drawn toward a negatively charged counter electrode for collection		[73]
	Green spaces	Air-purifying abilities for green spaces		●					Green Façades/vertical farming Provide foods, mitigating high temperatures and air pollution.		[37]
			●						Green roof Improves air quality, and environmental preservation		[36]
Prevention of disturbance & moderation of extremes	Desert scorpion	The desert scorpion, adapted to harsh conditions, is an excellent species for resisting wind-sand erosion. Its carapaces consist of numerous convex bumps and seven grooves, with groove width ranging from 0.4 to 0.7 mm.						●	Anti-erosion surfaces Provide superior anti-erosion resistance against sand impingement, with the V-type groove bionic surface showing the highest erosion resistance among four bionic models.		[76]
	Plant’s roots	Root strategies that prevent soil erosion, anchor structures, penetrate soils, and provide natural habitat.			●				Anti-erosion Root system Form a robust, interconnected structure by using large cylindrical components whose branching ends project into the flow to provide anchoring and stability.		[77]
		Water infiltration is effectively managed by the roots of desert plants.						●	Permeable pavements Aid in urban stormwater management by porous materials (flood protection).		[44]

The symbol of (●) indicates a confirmed applicability, based on functional relevance, compatibility with the urban element, and support from the literature.

shows the ability of BID to provide these services.

2.4.3. Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES)

The intangible benefits that humans gain from ecosystems, including spiritual development, cognitive growth, introspection, leisure, and aesthetic experiences, are referred to as cultural services. These are the values that people see in the different ways that the ecosystem functions. These encompass leisure activities, mental and physical health maintenance and renewal, aesthetic appreciation, cultural heritage, educational values, cultural, artistic, and design inspiration, ecotourism, spiritual experiences, religious values, and sense of place [18]. In this analysis we focus on three main services: spiritual inspiration, Aesthetic Value, and Recreation & tourism.

Table 3. Analytical synthesis of literature on BID and cultural services.

ES	Bio-Inspiration		Urban Element						Bio-Inspired Design (BID)		Ref.
	Inspiration	Concept	Roof	Facade	Pavement	Shade	Furniture	Other	Application	Illustration
Spiritual Inspiration	Green spaces	Green spaces in ecosystems provide spiritual inspiration.	●	●				●	Green roof/Green Façades/Edible Green Corridors/Edible Parks these applications reconnect people with nature by creating spaces for renewal, harmony, and contemplation in urban spaces.		[36,37,39,40]
Aesthetic Value	Green spaces	Green spaces in ecosystems provide Aesthetic value.	●					●	Green Roof/Edible Green Corridors/Edible Parks Improve urban aesthetics by incorporating vegetation, seasonal variation, and natural beauty into the built environment.		[36,39,40]
	Plants	Plants aesthetic value and response to environment		●					Green/Adaptive/Self-cleaning Facades Provide aesthetic value by function and appearance inspired by plants.		[37,49,55,56,57,72]
	Acasia, Date palm	Fold their leaves at night, shading by date palm leaves.				●			Kinetic/Cluster shades Provide aesthetic value by function and appearance inspired by plants.		[67,70]
Recreation & tourism	Green spaces and natural ecosystem	Green spaces in ecosystems provide Aesthetic value.	●					●	Green Roof/Edible Green Corridors/Edible Parks Create recreational opportunities by providing easily accessible green places for relaxing, walking, and community interaction.		[36,39,40]
	Plants	Fold their leaves at night, shading by date palm leaves, photosynthesis				●			Kinetic/Cluster/Bio-reactive shades Provide recreational areas with function and appearance inspired by plants		[47,67,70,71]

The symbol of (●) indicates a confirmed applicability, based on functional relevance, compatibility with the urban element, and support from the literature.

shows the ability of BID to provide these services.

3. Results and Discussion

Given the review-based and integrative nature of this work, this section gives synthesized results together with their interpretation, while the methodological basis for the synthesis is described in Section 2.

3.1. Interpretation of Key Findings

When we examined the interaction between BID and selected ES at the hot climate meso-scale with several BIDs, we discovered a complementary association between several methods and services, though in variable degrees. The comparative observations offered in this section are based on a qualitative synthesis of the studied literature, with an emphasis on the range of bio-inspired strategies described for various urban elements. Figure 11 shows a Sankey diagram. This figure is not intended to evaluate or compare environmental performance but rather to illustrate prominent research trends and theme linkages in the literature. It is built using a frequency-counting method, with link widths representing the number of reported cases in the reviewed studies. While frequency is not an indication of effectiveness, it does represent the maturity and research intensity of the identified themes. It depicts numerous potentials uses for climate regulation to lower temperatures and reduce the heat island effect, including green roofs, adaptive facades, and reflecting surfaces. Energy and aesthetic value are next, coming from a range of applications such as roofs, facades, shading, and so on. This is followed by air purification technologies, including green facades, roofs, and smog-free towers. Some services are less common in the currently available applications, maybe due to application scale, such as food and raw materials, which may necessitate vast regions to achieve higher productivity than being limited to a specific region. Cultural services rely heavily on many of the aforementioned strategies, as well as other services that can be provided in conjunction with them.

According to the analyzed literature, façade-based applications show a wider range of bio-inspired strategies compared to roofs and shade structures. The influence of facades was mostly to reduce surface temperatures and the heat island effect, followed by water harvesting and aesthetic value. Meanwhile, roofs provide multiple services, including food production, climate regulation, energy provision, and aesthetics. This is followed by shades, which serve a variety of services ranging from energy generation to water harvesting, as well as providing shade for pedestrians, which helps regulate the climate and, as a result, provides recreation areas and aesthetic value. Based on the analysis and findings, Figure 12 lists the most popular BIDs that can be applied to urban elements in hot climates to provide ES.

3.2. Scientific Rationale and Supporting Literature

Previous research consistently demonstrated the contribution of bio-inspired strategies to temperature reduction, UHI mitigation, water management, improved air quality, enhanced microclimates, and other outcomes that are directly aligned with important ecosystem services, despite the fact that the findings were not specifically framed in terms of ecosystem services. The quantitative ranges described in this section are derived from peer-reviewed literature to aid in comparative and integrative analysis, rather than representing newly generated empirical data. The listed studies involve hot, hot-humid, and tropical climates. While studies conducted in hot climates provide directly applicable quantitative ranges, those from hot-humid and tropical climates are used to demonstrate the stability of underlying mechanisms under elevated heat loads rather than for direct quantitative transfer. As a result, quantitative values for roofs and facades are discussed with more climatic specificity, while studies on air purification, carbon sequestration, and solar energy are used to support cross-climate functional trends. In all cases, applicability is limited by site-specific variables such as urban morphology, surface materials, and boundary conditions; thus, reported values are offered as indicative ranges rather than directly transferable results.

For example, Morakinyo et al. [78] investigated the influence of green roofs on roof temperature, which affects both outdoor temperature and heat islands, and discovered a maximum temperature drop of 14 °C at noon in Cairo. Meanwhile, Luo et al. [79] investigated their impact on air purification through carbon sequestration and discovered that the average carbon storage of mixed sewage-sludge substrate and local-natural soil on green roofs was 13.15 kg C/m² and 8.58 kg C/m², respectively. Moreover, different studies indicate the energy saving using green roofs, which can be indirectly considered a means of energy provisioning [80].

Further, adaptive facade simulations for hot climate by Helmi et al. [81] indicate that switchable glazing systems can reduce annual energy consumption by 20–28%, thereby lowering carbon emissions in office buildings. Another study was made by Austin et al. [82] using the reflective properties of the Saharan ant, applied in a segmented roof pattern similar to zebra stripes. Results indicated a temperature decrease of 8 to 10 °C across the urban area annually and a 3.13% reduction in cooling energy consumption, equating to 8790 kWh per year. Another study by Almadhhachi et al. [83] compares flat PV modules to a sunflower-shaped solar tree across three tilt angles. Results show that the solar tree can produce 16–23% more energy, with lower peak temperatures (41 °C vs. 51 °C for flat modules) and 85% land savings. Additionally, areas shaded by the solar trees experienced an average temperature reduction of 3 °C, which could benefit agriculture.

3.3. Framework Application Across Decision-Making Phases

The primary original contribution of this study is in its establishment of the BID–ES Interdisciplinary Integration Framework, which integrates dispersed findings into a coherent analytical structure relevant to urban-scale interventions. The suggested framework in Figure 13 outlines a systematic approach for designers and policymakers to connect ES with BID to build more resilient and sustainable communities. The framework is provided at a broad conceptual level, enabling for future adaptation to specific climatic conditions and spatial scales; in this study, it is applied to hot-climate, meso-scale built environments. Designers play an ongoing and prominent role at all stages, with other disciplines interfering. Services to be provided or improved are identified in consultation with policymakers and municipalities, followed by the urban elements (UE) that will be deployed. This is followed by collaboration with biologists and ecologists, as well as access to databases that provide inspiration from nature. The following step is a design-driven abstraction process, usually directed by architects and urban designers, in which biologically inspired concepts are turned into architectural and urban applications. Engineers and technical professionals examine these proposals for practicality and cost, while designers review the extent to which services are achieved using calculations or simulations. If the intended services are not obtained, the processes are repeated in order to select a different path or add another application that enhances the outcomes. For example, a target ecosystem service (e.g., climate regulation) may be selected from a broad range of possible services, guiding the identification of corresponding biological inspirations and urban elements, such as adaptive façades. Conceptual performance evaluation is then proposed using simulation-based tools and expert-based assessment. If the targeted service is only partially addressed, the framework allows the integration of additional, complementary bio-inspired strategies, such as dynamic shading systems inspired by Acacia. These illustrative choices represent only one of many possible pathways enabled by the framework and do not imply an implemented or empirically validated application.

3.4. Study Limitations and Future Research Directions

However, the study has a few limitations. First, it is confined to a specific set of services, necessitating further research to broaden the scope to cover additional services. Second, certain applications have restricted data availability, particularly in the real-world context, since many are still in experimental mode. Third, the design process in the proposed framework is considered to be linear, although in reality, design and planning entail complicated negotiations, competing priorities, and social and economic restrictions. Finally, the study focuses on conceptual mapping rather than quantitative evaluation accordingly, future work will focus on quantitative performance evaluation through simulation-based analyses and case-based assessments to test and refine the framework’s effectiveness.

4. Conclusions

This study investigated the potential benefits of BID for enhancing ES in the built environment, particularly in hot climates and at the meso scale of urban interventions. The results show that BID is both a creative design process and a strategic way to directly integrate ES into built environments. The adaptive solutions found in nature can yield cultural, provisioning, and regulating ecosystem services when integrated into architectural and urban planning as follow:

• Climate regulation is the most prevalent ecosystem service, complemented by energy and air purification.
• Some services, like food and raw materials, are less common due to the need for extensive areas to achieve high productivity.
• Cultural services are heavily reliant on the previously mentioned strategies and other associated services.

This study developed a framework to connect ES and BID from the lens of multidisciplinary collaboration. The framework sees BID as a mediating tool that links architecture, ecology, urban planning, and technology to allow built environments to function as active providers of ecosystem services rather than passive consumers of resources. The framework shows how bio-inspired ideas can be methodically linked with urban needs by structuring the process from determining necessary services to looking at biological analogies to incorporating solutions into urban aspects. This provides a helpful guide for researchers and practitioners on how to use BID to enhance sustainability results.

The suggested framework should be used and tested in actual projects in the future. Performance should be evaluated over time, and digital techniques like generative design, AI, and simulation should be investigated to see how they might improve the relationship between BID strategies and ecosystem service delivery. All things considered, cities can move toward built environments that are resilient, regenerative, and closely connected with natural principles by adopting BID through an interdisciplinary and framework-driven approach.