Land Use and Nature-Based Climate Adaptation in Coastal and Island Regions: A Case Study of Muan and Shinan, South Korea

Abstract

This study examines the relationships between land use, climate, and nature-based adaptation in coastal and island regions of South Korea, focusing on the counties of Muan and Shinan along the southwest coast. Using land use data (2014) and meteorological data (2001–2010), Spearman correlation analysis was applied to assess the associations between six land-use categories and eight climatic indicators, including temperature extremes, tropical nights, and precipitation patterns. Results show that built-up and agricultural areas are closely linked to higher maximum temperatures and more frequent heatwaves, indicating greater climatic vulnerability. Conversely, wetlands, and bare lands demonstrate significant cooling effects, acting as natural buffers against rising temperatures. Wetlands play dual roles in supporting initial hydrological heat mitigation but enhancing nocturnal heat retention during prolonged heatwaves. Forests and grasslands emerged as important land-use types that can help reduce the number of tropical night days. These findings underscore the importance of nature-based land management—such as forest expansion, wetland conservation, and vegetation restoration—for mitigating heat stress and enhancing climate resilience. This study calls for extending national climate adaptation policies beyond urban areas to support aging, and therefore vulnerable, coastal and island populations facing the intensifying effects of climate change.

1. Introduction

Climate change not only causes rising temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns; it also drives structural shifts in land use and community systems. In coastal and island settings, sea-level rise, shoreline erosion, and more frequent storm surges bring about increasing threats to agricultural land and settlements [1,2]. They directly affect local livelihoods and, in turn, prompt a reconfiguration of land-use patterns [3,4]. For instance, agricultural productivity on reclaimed land may decline due to saline intrusion, while climate risks can make land unsuitable for tourism purposes. Muan and Shinan have highly developed tidal flats, and because of this, large-scale land reclamation has been carried out since the past. As a result, agriculture has become well developed in both regions. Islands also tend to have limited infrastructure and fewer economic sectors than the mainland, reducing their adaptive capacity or resilience; consequently, recovery from heatwaves, tropical nights, and typhoons often takes longer [5]. Muan recently experienced damage caused by intense, localized rainfall, while parts of Shinan suffered from severe drought, leaving several islands facing serious difficulties due to water shortages.

Conversely, land-use changes also contribute to climate change [4,6]. Expansion of impervious and industrial surfaces exacerbates local thermal environments [7], whereas declines in forests and grasslands diminish cooling and hydrologic regulation [8]. As such, land-use changes diminish not only the physical landscape but, through their effects on the climate, also ecosystem services and socio-economic resilience [9,10]. These changes are being addressed through the adoption of nature-based solutions. Nature-based solutions are approaches that conserve, sustainably manage, and restore natural and modified ecosystems in ways that effectively and adaptively solve societal challenges while delivering benefits for both people and nature [11]. Recently, many cities have mitigated climate change by expanding forests and wetlands as nature-based land-use strategies [12]. However, in Korea, no studies have proposed nature-based solutions grounded in the linkage between land-use change and climate variability in island and coastal regions. Currently, cities are mitigating climate change by expanding forests and wetlands through nature-based land-use strategies. However, in Korea, there are no datasets that link land-use change in island and coastal areas with climate variability.

The Republic of Korea (South Korea), a peninsula with roughly 3300 islands and a long coastline, has a maritime climate in its islands and coastal areas [13]. Historically, coastal and island regions experience milder winters and cooler summers than inland regions on the mainland [14,15], and these climatic conditions shape ecological patterns as well as fisheries, agriculture, tourism, and other human activities. Yet, these same regions are highly vulnerable to climatic changes. In particular, sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and rapid shoreline change significantly affect communities whose livelihoods depend on islands and coasts [16,17]. In recent decades, Korean summers have lengthened, and both heatwaves and tropical-night events have intensified and expanded geographically [18].

Tropical nights are also emerging in coastal and island regions [19,20]. Unlike urban areas, where the nighttime heat tends to ease shortly before dawn, island and coastal regions often exhibit persistently high pre-dawn temperatures due to maritime influences [21,22]. Furthermore, with the exception of large coastal cities such as Busan, many island and shoreline communities in Korea have high shares of elderly residents, who are most vulnerable when it comes to coping with tropical nights [23,24,25]. Sadly, because historically the perception is that coastal summers are cooler than inland summers, and because it concerns more sparsely populated areas, policy measures to alleviate tropical-night impacts are often not implemented or not prioritized in a timely fashion.

Land use is one of the key aspects that can either exacerbate or alleviate tropical-night and heatwave risks, and robust comparisons must identify urban–rural and inland–coastal differences [19]. However, Korea still lacks sufficient studies that give insights into fine-scale land-use characteristics in island and coastal contexts [26]. Climate change research in Korea has largely focused on major metropolitan areas such as Seoul and Busan, as well as coastal zones. Although studies exist for coastal regions, they have generally been conducted at very broad scales—either nationwide or across entire provinces such as Jeollanam-do [27]. Even within these studies, there are virtually no case analyses of islands, and only limited research specifically addressing small local governments such as Shinan and Muan. In particular, while a few studies have examined land use in these areas, research on physical environmental changes—such as climate-related dynamics—is extremely scarce.

Since the 2000s, Korea has experienced increasingly pronounced impacts of climate change across all spatial contexts, including urban and rural areas, inland regions, coastal zones, and islands. Traditionally, Muan and Shinan were considered climatically stable regions, aside from occasional typhoon influences during summer. The suffix “an” (안, 安) in both place names historically conveyed the meaning of “peaceful” and “calm,” reflecting the perception that these areas were minimally affected by external climatic or natural disturbances. However, in recent decades, even within the same municipality, droughts, floods, and other climatic phenomena have begun to manifest differently across townships, creating challenges for local governments as they attempt to formulate appropriate policies.

Accordingly, this study examines how the distinct climate patterns observed in Muan and Shinan relate to land-use characteristics and explores nature-based solutions to mitigate the increasingly heterogeneous climate impacts across these regions. This study clarifies the interactions between land and climate and provides implications for land management and place-based adaptation strategies that support nature-based solutions.

2. Study Areas

The counties of Muan and Shinan are jurisdictions along the western shoreline of Jeollanam-do province in South Korea (Figure 1). Although being geographically adjacent, the two areas differ in topographic and ecological characteristics. To start with the latter, Shinan is an island-only county consisting of around one thousand islands—the largest archipelago in the nation—with more than 65% of its area comprising coastlines and tidal flats. Shinan’s extensive tidal flats were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2021 as part of the ‘Getbol, Korean Tidal Flats’. Also, the UNESCO Shinan-Dadohae Biosphere Reserve and the Dadohaehaesang National Park include some parts of the Shinan tidal flats. The strong tidal ranges and direct exposure to sea-level rise make the tidal flats an emblematic marine environment. Fisheries, aquaculture, agriculture, and nature-based tourism dominate the local economy [27], and spatial conflicts have recently emerged due to offshore wind-energy development initiatives.

Muan, situated at the western end of a peninsula, is a county on the mainland coast. Its landscape transitions from inland low hills and plains toward the Yellow Sea. Much of Muan comprises low-lying agricultural land and alluvial plains, with broad tidal flats along its western coast. Especially in the areas named Unnam, Mangun, and Hyeongyeong, large stretches of flat alluvium formed by tidal inundation have been reclaimed for agriculture from the 1960s onward. The Muan tidal flats are designated as a Wetland Protected Area (2008) and constitute critical habitat for coastal biodiversity and migratory birds [27].

Table 1. Profile of the study areas (Muan and Shinan, statistical year 2020).

Item	Muan	Shinan
Area	436.40 km2	655.68 km2
The scale of local residents (2020)	86,132 persons	38,938 persons
Population density	197 persons/km2	59 persons/km2
Economy	Mainly agriculture; limited aquaculture	Mixed farming, fishing, and aquaculture
Administrative units	3 eups and 6 myeons (9 local offices)	2 eups and 12 myeons (14 local offices)
Natural environment	Muan Tidal Flat Wetland Protected Area	UNESCO World Heritage (Getbol), UNESCO Shinan-Dadohae Biosphere Reserve, Dadohaehaesang National Park
Geographical features	North–south elongated terrain; most hills 200–300 m above sea level; extensive reclaimed tidal flats converted to cropland since the 1960s	2 eups and 12 myeons (14 local offices) Composed of ~890 islands; mostly rolling hills 200–300 m above sea level; broad tidal flats

Sources: https://www.muan.go.kr/, https://www.shinan.go.kr/.

briefly describes the two regions.

Climatically, both counties exhibit temperate maritime influences. Muan being part of the mainland yields a slightly larger daytime temperature range, whereas the archipelagic setting of Shinan gives moderated conditions due to the surrounding sea. Economically, Muan is more agriculture-oriented, while Shinan combines fisheries and aquaculture with farming [28]. Both are highly aged societies, especially Shinan, where more than 40% of residents are aged 65 or older.

Given the existing contrasts in terrain, land use, ecological function, industrial structure, and demographics, comparing Muan and Shinan provides an informative lens on land–climate interactions in coastal and island systems. Muan represents a peninsula-type coastal plain closely integrated with inland land-use dynamics, whereas Shinan—directly exposed to marine forces—more sensitively reflects the impacts of climate change.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Land Use and Climate Data

Land use provides an intuitive indicator of interactions between the natural environments and human activities, particularly in island and coastal settings where climatic factors, historical use, socio-economic structures, and cultural adaptation all converge [29]. We used the Ministry of Environment land-use map (1:25,000; reference year 2014). The original land-use dataset was reclassified into six categories—Built-up Area; Agricultural Area; Wetland; Bare Land; Forest & Grassland; and Water Surface—tailored to this study (

Table 2. Land use classification used in this study.

Category	Sub-Category
Build-up Area	Residential area
	Business area
	Transportation area
	Institutional area
	Industrial area
	Recreational area
Agricultural Area	Paddy fields
	Upland fields
	Greenhouse cultivation area
	Other cultivation area
	Orchard
Wetland	Tidal flats
	Inland wetland
Bare Land	Natural bare land
	Artificial bare land
Forest and Grassland	Coniferous forest
	Deciduous forest
	Mixed forest
	Natural grassland
	Artificial grassland
Water Surface	Inland water

). Area was calculated by polygon in ArcGIS Pro 3.4.3, and proportional shares (%) by eup/myeon (town) administrative units were used for statistical analysis.

For climatic data, we used the Korea Meteorological Administration’s (KMA) fine-scale dataset developed to support basic-level local governments in preparing detailed climate adaptation plans under the national Low-Carbon Green Growth Act (2015). Because routine observations are not available at the scale of eup/myeon, we averaged observations from 1 ASOS (Automated Synoptic Observing System) and 11 AWS (Automatic Weather System) stations for Shinan and from 4 AWS stations for Muan, then interpolated values to eup/myeon units using inverse distance weighting (IDW). The eight variables used were Daily mean temperature; Maximum temperature; Minimum temperature; Number of tropical-night days; Number of heatwave days; Annual precipitation; Precipitation intensity; and Number of heavy-rain days (

Table 3. Climatic data from the Korea Meteorological Administration.

Administrative Districts	Daily Mean Temperature (°C)	Daily Maximum Temperature (°C)	Daily Minimum Temperature (°C)	Tropical Night Days	Heatwave Days	Annual Precipitation (mm)	Precipitation Intensity	Heavy Rain Days
Muaneup	13.6	18.6	9.3	7.7	10.9	1312.3	15.2	1.7
Samhyang	13.9	18.6	9.9	9.3	7.8	1253.0	13.8	1.5
Illo	13.9	18.9	9.6	9.0	10.8	1251.7	14.4	1.6
Mongtan	13.6	18.7	9.2	6.4	10.5	1348.8	15.0	1.7
Unnam	14.3	18.6	10.6	14.2	10.2	1138.7	14.8	1.3
Cheonggye	13.8	18.5	9.9	8.7	8.2	1240.4	14.4	1.4
Haeje	14.1	18.5	10.4	12.3	8.7	1162.5	14.1	1.1
Hyeongyeong	13.9	18.6	9.9	10.1	9.4	1242.3	14.4	1.3
Mangun	14.1	18.6	10.3	12.2	9.2	1197.9	14.7	1.2
Jido	14.3	18.3	10.9	14.0	7.1	1191.4	14.7	1.2
Aphae	14.2	18.5	10.7	11.5	7.7	1129.1	14.6	1.2
Jeungdo	14.4	18.4	11.0	15.1	7.0	1169.8	14.5	1.2
Imja	14.6	18.4	11.4	16.7	7.7	1173.5	14.7	1.3
Jaeun	14.3	18.1	10.8	13.7	6.5	1195.7	15.1	2.0
Bigeum	14.4	18.3	11.1	12.0	7.3	1134.7	14.8	1.7
Docho	14.3	18.1	11.0	10.6	6.3	1121.8	14.7	1.6
Heuksan	13.8	16.6	11.5	5.5	0.1	1077.5	14.1	1.6
Haui	14.3	18.1	10.8	7.8	5.1	1117.7	14.8	1.5
Shinui	14.2	18.2	10.7	7.1	5.0	1143	14.5	1.5
Jangsan	14.3	18.3	10.8	8.3	5.9	1129.8	14.4	1.5
Anjwa	14.2	18.3	10.8	11.2	8.4	1141.6	14.7	1.7
Palgeum	14.3	18.3	10.8	11.6	7.9	1129.3	14.7	1.7
Amtae	14.2	18.1	10.7	11.6	6.2	1170.1	14.6	1.6

).

3.2. Correlation Analysis

Land uses representing habitats are generally known to be positively, negatively, or independently correlated with each other. [30,31] Correlation analysis is commonly used to examine the relationship between land use and other factors. Correlation analysis has been used to examine the relationship between land use and climate change, which directly affects ecosystem services [32]. Spearman correlation analysis assesses the strength and direction of monotonicity between two variables. Spearman analysis was performed because Spearman correlation coefficient is less sensitive to outliers than Pearson correlation analysis and does not require distributional assumptions, making it suitable for nonparametric data [33,34,35].

To examine land–climate interactions, we calculated Spearman correlation coefficients (r) between the proportional area of each land-use category (by eup/myeon, administrative unit, n = 23) and the 10-year mean meteorological variables using IBM SPSS Statistics 26. Significance thresholds were set at p < 0.05 and p < 0.01.

4. Results

4.1. Land Use

Figure 2 shows the land use map of two regions. In Muan, agriculture and forest/grassland dominate. Figure 3 presents the relative proportions of land-use types in Muan (a) and Shinan (b). shows Unnam shows the highest agricultural share (82.95%), followed by Hyeongyeong (76.51%) and Haeje (67.19%). These coastal-plain areas have long histories of reclamation, converting wetland into agricultural land, and are characterized by a greater proportion of dry fields than paddy fields. By contrast, lower agricultural shares are found in Mongtan (59.03%), Cheonggye (53.45%), and Samhyang (53.20%), which include extensive forest and grassland across gently rolling inland hills. Nevertheless, the agricultural shares are still considerable and they highlight Muan’s agriculture-centered economy.

In Shinan, the dominant land uses are forest/grassland and wetland (tidal flat). Inner-archipelago islands (e.g., Aphae, Palgeum, Jaeun) combine agriculture with extensive tidal flats, whereas the outer islands (e.g., Heuksan) feature larger forested areas and have a stronger orientation on fisheries. Large-scale reclamation since the 1960s has converted portions of tidal flats into agricultural land, producing a mixed agri-fishery structure. In comparison, Muan represents a peninsula-type agricultural coastal plain, while Shinan typifies a multi-island, mixed economy of farming and fishing.

4.2. Correlations Between Land Use and Climate

The Spearman correlation analysis reveals clear associations between land-use types and climatic variables (

Table 4. Spearman correlation coefficients between land use categories and climatic variables (Muan and Shinan). * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01.

	Daily Mean Temperature	Daily Maximum Temperature	Daily Minimum Temperature	Tropical Night Days	Heatwave Days	Annual Precipitation	Precipitation Intensity	Heavy Rain Days
Build-up Area	−0.178	0.494 *	−0.398	0.100.	0.510 *	0.426 *	0.043	0.027
Agricultural Area	−0.343	0.760 **	−0.664 **	0.198	0.806 **	0.619 **	−0.004	−0.199
Wetland	0.675 **	−0.419 *	0.481 *	0.402	−0.461 *	−0.440 *	0.099	−0.184
Bare Land	0.516 *	−0.782 **	0.750 **	−0.031	−0.754 **	−0.624 **	0.082	0.375
Forest & Grassland	−0.348	−0.289	−0.002	−0.600 **	−0.284	0.137	0.89	0.566 **
Water Surface	0.017	0.410	−0.160	0.151	0.371	0.294	−0.71	−0.49

). Urbanized areas show positive correlations with daily maximum temperature (r = 0.494, p < 0.05), heatwave days (r = 0.510, p < 0.05), and annual precipitation (r = 0.426, p < 0.05). Agricultural areas show positive correlations with daily maximum temperature (r = 0.760, p < 0.01), heatwave days (r = 0.806, p < 0.01), and annual precipitation (r = 0.619, p < 0.01), while showing a negative correlation with daily minimum temperature (r = −0.664, p < 0.01). Although both urbanized and agricultural areas demonstrate positive correlations with daily maximum temperature, heatwave days, and annual precipitation, the correlations are notably stronger in agricultural areas.

Wetlands show positive correlations with daily mean temperature (r = 0.675, p < 0.01) and daily minimum temperature (r = 0.481, p < 0.05). In contrast, they exhibit negative correlations with daily maximum temperature (r = −0.419, p < 0.05), heatwave days (r = −0.461, p < 0.05), and annual precipitation (r = −0.440, p < 0.05). Water surface areas do not show any significant correlations with the climatic variables examined.

Bare land shows positive correlations with daily mean temperature (r = 0.516, p < 0.05) and daily minimum temperature (r = 0.750, p < 0.01). However, it shows strong negative correlations with daily maximum temperature (r = −0.782, p < 0.01), heatwave days (r = −0.754, p < 0.01), and annual precipitation (r = −0.624, p < 0.01). Forest and grassland demonstrate a strong negative correlation with tropical night days (r = −0.600, p < 0.01) and a strong positive correlation with heavy rain days (r = 0.566, p < 0.01).

5. Discussion

Muan and Shinan are located in the southwestern coastal region of Korea, forming adjacent local governments. Muan is a coastal part of the mainland, whereas Shinan is composed entirely of islands. In both areas, the landscape is characterized by low mountains, with maximum elevations of around 300 m, and extensive tidal flats. Muan’s primary industry is agriculture, which is clearly reflected in its land-use patterns. In particular, the townships of Unnam, Hyeongyeong, Haeje, and Mangun each have agricultural areas that account for more than 60% of their total land area. Shinan, with its well-developed coastal tidal flats, also contains large agricultural areas. Historically, extensive parts of them came into existence through land reclamation that converted tidal-flat areas into agricultural land. Except for the more distant Heuksan archipelago, agriculture is more developed than fisheries in Shinan.

The reason agricultural areas show stronger positive correlations than urbanized areas with daily maximum temperature, heatwave days, and annual precipitation is likely due to the substantially larger proportion of agricultural land compared to urbanized land in coastal and island regions. In other words, the climatic influence is anticipated to be associated more with the spatial extent of land-use types than with the intensity of anthropogenic land use. Moreover, the strong negative correlation between agricultural areas and daily minimum temperature indicates that when agriculture is the dominant land-use type, it may exert greater influence on climatic variables than urbanized areas. Consequently, agricultural areas tend to be more vulnerable to extreme heat conditions [36]. In Muan, the proportion of agricultural land is considerably higher than in Shinan, indicating a stronger need to consider such vulnerabilities. For instance, strategies could focus more on increasing the proportion of paddy fields rather than dry fields. Restoring traditional village forests could also play an important role in mitigating heat stress.

The total area of agricultural land has been declining nationwide in Korea and this trend is also observed in Muan and Shinan [37]. However, in these regions, agricultural land has not transitioned into forested areas but has instead been converted into built-up land uses such as residential areas, warehouses, and other developed land. In the coming years, additional large-scale development is expected due to the expansion of Muan International Airport and the planned relocation of a military airbase.

In light of this reality, local governments need to establish nature-based adaptation strategies by expanding green infrastructure through the restoration of village forests in order to enhance resilience to long-term climate change. Furthermore, in Shinan County, it is necessary to take action on structural changes in vegetation resulting from the degradation of sacred forests that historically functioned as village forests, as well as the inadequate management of secondary forests. In addition, Shinan has a higher proportion of forested areas compared to Muan, most of these forests (except on Heuksan) consist of secondary vegetation with simplified structural characteristics and limited ecological development. Therefore, management of abandoned agricultural land will be necessary to promote the recovery and maturation of forest vegetation in these areas.

Wetland and bare land exhibit similar correlation patterns across the climatic variables analyzed. Both show positive correlations with daily mean temperature and daily minimum temperature, while displaying negative correlations with daily maximum temperature, heatwave days, and annual precipitation. Typically, wetland and bare land represent contrasting land-use characteristics: wetlands are known to mitigate heat-island effects and provide cooling benefits under warming conditions, whereas bare land is generally understood to intensify heat-island effects and contribute to warming [38,39,40].

However, in this study, bare land demonstrated climatic effects similar to those of wetland. This is presumed to be the result of the small proportion of natural bare-land areas—composed mainly of sandy beaches and rocky shorelines—within the study region, which may have prevented the typical warming characteristics of bare land from being expressed. Given that the bare-land area is relatively small, it is reasonable to suggest it had little influence on the climatic variables. However, this will require more detailed research.

Forest and grassland show a strong negative correlation with tropical night days and a strong positive correlation with heavy rain days. Especially, tropical night days do not show significant correlations with any other land-use type; they are strongly and negatively correlated only with forest and grassland. This suggests that expanding forest and grassland cover is essential for mitigating or reducing tropical night days. In particular, restoring village forests around settlements may serve as an important measure for decreasing tropical night occurrences. This aligns with the principle observed in urban environments, where expanding green parks is used to alleviate urban heat-island effects [41].

Water surface did not show significant correlations with any of the climatic variables. This is presumed to be due to the dominant influence of the surrounding open waters, which diminishes the detectable relationship between small inland water surfaces in Muan and Shinan and local climatic variables. Precipitation-related factors—such as precipitation intensity and heavy rain days—are likely governed more by broader atmospheric circulation patterns and large-scale meteorological conditions than by local land-use characteristics [42].

Overall, the findings support the need for a land-use-based climate adaptation framework in coastal and island regions. In areas with high proportions of agricultural land—such as Unnam, Hyeongyeong, and Haeje in Muan—community cooling strategies should prioritize the restoration of village forests and the expansion of other forms of green infrastructure [43]. More broadly, national adaptation policies, which have largely focused on urban areas, should explicitly target island and coastal communities, where the proportion of elderly residents is typically higher [44]. Establishing “climate-cooling infrastructure” that leverages sea breezes, wetlands, and green corridors—adapted from urban interventions such as green-space connectivity and night-time cooling shelters—can reduce nighttime heat exposure and associated health risks among vulnerable populations [45,46]. Given the dual roles of wetlands and water surfaces, further research using high-resolution satellite monitoring and microclimate networks is needed to distinguish between storage effects and cooling effects across seasons and during extreme heat events.

In terms of limitations, the climatic (2001–2010) and land-use (2014) datasets used in the study were not time-synchronized, which may have introduced minor inaccuracies, although the general regional climate patterns are stable. Furthermore, the analyses were conducted at the eup/myeon (‘town’) scale relying on averaged values. Lastly, the study did not account for long-term temporal changes or examine specific causal relationships. This limitation could easily be overcome if the central government would measure meteorological data at a finer scale (i.e., a town scale) more frequently and make it available to local governments so as to provide information that can help them prepare for climate change.

6. Conclusions

This study analyzed the correlations between land-use types and key climate variables in coastal and island regions characterized by agriculture-based economies, population decline, and a high proportion of elderly residents. Land use directly influences the formation of local microclimates and is closely associated with the occurrence of heat waves and tropical nights. The study areas, Muan and Shinan, are generally low-lying and dominated by agricultural land use, making them highly vulnerable to extreme heat events, which suggests a greater long-term susceptibility to the impacts of climate change.

The results indicate that forest and grassland exhibit cooling effects that mitigate tropical night conditions. Accordingly, this study proposes the restoration of village forests as a nature-based solution for climate change adaptation, tailored to the specific characteristics of the two regions.

Although wetland and bare land are generally known to exert opposing effects on local climates, the results of this study indicate that both land-use types exhibited similar climatic effects. Wetlands were found to moderate microclimatic conditions through hydrometeorological regulation, thereby contributing to the mitigation of climate warming. In the case of natural bare land composed of coastal sandy beaches or rocky shorelines, climatic effects similar to those of wetlands were observed; however, further research is needed to determine whether this is a unique phenomenon specific to island and coastal environments. Additionally, for water surface areas, more in-depth investigation is required, particularly regarding the influence of inland water surfaces in addition to the influence of the surrounding sea.

This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of land-use characteristics and climate-related factors in coastal and island regions, and proposes nature-based solutions that can be utilized by local governments with a long-term perspective. In addition, by establishing region-specific baseline data, this study offers scientific evidence to support the development of climate change mitigation and adaptation policies and strategies by both central and local governments in the future.