Enablers and Policy Framework for Construction Waste Minimization Under Circular Economy: Stakeholder Perspectives

Abstract

The expansion of the construction sector in order to meet infrastructure demands is generating millions of tons of solid waste. This waste threatens resource sustainability and increases environmental challenges. Adopting a circular economy (CE) through waste minimization (WM) offers a solution, but policy guidelines are very limited in developing countries, especially in the context of Pakistan. The global body of knowledge lacks a comparative analysis of the influence of the perception of stakeholders when developing such guidelines. Therefore, the purpose of the current study is to identify enablers for the development of a policy framework and to provide a comparative analysis of the perception of stakeholders. In this regard, Saunders’s research onion model and purposive sampling methods were used for the selection of research variables and respondents, respectively. Data were gathered through semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis, including word frequency and cluster analyses using the NVivo 15 software, was performed. The key findings indicated an 80% agreement and a 60% disagreement among consultant–contractor and contractor–regulator relationships, respectively. Overall, financial support (14.6%) and awareness programs (11.2%) at the macro level, the use of BIM (5%), the clarity of specifications (4.1%), the segregation of onsite waste (2%), and the adoption of reuse and recycling practices (2%) at the micro level were found to be major policy measures. This study concludes with practical implications for sustainable development.

1. Introduction

The immense number of urbanization and development projects that have taken place over the last ten years has significantly increased the number of construction activities around the world [1]. On average, the construction sector contributes to 13% of the world economy [2]. However, this sector is strongly reliant on natural resources, which are limited and can eventually be exhausted [3,4]. Currently, the construction industry consumes the majority of global natural resources and generates 35% of the solid waste that goes to landfill sites [5]. It is estimated that the construction sector is responsible for 30% of global greenhouse emissions and 40% of global waste, making it the largest contributor and surpassing the residential (23%) and manufacturing (21%) sectors [6]. Furthermore, construction waste accounts for 29%, 40%, 44%, 27%, and 29% of the waste in landfill sites in the United States, Brazil, Australia, Canada, and Hong Kong, respectively [7]. Research on the circular economy (CE) highlights that the consumption of natural resources and the volume of waste produced across different industries, especially the construction sector, pose significant danger to the sustainability of the world’s natural resources [8]. These high waste generation rates, in addition to jeopardizing resource sustainability, generate significant economic losses [9]. The primary reason for such waste generation is directly related to the prevalent linear economic model in the construction sector, in which materials are produced, used, and discarded [10,11]. Therefore, the construction industry must address these environmental challenges by implementing waste minimization (WM) and CE policies. The CE facilitates systematic change in how materials are produced, circulated, used, and recovered, with the ultimate goal of conserving natural resources through effective material use on a global scale while simultaneously lowering pollution and project costs [12,13,14]. Thus, WM practices make a major contribution to CE culture in the construction sector. Several studies on WM and the CE have been conducted in developed countries [15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. In these studies, the principles of WM (reduce, reuse, and recycle) remained a key focus for the formulation of policy guidelines in developed countries. In terms of waste reduction, careful planning, the use of standardized materials, just-in-time delivery, and prefabrication help to minimize waste during the design phase of a project [22]. Effective on-site management practices, such as accurate quantity estimation and employee training, also contribute to waste prevention [23]. Similarly, the reuse of construction waste plays an important role in reducing construction-related waste. In this regard, previous studies have demonstrated significant waste reduction through the reuse of brick ballast, steel, wood, and aggregates [24]. In the post-construction phase, recycling is the most important process as it allows waste to be converted into more usable materials. Numerous studies conducted in the past have focused on waste recycling. Subsequently, recycled materials have been used in various construction applications—for example, recycled brick powder (RBP) has been utilized within sustainable alkali-activated RBP-based geopolymer production [25]. Furthermore, recycled aggregate concrete has demonstrated significant improvements in toughness under constant load cycling [26]. Thus, numerous studies have been conducted regarding waste reduction, reuse, and recycling in developed countries, which form the foundation for policy guideline formulation. However, a comparative analysis of key stakeholders’ perceptions regarding the development of these policy recommendations is currently lacking in the global context. This analysis is crucial as it will highlight the level of consensus among the stakeholders involved in shaping such guidelines [27,28]. Therefore, a comparative analysis of key stakeholders’ perceptions in policymaking is essential to identify the levels of agreement and disagreement among them during the formulation of WM policy guidelines.

In developing countries, there have been limited studies that outline the potential enablers that could counter the challenges of WM and CE [29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36]. Kolupaieva and Lindahl [24] suggested policy recommendations for the Ukrainian construction industry, including green financing, digital transformation, and stakeholder collaboration. Another study conducted in Nigeria’s construction industry identified the key enablers of WM, such as the development of recycling facilities, the use of renewable and sustainable materials, and designs for disassembly [30]. Furthermore, education, financing, labor attitudes, and government support were identified as major contributors to waste reduction within South Africa’s construction industry [31]. Additionally, the strict supervision of construction activities, the allocation of space for material storage, and stakeholder involvement to promote WM were identified as key enablers in the construction industry of Bangladesh [37]. These studies reveal that strategies to reduce waste generation vary significantly from country to country, primarily due to differences in construction practices and cultural values worldwide [38,39]. This highlights the need for further studies to be conducted within the context of each of these developing countries.

The case of Pakistan (a developing country) is even worse than other developing countries because thirty (30) million tons of solid waste is generated every year, and nine (09) million tons of this waste comes from the construction sector [40]. As per the report of the Asian Development Bank, the construction sector in Pakistan immediately requires the development of WM policy guidelines, as the current waste generation rates pose a significant threat to the environment and resource sustainability [40]. Furthermore, construction activities are expected to grow dramatically because of the government’s focus on this sector, which they see as a means of showing growth. This will certainly result in exponential growth in waste generation rates in the coming years due to massive urbanization, and with a lack of policy guidelines, it poses a huge risk to the environment. Therefore, there is an immense need to conduct a detailed study to outline policy guidelines in the context of Pakistan, which can be helpful for other developing countries with similar construction practices and cultural values.

Based on the above discussion, major gaps in the existing body of knowledge were identified. These gaps also justify the novelty of the present study. The research gaps include the following:

(a)

Most developed countries have conducted numerous studies to formulate WM policy guidelines for the construction sector, focusing on reduction, reuse, and recycling. However, a comparative analysis of key industry stakeholders’ perceptions during the policy formulation process is absent in the global context. This comparison is crucial as it highlights the level of consensus among key stakeholders in drafting these policy guidelines.

(b)

Secondly, WM practices are very limited in developing countries. As a result, one-third of the total solid waste is generated at construction sites in these countries. Although a few studies have been conducted in this context, the unique cultural values and construction practices in each country necessitate further investigation into the specific factors influencing WM in these developing regions.

(c)

Thirdly, in the context of Pakistan, the situation regarding waste generation is more severe than in other developing countries. The Asian Development Bank has reported that construction waste poses a major threat to the environment in Pakistan, highlighting the urgent need for the formulation of policy guidelines to address this environmental challenge [40]. This is because there are no formal policy guidelines currently available in Pakistan.

Therefore, this study provides a comprehensive policy framework for the implementation of WM practices in the context of Pakistan. In doing so, it contributes new insights to the existing literature on enablers for policy guidelines in developing countries. Furthermore, this study provides a comparative analysis of the perceptions of key industry stakeholders while proposing WM and CE enablers/policy measures to add more knowledge to the global context. The findings of this study can also be helpful for conserving natural resources and developing a CE culture in other developing countries with similar construction practices. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 is the literature review. Section 3 outlines the study methodology, data collection, and analytical procedures. Section 4 discusses the results of the study. Section 5 is about the practical implications of this research on sustainable developments, and Section 6 concludes this study.

2. Literature Review

In this section, a review of past studies regarding the waste generation rates of different materials, their causes, and strategies for waste reduction is provided.

2.1. Waste Generation Rates in Construction Sector and Their Causes

Previous studies have thoroughly investigated the rates of waste generation (WGRs) that are linked to important construction materials across the globe. This analysis, as outlined in

Table 1. WGRs (%) of construction materials for developing and developed countries.

Materials	Developing Countries				Developed Countries
	Pakistan	Jordan	Nigeria		Hong Kong	Malaysia	China	South Korea	Australia
	[42]	[43]	[44]		[45]	[46]	[47]	[48]	[49]
Concrete	-	16.76	14.13		4	6	1.5	1.5	1.89
Tiles	13.5	15.57	21.38		10	-	2	2.5	-
Mortar	-	-	14.91		10	-	2	0.3	-
Bricks	13.7	-	14.15		15	16	2	-	-
Wood	36.2	19.49	-		-	49	-	13	49
Steel	4.5	16.91	19.03		3	4	4.5	-	5.01
Blocks	14.5	17.05	-		10	-	2	3	-
Ceiling Boards	13.6	20.70	15.70		4	-	-	-	5

, encompasses findings from both developed and developing countries. A significant difference in WGRs between these two groups of countries has been consistently noted. It can be observed that WGRs of concrete in developing countries like Jordan and Nigeria are around 15%. In comparison, developed countries such as Hong Kong, Malaysia, China, South Korea, and Australia display much lower WGRs of concrete, averaging approximately 5%. This difference reveals a significant variation in material waste between the two groups. A similar pattern emerges in the waste generation rates of tiles. In developing countries, WGRs of tiles surpass 13%, while in developed countries such as China and South Korea, the rates are under 3%. Mortar, another essential construction material, also exhibits a significant difference, showing much higher waste in developing countries compared to developed nations. Similar trends of difference can also be seen in other widely used construction materials, including bricks, steel, and ceiling boards. Nevertheless, it is crucial to recognize that there are exceptions to this overall pattern. Some developed nations, like Malaysia and Australia, reported higher WGRs for certain materials, such as bricks and wood, when compared to specific developing countries, including Pakistan, Jordan, and Nigeria. In summary, the evidence strongly suggests that WGRs for most construction materials are significantly higher in developing countries than in developed ones. This considerable difference can mainly be attributed to several factors, primarily the absence of comprehensive waste control policies, the inadequate enforcement of current regulations, and a generally low understanding of best practices in waste management [21,41]. Consequently, these results emphasize the urgent need for the establishment and enactment of policy guidelines in developing countries. Such initiatives would not only aid in reducing material waste but would also greatly support sustainable construction practices and environmental conservation efforts.

Moreover, the WGRs for construction materials in Pakistan’s construction sector closely resemble those found in other developing countries. In this scenario, WGRs are significantly higher than those reported in developed nations such as Hong Kong, Malaysia, China, South Korea, and Australia. As demonstrated in Table 1, the WGR for tiles in Pakistan is around 13%, while in most developed countries, it hovers around 3%, apart from Hong Kong, which has a marginally increased tile WGR of 10%. Likewise, the WGRs for other significant construction materials in Pakistan show high values: bricks at 13.7%, wood at 36.2%, steel at 4.5%, concrete blocks at 14.5%, and ceiling boards at 13.6%. These rates are significantly higher when placed alongside those of many developed countries. This comparison underscores a critical and alarming issue regarding material waste in the construction sector of Pakistan. The ongoing high waste generation rates not only reflect inefficiencies in construction practices but also pose serious environmental and economic challenges. Thus, there is a crucial and immediate need for the formulation and rigorous enforcement of comprehensive WM policies specific to the construction industry in Pakistan. Such measures are vital to enhance resource efficiency, minimize environmental impact, and align the nation’s construction practices with global standards.

2.2. Waste Minimization and Circular Economy Strategies

Past studies have extensively highlighted a wide range of WM and CE strategies that have been implemented across the globe, as shown in Table 2. These studies collectively demonstrate that significant reductions in construction site waste can be achieved through the adoption of multiple systemic interventions. Key among these interventions is the development and rigorous enforcement of comprehensive government policies aimed at regulating and guiding sustainable construction practices. Additionally, the integration of environmental management systems (EMSs) within construction processes has proven to be an effective measure in promoting eco-friendly site operations. Establishing and adhering to standard operating procedures (SOPs) that embed sustainability into day-to-day construction activities further support WM efforts. Moreover, the development and promotion of innovative business models that facilitate the use of recycled materials have shown considerable success. Alongside these models, governmental initiatives such as landfill waste charging schemes, financial subsidies, and incentive programs have provided critical motivation for organizations to adopt responsible waste disposal methods and sustainable material management. Another equally vital component is the emphasis on education and capacity-building programs targeting local stakeholders, including contractors, construction workers, and project managers. Training initiatives focused on sustainable practices and environmental awareness are crucial for fostering a culture of responsibility and proactivity within the construction industry. As summarized in Table 2, the majority of these strategies operate at the macro level, underscoring the essential role of large-scale institutional frameworks and policy-driven initiatives. This highlights that achieving sustainable construction practices is not merely a matter of individual project-level decisions but rather requires coordinated, broad-based efforts involving regulatory bodies, industry leaders, and the wider community.

Similarly, various enablers of WM have been recognized at the micro level, which can significantly decrease construction waste at both the project and site levels. Among these methods are modular design approaches that enhance efficiency and adaptability during the construction process [20,50]. The use of prefabricated structures is also effective, as it lessens on-site waste production. Furthermore, making minimal design alterations during construction, designing with flexibility and adaptability in mind, and employing standard-sized materials to decrease the need for cutting and modifications are essential steps in waste reduction. The development of error-free drawings and improved design coordination via technologies like Building Information Modeling (BIM) [51,52,53]. In addition to design strategies, operational practices are crucial as well. Research has emphasized the necessity of encouraging a positive attitude among laborers towards waste reduction, as well as ensuring proper material handling and accurately ordering materials to prevent surplus and waste [54]. Choosing high-quality materials and those that generate less packaging waste are further ways to enhance efficiency. Additionally, promoting the reuse of materials, ensuring that construction supplies are stored safely and systematically, and embedding waste management responsibilities into contracts have proven to be effective methods for managing waste generation [54]. Together, these studies offer a solid knowledge base that can guide the formulation of policy guidelines. Although most of this research has been conducted in developed nations, the insights obtained are extremely valuable and can underpin the formulation of strong, actionable WM frameworks aimed at improving sustainability within the construction industry.

Table 2. WM strategies in construction sector.

Sr. No.	WM Strategies	References
1	Models for Business Development	[55]
2	Support from Government	[55]
3	Benefits of Recycled Materials	[56]
4	Awareness Programs	[57,58]
5	Advanced Research on WM and CE	[59]
6	Financial Assistance	[60]
7	Providing Subsidize	[60]
8	Environmental Management System	[61]
9	Use of Recycled Materials	[62]
10	Building Landfill Sites	[62]

Table 2. WM strategies in construction sector.

Sr. No.	WM Strategies	References
1	Models for Business Development	[55]
2	Support from Government	[55]
3	Benefits of Recycled Materials	[56]
4	Awareness Programs	[57,58]
5	Advanced Research on WM and CE	[59]
6	Financial Assistance	[60]
7	Providing Subsidize	[60]
8	Environmental Management System	[61]
9	Use of Recycled Materials	[62]
10	Building Landfill Sites	[62]

3. Methods

This section explains the research design, respondent profile, data collection, analytical techniques, and procedures for developing the theoretical framework. Details are provided in the following sections.

3.1. Research Design

The research design used in this study was based on Saunders’ research onion model, as shown in Figure 1. The research onion model has been used in multiple studies to create the research design [42,63,64,65]. All of these previous studies shared several prominent similarities. Among these studies, Saunders’ research onion model was used. This model illustrates a systematic approach to designing research that carefully combines aspects such as research philosophy, strategy, and methods of data collection. In line with these previous studies, the current research similarly utilizes Saunders’ research onion framework to systematically select the research variables, incorporating aspects of research philosophies, theoretical approaches, methodological choices, strategies, time horizons, and data collection techniques and procedures. Furthermore, each of these studies also tackles practical, industry-related issues, such as the impact of employee training on entrepreneurship [63], the quantification of materials waste in the construction sector [42], the relationship between corporate issues and the behavior of workers [65], and methodological challenges encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic [64], thereby emphasizing their relevance to real-world problems. Similarly, the current study also addresses the issue of waste generation by developing policy guidelines for the construction sector.

Despite these similarities, there are notable differences across these studies. Firstly, the areas of research among these studies vary: Wu et al. [63] investigate the effects of employee training on organizational commitment; Haydam and Steenkamp [64] delve into methodological issues in social science research during COVID-19; Orth and Maçada [65] look into the connections between corporate fraud and executive behaviors; while Shahid et al. [42] assess material waste and its financial repercussions in the construction field. Similarly, the current area of research is also different from these studies as the current study focuses on the development of policy measures for WM in the construction sector. Secondly, research methodologies differ: Wu et al. [63] utilize qualitative semi-structured interviews, Haydam and Steenkamp [64] offer a conceptual analysis, Orth and Maçada [65] conduct a systematic literature review, and Shahid et al. [42] apply quantitative benchmarking. However, the current research primarily concentrates on identifying factors that promote waste reduction within the construction industry and uses semi-structured interviews as the method of data collection. Thus, the application of Saunders’ research onion model varies across these studies in terms of research areas and the method of data collection, but the objective remains consistent: to provide a structured foundation for the selection of research variables.

The current study was conducted under the philosophy of interpretivism because of the presence of qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews [66]. Moving to the next layer of Saunders’ model, an abductive approach was adopted in this study. The research started with predefined themes (a deductive approach), but later, new themes (an inductive approach) emerged at the end of data analysis. Therefore, the method used was a mixture of deductive and inductive approaches, and an abductive approach was selected [67]. The next layer is methodological, in which the qualitative method (qualitative) was selected. The grounded theory was then selected as a strategy because it is directly linked to the development of themes/theories from the collected data [68]. As data were collected from construction experts in Pakistan during the same period, a cross-sectional approach was considered in the current study. The last layer of this model was the analytical method; therefore, thematic analysis was applied considering the qualitative nature of the collected data. The data used for the current study were collected through semi-structured interviews and were primary. Further details about the respondents and the analysis are provided in the following sections.

3.2. Sample Selection and Respondent’s Profile

In order to develop a comprehensive theoretical framework for CE and WM in the construction sector, data were collected from field experts in Pakistan through semi-structured interviews. The semi-structured interview method was selected because it not only allowed the experts to express their views on relevant issues, but it also gave them the flexibility to add more information beyond what was included in the interview questionnaire. Due to the scarcity of experts on WM within Pakistan’s construction sector, it proved challenging to find participants with relevant experience using random sampling techniques. Hence, the current study opted for purposive and snowball sampling (non-probability) methods instead of random (probability) sampling to address the challenge of participant selection. Purposive and snowball sampling are important techniques for gathering significant data in qualitative research when random sampling is very difficult. Purposive sampling entails selecting participants based on certain criteria to identify individuals or groups most relevant to the research question, particularly those with relevant experience who can offer rich, in-depth insights. As a non-probability approach, it focuses on units possessing key characteristics that align with the study’s emphasis [69]. Thus, the initial participants were selected based on criteria having some background knowledge of WM through the purposive sampling method. Subsequently, snowball sampling was employed to reach specific participants by requesting that initial participants suggest others who fit the study’s criteria or have relevant experience [70]. Thus, the interview process proceeded until the saturation point was reached [71]. The saturation point is categorized into two types: coding and meaning saturation [72]. In the current study, saturation points for meaning and coding were reached after 24 interviews, similar to another study [72].

Moreover, data were collected from all key stakeholders, which comprised clients (21%), consultants (21%), contractors (33%), and regulators (25%), to guarantee a thorough understanding of the issues surrounding WM. The selection process for these experts was deliberate, as every stakeholder group provides a unique and vital perspective on WM practices. Clients typically influence project specifications and funding priorities; consultants offer technical expertise and design solutions; contractors are accountable for the practical implementation and operational management; and regulators create the legal and compliance frameworks that govern WM practices. By integrating feedback from all these groups, this study sought to attain a well-rounded perspective on the challenges and opportunities within WM, reducing bias and ensuring that the results are reflective of the wider industry context. The details of respondents are provided in

Table 3. Respondents’ profile for current study.

Sr. No	Characteristics of Respondents	Frequency	Percentage
1.	Type of Organization a. Client b. Consultant c. Contractor d. Regulator	05 05 08 06	21% 21% 33% 25%
2.	Qualification (in Years) a. BS b. MS	10 14	42% 58%
3.	Experience (in Years) a. 10–15 b. 16–20 c. 21 and above	14 05 05	58% 21% 21%

. It can be seen that these professionals had Bachelor’s (42%) and Master’s (58%) degrees and also had at least ten years of field experience. Experts must have at least ten years of field experience, since respondents with less than ten years of experience are unlikely to make informed decisions [73]. Therefore, the data for the current study were collected from all key stakeholders with different field experiences to incorporate the maximum input for the development of policy guidelines.

3.3. Data Analysis

A number of analyses were performed on the collected data, including word frequency analysis, cluster analysis, and ultimately thematic analysis. Details for each of these analyses are provided in the following sections.

3.3.1. Word Frequency and Cluster Analyses of Interviews

Word frequency analysis is an in-depth technique used to investigate the most frequently utilized words and phrases in qualitative data, such as interview transcripts. In the context of construction waste management, this analysis is crucial for revealing stakeholder priorities and perspectives. In the current study, once the data of the semi-structured interviews were coded in the Nvivo software, word frequency analysis of the interviews was performed by setting the word length to 10 and the number of words to 20. Running the query and adding a few words such as “the”, “and”, etc., to the stop list provided a tree structure of high-frequency words. This analysis has also been used in other studies to obtain an overview of interviews [20]. Therefore, this analysis provided insight into the words that were mostly discussed during the interviews. The more frequently a word is discussed, the more important that word will be. A highly frequent word was allowed more space in the word frequency diagram and vice versa.

Second was the cluster analysis, which provides in-depth insight into the underlying nature of the enablers highlighted by interview transcripts, as well as cross-validating the findings [74,75]. Cluster analysis has been used in previous studies to determine waste reduction enablers [74,76]. The findings are typically presented as a dendrogram, in which the distance is represented by the points where the codes are connected (from left to right). The more closely connected the codes are, the more relevant they are to each other.

3.3.2. Thematic Analysis of Interviews and Development of Framework

Data were collected from the key stakeholders through semi-structured interviews. Semi-structured interviews are effective tools for gathering respondents’ opinions on complicated issues, such as enablers or policy guidelines for WM [77]. Compared to other tools, such as surveys or structured interviews, experts are allowed to express themselves more freely through semi-structured interviews [77]. The questionnaire survey was formulated around key concerns highlighted in previous research related to WM, as illustrated in

Table 4. List of questions for interviews.

Sr. No	Scope of Measure	Questions
1.	Micro Level	How can the issues of poor design practices for waste generation be avoided?
2.		What measures contractor should take to reduce and reuse the materials during the construction phase of a project?
3.		Do you think any measure, which effectively manages waste during post-construction phase of a project?
4.	Macro Level	How construction industry can develop a waste minimization culture at a macro level?
5.		What measures the government should take to ensure waste management practices in the construction sector?

. The questions were categorized into two main sections: the micro-level and the macro-level. The interviews were held either in person or via Zoom. The duration of the interviews ranged from 50 to 90 min depending on the expertise of the participants. Audio data from the interviews were intricately transcribed before the research team checked the quality of the textual data. The transcripts were examined using the NVivo 15 tool, which helps codify text-based qualitative data [5].

Using the NVivo software, a deductive (theory-driven) coding scheme was used, and themes developed in earlier research on WM and CE served as the basis for the deductive coding. Furthermore, several new themes emerged inductively from the interview data. Thematic analysis was performed on the collected data. The thematic analysis procedure involved different stages, such as (1) familiarization with the collected data, (2) the generation of initial codes from the interviewees’ statements, and (3) a detailed search for themes. More themes were extracted from the statement; (4) a review of the extracted themes to identify whether there is any theme left; and (5) the addition or deletion of themes based on their relevance to the topic [78]. The frequency distributions of the different types of themes found in the interviews served as the primary method for these comparisons [5]. After consulting these experts, a policy framework was proposed to develop WM and CE cultures in the context of Pakistan.

3.3.3. Corroboration and Credibility of Results

Four major guidelines were followed to ensure the validity of this approach [5]. First, a convincing evidence chain was presented. Second, various perspectives and explanations were considered. Third, the theoretical saturation limit was achieved, and the results were corroborated. Finally, efforts were made to generalize findings beyond the study area.

4. Results and Discussions

After completing the thematic analysis of the transcripts of all the interviews, the results are discussed in detail in the following sections.

4.1. Results of Word Frequency and Cluster Analysis

The analysis of word frequency provided valuable insights into the key themes and main points raised during the expert interviews. As illustrated in Figure 2, different words are represented visually within rectangular boxes of varying sizes. The size of each box directly corresponds to how frequently that word appeared throughout the interviews—the bigger the box, the more frequently that word was mentioned. Specifically, terms like “management”, “construction”, “specifications”, “authorities”, “implementation”, and “relaxation” have the largest boxes, indicating that these subjects were most commonly highlighted by the interviewees. This indicates that these terms signify important and recurring ideas associated with construction WM. Statistical results reinforce this observation, with high-frequency terms also including “designated”, “business”, “collection”, and “incentives”. Together, these words create important thematic clusters that experts underscored during their conversations about enhancing environmental policies in the construction industry. The prominence of these terms indicates that stakeholders regard several enablers as essential when developing effective WM policies. Key aspects involve improving construction WM systems, ensuring adherence to environmental regulations, optimizing waste collection methods, designating landfill sites, fostering business growth in the waste management sector, reducing tax burdens, and providing financial incentives. Therefore, word frequency analysis offers a clear yet powerful way to identify and articulate the themes arising from qualitative data, allowing researchers and policymakers to focus on the most discussed and influential factors in future waste reduction policy-making for the construction sector.

Second is the cluster analysis, which provides in-depth insight into the underlying nature of the enablers highlighted by interview transcripts and also cross-validates the findings [74,75]. As illustrated in Figure 3, five clusters were identified as a result of agglomerative hierarchical clustering. Cluster 1 shows the codes that are closely linked to the development of bidding documents, such as the upgradation of specifications, sufficient planning time, accurate estimation of materials, and designers’ field experience. Similar findings were reported in other studies [45,53]. In Cluster 2, enablers that are linked to the least waste-generating options through code design or modification are grouped. Further, bonuses and penalties, fines, and incentives are grouped under Cluster 3, since these themes are more closely linked with each other. Cluster 4 is more about the implementation of WM strategies during the execution of a project, such as the segregation of materials, reduction and reuse, waste control culture, recycling materials, and the sale of waste materials. Finally, Cluster 5 provides details about WM enablers through BIM adoption, awareness programs, and financial assistance from governments for business development. All these enablers emerged from the interviews and were linked to the development of a policy framework for WM in the construction sector of a developing country.

4.2. Comparison of Stakeholders’ Perception

This section explains the level of consensus that different stakeholders reached during their interviews as a result of thematic analysis. It is critical to identify the level of consensus and differences of opinion among all stakeholders while suggesting enablers for WM and CE in the construction industry. A comparison is drawn among the perceptions of clients, consultants, contractors, and regulators, as shown in Figure 4 and

Table 5. Percent of agreement and disagreement among stakeholders’ perceptions.

Sr. No	Groups	Percent Agreement	Percent Disagreement
1.	Client–Consultant	70%	30%
2.	Client–Contractor	70%	30%
3.	Client–Regulator	60%	40%
4.	Consultant–Contractor	80%	20%
5.	Consultant–Regulator	60%	40%
6.	Contractor–Regulator	60%	40%
7.	Client–Consultant–Contractor	60%	40%
8.	Client–Consultant–Regulator	50%	50%
9.	Client–Contractor–Regulator	40%	60%
10.	Consultant–Contractor–Regulator	50%	50%
11.	Client–Consultant–Contractor–Regulator	40%	60%

, based on the ranking of WM enablers proposed by these stakeholders. These enablers were identified through the NVivo software. Both deductive and inductive approaches were used to analyze the interviews. Figure 4 shows that there is a huge consensus among all four stakeholders that financial assistance, awareness programs, building landfill sites, and the use of the latest tools, such as BIM, are the major enablers that should be used to minimize waste in the construction industry. Governmental agencies should provide financial assistance by relaxing taxes, subsidies, and loans at low interest rates, and reducing duties on imported machinery. In China and the USA, financial assistance to reduce waste has also been found to be a potential measure for reducing construction waste [79]. Furthermore, awareness programs should be initiated regarding the environmental challenges due to waste generation. These programs must include seminars, workshops, and training sessions. A significant amount of waste can be reduced by improving stakeholder awareness [80]. Currently, landfill sites are unavailable in the local construction industry. All stakeholders agreed that designated landfill sites must be built in the country’s major cities. Finally, the latest technologies, such as BIM, must be used throughout the project life cycle. BIM helps reduce waste by removing clashes, discrepancies, and design errors. Furthermore, it can reduce construction waste by up to 15% [81]. It can also assist projects during execution by providing different algorithms and patterns to select the least waste-generating options. In Table 5, it can be observed that the maximum level of agreement (80%) is found between the consultant and contractor in two-tier groups. Similarly, in three-tier groups, client–consultant–contractor relationships have shown maximum consensus (60%). Considering the perception of all key industry stakeholders, it can be concluded that all key stakeholders are in complete agreement about 40% of the proposed strategies for waste reduction on construction projects.

In contrast, there are also some differences in the opinions of stakeholders when deciding on these enablers. It is found that the addition of clauses regarding WM in contract documents is recommended by clients, consultants, and regulators, while contractors do not think that this strategy can be effective for waste control. Managing waste as a contract obligation is an extra burden on contractors. Therefore, contractors are not interested in suggesting such a strategy to reduce waste. Similarly, clarity in specifications and collaboration among departments are suggested as effective strategies by clients, consultants, and contractors, but not by regulators. Further, imposing heavy fines and adding waste management content to the curriculum are found to be significant initiatives by regulators and contractors, but clients and consultants have the opposite opinion. Surprisingly, contractors are also willing to bear heavy fines in case of illegal dumping. However, at the same time, this is because contractors want to establish multiple dumping sites throughout the city so that they can easily dump their waste materials. Other enablers, such as modifications in building codes and setting long-term recycling targets, have been identified as major drivers for developing WM and CE culture by contractors. It is a well-known fact that many developed countries have achieved long-term recycling targets and moved towards zero waste [45,82]. However, in the local construction industry, some stakeholders do not think the same way. In Table 5, it can be observed that the maximum level of disagreement (40%) was found between contractors and regulators. Similarly, client–contractor–regulator relationships showed disagreement in 60% of proposed strategies. So, it is mainly in the perceptions of contractors and regulators that disagreement is observed throughout this analysis. Overall, it can be established that most of the time, i.e., 60%, key stakeholders disagree with each other while proposing these enablers; however, 40% of the time, all of these stakeholders are in complete agreement with each other.

4.3. Policy Measures and Developed Framework

Through a thorough thematic analysis of the data collected from semi-structured interviews, several distinct themes were identified. These themes were systematically extracted by coding the interview data using the NVivo software. The primary focus of these themes was to highlight the enablers that the interviewees pointed out while suggesting policy recommendations for waste management (WM). After conducting a detailed and rigorous analysis of the interview data, a total of twenty six (26) themes emerged. The themes that had a coverage percentage greater than 1% were considered to be the most significant, as presented in

Table 6. Percent of coded themes from thematic analysis.

Sr. No	Themes	Percent Coverage	Sr. No	Themes	Percent Coverage
1.	Financial Assistance	14.6%	11.	Clauses of Waste Management	3.7%
2.	Awareness Programs	11.2%	12.	Content in Curriculum	3.5%
3.	Collaboration of Departments	7.3%	13.	Modification of Codes	3.3%
4.	Heavy Fines	5.5%	14.	Designer Field Experience	2.7%
5.	BIM Utilization	5.0%	15.	Implementation of Policies	2.3%
6.	Waste Control Culture	5.0%	16.	Least Waste Design Option	2.3%
7.	Clarity of Specifications	4.1%	17.	Segregation and Recycling	2.0%
8.	Resources Requirements	4.1%	18.	On-site Reuse of Materials	2.0%
9.	Build Landfill Sites	4.1%	19.	Bonus and Penalty Clause	1.3%
10.	Long-term Recycling Plans	3.9%	20.	Business Development	1.1%

. These themes were designated as enablers, with a higher percentage of coverage indicating that the enabler was frequently suggested as a major policy measure for reducing waste. Building upon the percentage coverage of the themes proposed by all four stakeholders, a formal policy framework was developed, which is illustrated in Figure 5. Within this framework, the enabler that had the highest percentage coverage, such as ”financial assistance”, was deemed the most critical policy measure for waste management, as it was consistently emphasized by all stakeholders.

The logical structuring of the extracted themes led to the creation of a thematic tree consisting of four layers. At the top of this tree is the ”coat hanger” node, which serves as the foundational starting point for the framework. The second layer of the tree includes the ”grouping nodes” or ”parent nodes”, which conceptually categorize the themes into two main groups. Figure 5 clearly illustrates these two parent nodes: ”macro-level factors”, which account for 68.4% of the theme coverage, and ”micro-level factors”, which represent 18.4% of the coverage. The higher percentage of coverage for macro-level factors indicates their greater importance, as they typically involve policy initiatives driven by governments and organizations. These initiatives, in turn, have a broader impact at the micro level, affecting the day-to-day operations and practices within the construction industry [83]. Further, in Figure 5, relationship lines connect “parent nodes” to “children” nodes. Each parent node had three child nodes. Among children nodes, national, industrial, and organizational efforts are more important than design, execution, and post-construction level enablers. At level 4, each child node has multiple sub-child nodes. Detailed discussions of each of these policy measures in the form of enablers are presented in the following sections.

4.3.1. Enablers at Planning/Design Phases

The planning and design phases of a project are important because they can remove waste from its source. Once this phase is passed, waste cannot be controlled in the later stages of a project [84]. Therefore, the policy measure coverage in the planning phase was approximately 11.5%. Field experts in the local construction industry have suggested several measures to control waste during the planning and design phases of projects. These enablers include the use of BIM (5%), the clarification of specifications of contract documents (4.1%), and the consideration of the least waste-generating options (2.3%). The use of BIM in the planning phase allows stakeholders to identify clashes, discrepancies, and errors in drawings and rectify them in a timely manner. Instead, they tend to rework in the later stages of a project and thus generate large amounts of waste. Consideration of the least waste design option, along with the use of BIM, was also reported as a key enabler for minimizing waste during the design phase of a project [85]. Furthermore, BIM reduces waste during the execution phase of a project because it provides alternate options in working methodologies to reduce waste on-site. Several studies have used BIM to reduce the waste of tiles, dry walls, and reinforcements [86,87,88]. Next is the consideration of the least wasteful design options to be used during component design. These options include the use of prefabricated structures and designing building components of standard sizes based on their availability in the market.

Prefabricated structures promote off-site construction where components are constructed with the minimum utilization of materials as compared to on-site in situ options. Further, designers must be mindful of the availability of material sizes in the market while designing different components. For example, steel is available in 40-foot lengths, so this must be considered by consultants to design components accordingly rather than cutting them into pieces, which will generate waste. Similar strategies have been reported to reduce waste in other studies [17,60,89]. The last strategy for controlling waste generation during the planning phase is to clarify the specifications on time. This is very important because, most of the time, reworking has to be conducted because of unclear specifications in contract documents. Sometimes, work is performed as per ambiguous information, and when clarity is provided, it causes reworking and the waste of materials. Thus, the application of these enablers can significantly reduce the amount of waste at the design stage of a project.

4.3.2. Enablers at Execution Phase

The second phase of the project lifecycle is the execution or construction phase. This is the phase where physical waste must be controlled. The stakeholders were asked to provide strategies for on-site waste control. Based on the CE principle, enablers were suggested. First of all, waste generation needs to be avoided through the “reduce” principle. In this regard, strict supervision, bonus and penalty clauses, and the hiring of skilled labor on projects must be ensured. Bonus and penalty clauses would motivate contractors to opt for WM practices during execution because contractors are always motivated by financial implications. A significant amount of waste can be reduced by employing an incentive-based reward system [90]. Further, a skilled labor force performs activities more vigilantly and works efficiently. As a result, materials are utilized up to their maximum efficiency. Further, it is a fact that a minimum amount of waste is still generated from construction activities, even with maximum WM efforts. Therefore, reuse and recycling practices should be implemented. Therefore, the generated waste needs to be collected and segregated depending on its properties. Some waste can be reused in the same project, such as bricks reused for flooring as aggregates. Therefore, project managers must try to maximize the reuse of materials on site. Several studies have reported a significant reduction in the amount of waste through the reuse of materials [91,92]. The third principle is “recycling”, which means waste that was not avoided and reused on a project must be recycled and brought back again into the market as recycled materials. Thus, the philosophy of the CE is fulfilled, and nothing goes out of the loop from production to consumption [93]. Therefore, the construction phase of a project deals with physical waste in real time. By implementing these principles, WM and CE can be ensured in construction projects.

4.3.3. Enablers at Post Construction Phase

Waste must be dealt with carefully during the final phase of the project. The generated waste must be collected and segregated, and then it should be decided whether it should go to dumping sites (1%) or recycling facilities (1%). Dumping sites are classified into two major categories: public filling and landfill. Waste can be classified into two major types: inert materials and non-inert materials [42]. Inert materials such as concrete, bricks, and sand are chemically non-reactive and do not cause environmental pollution. On the other hand, non-inert materials are chemically reactive and pollute the environment through leaching action. These materials include wood, plastics, and other organic matter. Therefore, inert materials are dumped in public filling areas, while non-inert waste is disposed of in landfills [21]. The materials delivered to recycling facilities can be recycled and reused in other projects. It was also found that stakeholders emphasized the utilization of recycled materials in all projects. It must be added in contract documents that every project must utilize approximately 25% of all recycled materials. This enforcement is due to the high cost of recycled materials compared to virgin materials. Otherwise, no contractor would use recycled materials in projects until this was enforced. Previous studies also showed that the use of different recycled materials, such as recycled brick powder and recycled aggregate concrete, were used in multiple construction processes to improve the properties of different elements [25,26]. Therefore, using recycled materials in projects would slow the depletion of natural resources and improve resource efficiency.

4.3.4. Organizational-Level Enablers

Regarding macro-level factors, the organizational culture is important in promoting CE practices at construction sites. Industry stakeholders were keen to suggest enablers at the organizational level. These enablers include experienced designers (2.7%), business development (1.1%), the implementation of WM policies (2.3%), and waste control culture (5%). Most of the interviewees emphasized the field experience of designers because irregular sizes of building components were designed owing to a lack of practical experience. These irregular sizes lead to the generation of waste. Experienced designers must know the availability of standard-size materials in the market and design components accordingly. In contrast to this approach, involving suppliers in the early phase of the design process can help resolve issues related to material size selection [94]. However, it is often more effective to rely on experienced designers to make such informed decisions, rather than involving additional stakeholders in the project, as doing so may introduce other complications. The next step is to develop businesses linked to WM, such as building recycling units and recycled markets. It is important to develop businesses that support CE culture in the construction sector [95]. Furthermore, each organization must ensure the implementation of WM policies in its projects and develop a waste control culture within the company. The role of top management in developing such a culture is critical [96,97]. This would not only improve the company’s reputation but also save millions of currency units. It is estimated that WM could save up to 3% of total project costs [9]. Thus, adopting WM practices helps develop sustainable cultures within organizations.

4.3.5. Industrial-Level

Most of the experts proposed a number of strategies at the industrial level, such as awareness programs (11.2%), the modification of building codes (3.3%), clauses of WM (3.7%), and contents of WM in the curriculum of BS programs (3.5%). Awareness programs must start in the form of workshops, seminars, and training to improve WM knowledge among all stakeholders. It is important to understand waste control and its benefits. Most of the time, waste is generated because of poor awareness among stakeholders [98]. Further, interviewees were also intrigued by existing codes of building design. They wanted to include criteria for the least waste-generating options in designing building components. This observation was similar to that of another study, where the modification of codes was suggested as a measure of WM [99]. The next is the clause of WM, which must be added to the standard bidding documents of construction projects. This is because contractors do not bother to perform any task until they are bound by the contract. A similar strategy for promoting WM culture has been reported in other studies [100,101]. Finally, WM content must be added to the BS curriculum. The inclusion of waste management (WM) topics in student curricula was also highlighted in another study [80]. This approach aims to raise awareness among the younger generation, encouraging them to consider WM options in their future decision-making. A few interviewees suggested that separate subjects must be added, and others proposed the addition of this content to Project Management subjects. This would improve engineers’ awareness at the grassroots level and would be a part of their moral obligation to keep the environment clean.

4.3.6. National-Level Enablers

At the national level, major enablers include financial assistance (14.6%) in the form of subsidies, the relaxation of taxes, low-interest rate loans, and a reduction in import duties for machinery, and these can substantially improve WM culture in the construction sector. Financial support would encourage local investors to establish businesses that are linked to WM, such as building a recycled material market and establishing recycling plants. Furthermore, the imposition of heavy fines (5.5%) for illegal dumping is very necessary. The amount of these fines must be greater than the cost of transporting waste materials to the dumping sites. This encourages contractors to prioritize dumping at designated landfills rather than paying low fines. In addition to heavy fines, designated dumping sites (4.1%) must also be established by governmental agencies at appropriate distances from potential construction sites. In this regard, the use of geo-informatics systems should be employed to identify suitable landfill sites within a city [102]. Thus, efforts to trace waste materials should become easier. Long-term recycling targets (3.9%) should be set for each developing country. In this regard, the interviewees agreed that the country must have a thirty-year plan for waste reduction gradually, and recycling targets should be further divided every five years. Most developed countries have set and achieved such targets to promote WM and CE cultures in their countries [103,104]. The efforts at the macro level have a significant effect on the micro-level culture of projects; therefore, these enablers must be imposed to achieve better results. Furthermore, the local construction sector, as well as other industries facing comparable challenges, can benefit from the deployment, growth, and customization of the suggested WM framework, which can help improve resource consumption.

5. Practical Implications for Sustainable Development

The current study focuses on identifying key enablers for waste control and developing a policy framework for developing countries, especially Pakistan. In practical terms, this study provides decision-makers with concrete strategies to allocate resources efficiently, minimize adoption risks, and encourage collaboration among stakeholders, ultimately increasing the adoption of digital technologies and advancing sustainable construction practices in the context of developing countries. From a theoretical perspective, the results emphasize the need to explore various factors, such as governmental, industrial, organizational, planning, execution, and post-construction phases of a project within theoretical frameworks. This approach allows for future research to more thoroughly understand how different factors interact to influence CE-driven transformation. The significant presence of financial assistance, collaboration among departments, awareness programs, a waste-control culture, the use of the latest tools, and ensuring the reuse of materials onsite highlights the critical role of regional and industry-specific elements. Additionally, the findings of the study highlight the necessity for comprehensive strategies that include financial incentives, capacity development, regulatory changes, and usage of the latest tools, which can be utilized by developing countries aiming to improve their circular practices. The focus on collaboration among multiple stakeholders and the government’s role in creating supportive environments further emphasizes approaches that can be applied in contexts beyond Pakistan. By integrating these factors into current construction practices, their relevance to developing nations can be enhanced [105].

Further, the proposed WM framework can help policymakers develop CE culture in the local context as it guides the role of different stakeholders in preventing waste generation in construction projects. In managing construction waste, every stakeholder plays a crucial role in advancing sustainability. The client should set the overall direction by funding waste management and sustainability efforts, allocating resources appropriately, and enforcing waste-related provisions in contracts. They should also encourage collaboration among various departments and implement penalties or rewards based on waste management performance. Consultants should assist both the client and contractor by incorporating waste management strategies into project design, using tools such as BIM to enhance material efficiency. They should promote awareness and ensure adherence to sustainable practices, thereby nurturing a culture of waste control. Contractors are responsible for executing waste management practices at the job site, which includes waste segregation, recycling, and appropriate disposal methods. Regulators should formulate and enforce regulations regarding WM in light of the guidelines provided in Figure 5. Collectively, these roles contribute to the effective management of waste and the promotion of sustainability within construction projects.

From local to global contexts, the results of the current study have important consequences at the district, provincial, federal, and global scales. Local governments can take advantage by incorporating WM provisions into construction contracts, conducting awareness campaigns, and setting up community landfills and recycling centers. These local initiatives will aid in addressing the micro-level deficiencies identified in the research. At the provincial level, the findings indicate the necessity of updating building regulations, revising engineering and architecture educational programs to incorporate WM practices, and providing financial incentives to promote sustainable construction methods. Provincial governments are also in a position to strengthen collaboration among departments, which is identified as a crucial macro-level enabler. On the federal front, the research highlights the critical need for establishing a comprehensive national waste management strategy, focusing on financial support, interagency collaboration, and technological advancements. A coordinated national strategy would ensure uniformity across provinces and amplify the effects of macro-level initiatives, which were found to have a significantly stronger impact compared to micro-level actions. Lastly, on the global stage, the current study also supports the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs), particularly in the area of development of sustainable cities (SDG-11), by minimizing environmental pollution on construction sites by facilitating the responsible consumption of natural resources (SDG-12), i.e., construction materials in current study, and mitigating the impacts of climate change (SDG-13) by curbing the depletion of natural resources.

Moreover, this study contributes to all key aspects of the CE and sustainable development. The environmental challenges of material waste generation can be addressed by applying proposed enablers in the construction sector. Second, this reduces the depletion of natural resources by maximizing their utilization. WM methods can significantly limit the amount of construction waste at landfill sites [106]. Therefore, a reduction in waste generation also leads to lower incineration and greenhouse gas emissions [107]. Thus, the carbon footprint of the construction sector can be reduced, thereby making the industry more sustainable. This decrease in waste generation has economic implications as well. WM can save a large number of currency units. The current research also addresses economic challenges by reducing construction costs through the efficient use of materials. It is found that around three percent (3%) of the project costs can be saved by implementing WM strategies [9,42]. This will motivate not only clients but also contractors to adopt WM strategies into their projects to increase profit margins. This study makes a major contribution to the initiation of CE and WM cultures. Therefore, the construction industry must improve its awareness of key stakeholders and ensure resource management practices through education, seminars, and regular training programs. Through the promotion of sustainable practices and community involvement, this fosters a culture of shared accountability that encourages practical application [108]. Thus, the social value of the construction sector in developing countries can be improved.

6. Conclusions

This study aimed to provide policy guidelines for developing countries, especially Pakistan, where waste generation is a major threat to the environment and material sustainability. This was facilitated by identifying the major enablers as a result of thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with clients, consultants, contractors, and regulators. Further, it was also determined how the perception of each stakeholder is different from others while devising these policy measures/enablers.

It was found that the maximum level of agreement (80%) was shown by clients and consultants. Similarly, a 60% consensus was observed in the perception of clients–consultants–contractors. Overall, there were only 40% similarities among the perceptions of all four industry stakeholders in the ranking of WM enablers. In terms of differences of opinion, the addition of clauses for WM in contract documents was suggested by clients, consultants, and regulators, whereas contractors did not think that this strategy would be effective for waste control. Similarly, clarity in specifications and collaboration among departments were suggested to be enablers by clients, consultants, and contractors, but not by regulators. Overall, all stakeholders agreed that financial assistance, awareness programs, building landfill sites, and the use of the latest tools, such as BIM, are the major enablers for WM. Further, it was found that these stakeholders disagreed 60% of the time while proposing these enablers.

As a result of thematic analysis, a policy framework was devised, where enablers to promote WM culture awareness mainly categorized into macro levels (national, organizational, and industrial) and micro levels (planning/design, execution, and post-construction). All these enablers had different weights. At the micro level, the use of BIM (5%), considering the least waste generation options (2.3%), and clarification of specifications (4.1%) were identified as major enablers in the planning phase. The execution, collection and segregation of waste (2%) and the reuse of waste (2%) were found to be major strategies. In the post-construction phase, dumping waste at designated landfills (1%) or recycling plants (1%) were identified as important strategies. At the macro level, organizations should develop waste control cultures (5%), hire experienced designers (2.7%), and develop markets for recycled materials (1.1%), whereas awareness programs (11.2%), clauses of WM (3.7%), contents of WM in the curriculum of BS programs (3.5%) and modifications in building codes (3.3%) are significant measures at the industrial level. Governments are required to provide financial assistance (14.6%) in the form of subsidies and ensure collaboration among departments (7.2%) for the implementation of WM strategies. Overall, it was found that macro-level enablers (68.2%) have more impact as compared to micro-level enablers (18.4%). This means that policy must be implemented from the top to obtain results at the micro level.

This study has some limitations. The current study was conducted in the context of Pakistan, and data were collected from multiple experts from the industry. However, the results may vary to some extent in other developing countries. Therefore, in the future, comparative studies across multiple regions or countries could yield insights into the shared challenges and effective practices for WM in the construction sector globally. Further, future studies could aim to validate the suggested policy framework in various cultural, economic, and regulatory environments in other developing countries. This would assess the effectiveness of the identified enablers. This can be done by implementing the proposed WM strategies on a real-time project and comparing its results with other traditional projects to quantify the amount of waste reduction. Another prospective research aspect is the exploration of the impact of emerging technologies, such as BIM, and their incorporation into waste management practices. Future studies might look into how BIM implementation at different phases of a project contributes to minimizing waste generation, improving resource efficiency, and facilitating better decision-making in waste management efforts. This could also encompass a cost–benefit assessment of implementing such technologies in developing nations.