Investigating the Entrepreneurial and Accounting Factors Influencing Saudi Female Students’ Entrepreneurial Intentions

Abstract

This study investigates the entrepreneurial intentions of Saudi female students, focusing on the underexplored role of accounting knowledge within the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) framework, to support Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 goals of gender-inclusive economic diversification. Using a qualitative multiple-case study design, the research analyzes interviews with 45 female business students and an in-depth case study of a graduate entrepreneur to examine how entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC)—particularly through accounting education and institutional support—shape entrepreneurial intentions. The results reveal that PBC dominates entrepreneurial intentions (80% of thematic prevalence), being heavily influenced by accounting literacy (18%) and entrepreneurship education (58%). While subjective norms show positive shifts due to socio-institutional reforms, accounting knowledge emerges as a critical yet underutilized cognitive factor in enhancing financial decision-making capabilities. This study contributes to the sustainable entrepreneurship literature by uniquely integrating accounting competencies into the TPB model as a key enabler of PBC, offering a context-sensitive framework for women’s entrepreneurship in transitional economies. The research provides practical insights for policymakers and educators to bridge the intention–behavior gap through curriculum development, ecosystem support, and gender-inclusive policy reforms.

1. Introduction

Entrepreneurship is a dynamic and innovative process that drives product enhancement, job creation, productivity growth, market stimulation, and socioeconomic development [1]. While its significance has surged in recent years, entrepreneurship has long been a cornerstone of civilizational progress [2]. In Saudi Arabia, entrepreneurship is increasingly recognized as a catalyst for economic diversification, particularly under Vision 2030, which prioritizes female workforce participation and empowerment [3,4,5]. Despite governmental efforts to foster women’s entrepreneurship, research indicates that female students’ entrepreneurial intentions are shaped by a complex interplay of personal, social, and educational factors—many of which remain underexplored in the Saudi context.

While prior studies have examined entrepreneurial intentions using the theory of planned behavior (TPB) [6], few have investigated how accounting-related factors—such as financial literacy, access to capital, and accounting education—interact with entrepreneurial attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control among Saudi female students. This gap is critical because accounting competencies directly influence business feasibility, risk assessment, and financial decision making, which are key determinants of entrepreneurial success [7]. Moreover, the existing research on women’s entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia has predominantly focused on policy reforms [8,9] rather than the micro-level educational and cognitive factors that shape entrepreneurial intentions. This study addresses this gap by integrating accounting education into the TPB framework, offering novel insights into how financial and entrepreneurial skill development influences Saudi female students’ venture creation aspirations.

The TPB posits that entrepreneurial intentions are driven by the following three factors: (1) attitudes (personal evaluation of entrepreneurship), (2) subjective norms (perceived social expectations), and (3) perceived behavioral control (self-efficacy and resource access) [6]. While these constructs have been widely studied globally [10,11,12,13,14,15,16], their application in Saudi Arabia, a rapidly transforming society with unique cultural and institutional dynamics, remains limited. Given the evolving institutional and socio-cultural setting of Saudi Arabia, it is crucial to widen the range of present theoretical frameworks to cover local elements including educational institutional support, gender norms, and accounting knowledge. For instance, how do familial and societal expectations interact with accounting education to shape entrepreneurial confidence? Do female students perceive financial management skills as a barrier or an enabler? This study leverages the TPB to explore these questions, providing a culturally nuanced understanding of women’s entrepreneurial intentions.

Thus, this study investigates the following research questions:

• How do Saudi female students’ attitudes toward entrepreneurship influence their entrepreneurial intentions?
• How do subjective norms (e.g., familial, societal, and institutional pressures) shape their venture creation aspirations?
• How does perceived behavioral control, particularly in entrepreneurial, accounting and financial competencies, affect their entrepreneurial intentions?

By examining these questions, this research contributes to both theory and practice. Theoretically, it extends the TPB by incorporating accounting-specific factors, offering a more granular understanding of entrepreneurial decision making. Practically, it provides policymakers and educators with evidence-based strategies to enhance entrepreneurship education—particularly in accounting and financial training—to better support Saudi women in business. Given Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 goals, these insights are vital for fostering an inclusive entrepreneurial ecosystem. This study not only advances knowledge on women’s entrepreneurship in transitioning economies but also demonstrates how interdisciplinary approaches (i.e., entrepreneurship and accounting) can uncover new dimensions of entrepreneurial behavior.

Following this introduction, Section 2 reviews the literature on entrepreneurial intentions and the TPB, emphasizing gaps in accounting-related influences. Section 3 details the methodology, while Section 4 and Section 5 present and discuss the findings. The conclusion (Section 6) summarizes the key contributions and suggests future research directions.

The Saudi Arabian Context: Women’s Entrepreneurship and Socio-Economic Change in Saudi Arabia

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is experiencing major social and economic changes due to Vision 2030, a strategic plan aimed at diversifying the economy and increasing the participation of women in the labor market [17]. These changes have allowed women to gain greater access to education, professional training, and entrepreneurship [18]. Legislative reforms and policy changes, including the dismantling of previous restrictions, the streamlining of business registration processes, and women’s empowerment, have shown concrete outcomes [3]. Impressively, 46% of Saudi women wish to start a business in the next three years, an increase compared to 39% of men who express the same interest [19].

Despite such developments, long-standing structural barriers persist [20]. These include restrictions on education opportunities, skill shortages, and gender-based stereotypes associated with certain fields of study and professions [21]. Women continue to encounter barriers in accessing entrepreneurial inputs, as evidenced by a rating of 3.6 out of 10, assigned by national specialists [20]. In addition, the regulatory environment needs improvement, particularly with respect to the support mechanisms established for women entrepreneurs.

In response to such challenges, institutions of higher education have become more proactive in encouraging female entrepreneurship [19]. Centers such as “Dah” in Princess Nourah University [21] and “Taibah Valley” in Taibah University [22] provide business incubators, workshops, and mentorship programs that aim to enhance entrepreneurial competencies among female students [23]. Such projects form an essential part of a larger ecosystem that not only supports skill development but also impacts the students’ self-evaluation of their entrepreneurial skills [24].

While the extant literature focuses largely on financial literacy—most commonly in conjunction with saving behaviors—and its role in predicting entrepreneurial intentions [25], the present study emphasizes the importance of accounting knowledge as an independent and previously unexamined cognitive factor. Accounting literacy equips students with planning and decision-making capabilities essential for the efficient control of financial resources. This competence, in turn, strengthens perceived behavioral control, a key element of the theory of planned behavior (TPB).

Given the changing institutional and socio-cultural context of Saudi Arabia, it is essential to broaden the scope of current theoretical frameworks to include localized factors, such as educational institutional support, gender norms, and accounting knowledge. This study addresses this need through a qualitative research strategy that uses interviews with female students and observations of a graduate-inclusive entrepreneurial project. It aims to contribute to intellectual debate and policy formulation by offering a contextually appropriate model for empowering Saudi women through higher education and entrepreneurial activity.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Theoretical Framework: Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Entrepreneurial intention (EI) has been identified as a major determinant of one’s likelihood of engaging in the process of creating new businesses. It is defined as a conscious cognitive state that precedes an individual’s engagement in entrepreneurial behavior (EB), indicating their readiness to invest effort towards entrepreneurial goals [6,26,27]. The TPB is one of the most widely used theoretical models for explaining EI. Based on the TPB, intentions are considered reflections of motivational forces that influence behavior, with increased intentions being associated with a higher possibility of actual behavioral enactment [6]. This theoretical framework argues that EI is influenced by three basic psychological constructs as follows: attitude toward the behavior (ATB), subjective norms (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC). In this context, ATB refers to the extent to which entrepreneurship is perceived as desirable, SN refers to perceived societal pressures, and PBC includes self-efficacy along with the ability to regulate resources.

Although the TPB has been used for predictive purposes, researchers have increasingly called for a contextual expansion of the theory [28,29]. In particular, attention has been drawn to the relevance of the TPB in transitional and conservative economies, considering the cultural, gendered, and institutional factors that uniquely affect behavioral control and perceived norms [30,31]. The present study responds to this criticism by proposing a context-responsive model with cognitive and structural variables that are relevant to the Saudi environment.

2.2. Gender Norms

Empirical research in the Saudi context has emphasized ATB and PBC as robust predictors of EI in female university students, whereas SN frequently exhibits weaker or unstable effects [32,33]. For example, Meeralam and Adeinat [23] observed that perceived university support greatly contributes to PBC by allowing students to visualize themselves as capable entrepreneurs, despite the prevailing conservative social norms. Similarly, Islam and Alharthi [24] found that while SNs might not be direct predictors of EI, self-efficacy fostered in supportive study environments can moderate their effects.

This pattern aligns with results reported in many conservative Arab countries. In Jordan, the ratio of male to female entrepreneurs is approximately 4:1, while in Morocco, women’s representation in the entrepreneurial economy is only 16% [34,35]. These statistics highlight the role of cultural attitudes and entrenched gender norms in shaping women’s self-efficacy regarding their entrepreneurial potential. In contrast, Malaysia has a more conducive institutional setting, where supportive educational systems and positive female role models promote women’s entrepreneurial aspirations [36].

Despite the increased academic attention, the majority of existing studies rely on a quantitative approach, treating gender as a demographic factor rather than as a complex, structural variable. This limited viewpoint hinders our understanding of how institutional and societal barriers intersect and interact with women’s entrepreneurial success.

2.3. Educational Institutional Support

The majority of recent studies highlight the major role played by the learning environment in developing entrepreneurial attitudes and self-efficacy among students. Acquiring knowledge enhances an individual’s awareness of their own capabilities, which fosters self-efficacy [37]. Entrepreneurship education, mentoring, and access to networks offered by universities boost students’ perceived behavioral control and self-efficacy [38,39]. While Atmono et al. [40] have found that curriculum attendance had little influence on developing the entrepreneurial intentions of students, it did show the potential to increase entrepreneurial self-efficacy, though extracurricular activities had a stronger influence on entrepreneurial intention. Higher levels of perceived behavioral control have been observed in students engaged in junior enterprises than in those who did not participate in such extracurricular activities [41]. Research has also demonstrated that entrepreneurial skills are enhanced by both elective and mandatory entrepreneurship education [42]. In the Saudi Arabian and Bangladeshi contexts, combining entrepreneurship education with practice and role models significantly strengthens female students’ entrepreneurial attitudes [36]. University support—which includes business development resources, mentorship, and access to ecosystems—is repeatedly associated with increased EI in different national contexts, including Atlantic Canada and Germany [38,39,43,44].

In Saudi Arabia, where socio-cultural progress is among the key pillars of Vision 2030, little research has been conducted so far to address the effect of the university environment on EI among female university students. According to Islam and Alharthi [24], perceived social norms do not influence EI directly, but self-efficacy fostered within the university environment plays a significant mediating role. Meeralam and Adeinat [23] argue that female students in favorable learning environments have high levels of PBC, which allows them to imagine themselves as entrepreneurs, despite the prevailing conservative norms.

The social environment in universities can be a conditioning factor for individual SN. For example, engagement with family and community leaders via university-led entrepreneurship programs can potentially increase the legitimacy of women’s entrepreneurship in collectivistic cultures, such as Saudi Arabia [35]. The success of university-led programs, however, depends on context-specific factors. In the United Arab Emirates, for instance, the prevalence of stable government jobs reduces the impact of entrepreneurship studies on actual EB [45].

However, much of the existing research on entrepreneurship education relies on a consistent, quantitative approach, which does not always address the interrelations between educational contexts and cultural or gendered variables [28,29]. In contrast, this paper adopts a contextually informed, qualitative approach to explore the impact of the university context on entrepreneurial attitudes, norms, and perceived control among Saudi Arabian female students.

2.4. Accounting Knowledge

Accounting knowledge is a critical competency for entrepreneurs, enabling them to interpret financial data, assess business viability, and make informed strategic decisions. While financial literacy (e.g., basic budgeting and personal finance) is important, accounting knowledge encompasses a deeper understanding of financial statements, cost management, and regulatory compliance, which are skills essential for sustainable business growth [46,47]. This section clarifies the distinction between financial literacy and accounting expertise, emphasizing how formal accounting education enhances entrepreneurial success.

Financial literacy refers to the ability to manage personal and business finances, such as budgeting and debt management [48]. In contrast, accounting knowledge involves (1) financial statement analysis (interpreting balance sheets, income statements, and cash flow statements), (2) cost and managerial accounting (pricing strategies, break-even analysis, and cost control), and (3) tax and regulatory compliance (understanding fiscal obligations and reporting requirements) [49].

Entrepreneurs with accounting training are better equipped to evaluate financial health, forecast cash flows, and secure funding, which are key factors in business sustainability [50,51]. For example, Cassar [52] found that startups with founders skilled in accounting were less likely to fail due to improved financial decision making.

For most aspiring entrepreneurs, it is a highly challenging undertaking to raise enough funds. Researchers such as Kristiansen and Indarti [53], Clercq et al. [54], and Urban and Ratsimanetrimanana [55] have focused on the ability to access financial resources. The availability of loans, grants, and investment determines the chances of survival during the first stages of development, and these funding sources sustain growth in the long term [56]. When access to finance is limited, a venture has a restricted capacity to invest in resources, marketing, or growth strategies [53].

The use of accounting information in the decision-making process allows an entrepreneur to ground their decisions in financial facts to then realize entrepreneurial success. In this regard, Hogarth and Hilgert [57], Gilenko and Chernova [50], and Rapina et al. [51] have reported greater success amongst entrepreneurs who habitually utilize accounting information when conducting financial analyses, evaluating performance, and developing strategies. Using accounting information to identify trends, assess risk, and monitor financial results increases the likelihood that an entrepreneur will make appropriate decisions to support the sustainable growth and profitability of their venture [25,50].

2.5. Limitations of TPB in Practice

Although TPB is heavily applied in EI forecasting, its ability to explain the bridging of the intention–behavior gap in the context of actual EB is significantly limited. A meta-analysis by Tsou et al. [10] found that EI explained only 17% of EB variability, citing a wide intention–behavior gap. Such a gap becomes especially significant in conservative settings, where cultural prescriptions, institutional barriers, and limited access to resources reduce the volitional control necessary for the predictive strength of the TPB [11,12]. The research exploring this gap has largely been conducted in developed economies, often ignoring the experiences of entrepreneurs in emerging or gender-conservative settings [13,14]. Social norms, family expectations, and traditional gender roles in these environments can hinder the process of converting intention into entrepreneurial conduct [16,58].

This study addresses these limitations by adopting a qualitative approach to situating TPB. By including other variables—accounting knowledge, cultural norms, and institutional and university support—it explores how Saudi female students navigate EI. Through interviews and case study observations, this study proposes a culturally nuanced extension of TPB that is suitable for transitional economies.

2.6. Conceptual Model Based on the TPB

Based on previous research, this study presents an initial conceptual model based on the TPB, adapted to suit the Saudi context. While TPB’s underlying constructs of ATB, SN, and PBC serve as the building blocks, the model proposes three new dimensions to better capture local dynamics.

First, accounting skill is integrated as a cognitive factor that enhances perceived control by strengthening analytical skills and financial decision making. Second, institutional and university support is recognized as a facilitative factor that enhances entrepreneurial self-efficacy and helps overcome external barriers through mechanisms like mentorship and incubators. Third, cultural and gender norms are introduced as powerful contextual forces that can either limit or enable EI, particularly in traditional cultures.

This study uses qualitative methods, namely interviews with female students and a case study of the entrepreneurial ventures of a female graduate, to examine the interplay between these variables in influencing EI. The findings aim to refine this model and contribute to the development of educational policy and practice.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. Research Approach

This study adopts a qualitative multiple-case study design underpinned by the TPB to investigate how Saudi female university students’ EI are formed by entrepreneurial attitudes ATB, SN, and PBC—alongside educational institutional support, gender norms, and accounting knowledge. This approach allows for an in-depth investigation of how beliefs and experiences shape intentions within the complex socio-cultural and institutional environment of Saudi Arabia [59,60].

Qualitative research aims at understanding meanings people give to phenomena, their experiences, and the socially constructed realities in which they exist [61]. Therefore, it is most appropriate for studying entrepreneurial intention as a developing concept, informed by individual, social, and institutional factors—particularly in a transition setting like Saudi Arabia. The study follows a constructivist worldview, wherein knowledge is perceived as co-constructed through social interactions [62,63].

The multiple-case study design enables comparison of actual settings to discern patterns and contextual differences [64]. Yin [59] affirms its application when research inquires “how” or “why”, is non-manipulative, and deals with socially embedded phenomena. The triangulation of data using interviews, observations, and documents increases trustworthiness [65].

To a large extent, this design is warranted by the exploratory nature of the research and the requirement for in-depth context-specific information on Saudi women’s entrepreneurial intentions.

3.2. Study Context

Saudi Arabian women play a pivotal role in the socio-economic development of the Kingdom as part of Vision 2030, seeking to enhance women’s empowerment and their contribution to the labor market and entrepreneurial endeavors [17,19,20]. Despite their high levels of education and growing participation in the labor market, the percentage of women’s participation in entrepreneurship is still below the expected levels [19]. Therefore, it is crucial to examine the cognitive and contextual factors that drive their entrepreneurial intentions.

The study focuses on female students in the College of Business Administration at Taibah University—Yanbu Branch. They are in a unique position at the crossroads of new opportunities and old socio-cultural constraints, e.g., gender roles and a lack of institutional support [19,66]. Yanbu has been selected as the study area because of its significant position as an industrial and logistics center, hence offering a suitable environment for entrepreneurial activities beyond the primary urban areas [66].

With its entrepreneurial programs and close link with the local business community, Taibah University—Yanbu is the ideal setting in which to explore how academic and institutional environments influence the development of entrepreneurial intentions among Saudi female students in a transitional setting.

3.3. Study Design

To better achieve the research objectives, the interview questions were derived from the TPB [6], synthesizing its essential elements (ATB, SN, and PBC), and further segmented by contextual factors like institutional support, accounting expertise, and gender norms, consistent with earlier research on women’s entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia. A strict protocol was followed in every interview to ensure consistency, but it allowed for flexibility to fit the stories told by the participants (the detailed protocol is presented in Appendix A). This structure fits within the interpretivist research methodology and enhances the potential for cross-case analyses, hence enabling the formulation of insights particular to specific contexts [60,64,65].

Moreover, a two-phase case study research design was used, following the methodological recommendations provided by Yin [59]. This design involves a single-case and multiple-case holistic analysis. The term holistic indicates that every case—whether a graduate entrepreneur or a student—is considered a whole and integrated analytical unit, and it is not broken down into smaller parts [59]. This approach allows for a deeper understanding of how personal beliefs, institutional settings, and situational conditions shape entrepreneurial intentions.

In Phase One, conducted from 2 September to 6 September 2022, a single-case study was conducted on a recent Taibah University–Yanbu College of Business Administration graduate who started her own fashion business. Data were collected using a semi-structured interview and direct non-participant observation. The purpose of this study was to examine the intention–behavior gap and assess the influence of accounting knowledge, family support, and entrepreneurship education on her decision-making processes and practices.

In Phase Two, from 8 September 2022 to 30 August 2023, a holistic multiple-case study was conducted on 45 female business students in one institution. All participants were treated as separate bounded cases. Purposive sampling methods were used in both phases to recruit participants with notable relevant information for the study. Purposive sampling was utilized in both phases to recruit participants with rich informational contexts (as illustrated in

Table 1. Characteristics of student respondents.

Number of Participants = 45		Frequency (N)	Frequency (%)
Gender	Male	0	0%
	Female	45	100%
Age	18–20-year-olds	6	13%
	21-year-olds or over	39	87%
Educational level	Sophomore year	1	2%
	Junior year	5	11%
	Senior year	32	71%
	Recently graduated	7	16%
Major	BAC (Management)	42	93%
	BAC (Management Information Systems)	3	7%
Previous working experience	Own businesses	4	9%
	Working in private or public sector	3	7%
	No previous work experience	38	84%
Enterprise sector	Transportation and logistics	5	11%
	Tourism, culture, and entertainment	8	18%
	Communications and information technology	9	20%
	Education and training	1	2%
	Industry	25	56%
	Health, biotechnology, and medicine	1	2%
	Agriculture and food industry	1	2%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

, showing the characteristics of student respondents). Variation was achieved with regard to academic level, entrepreneurial interest, and experience. Recruitment was conducted through faculty referral and voluntary enrollment.

3.4. Data Analysis

The qualitative data, which were gathered via field observation and interviews, were analyzed thematically in line with the systematic guidelines outlined by Braun and Clarke [67] and Creswell and Poth [65]. A three-phased coding procedure, i.e., open, axial, and selective coding, was applied to yield ordered findings that are in line with the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and account for contextual factors, such as educational institutional support, gender norms, and accounting knowledge.

3.4.1. Interview Analysis

Interviews were coded first in Arabic, the native language of the participants, to maintain linguistic fidelity and cultural sensitivity. Then, after coding, the codes and themes were translated into English to facilitate interpretation, documentation, and reporting.

The coding and categorization were made easy by Microsoft Excel, which was used to produce codebooks, thematic matrices, and analytical summaries for different cases. Excel helped with data management and visualizing theme relationships. The research was carried out in the following three separate phases:

• Open coding: The interviews were read numerous times with the aim of building emergent codes that capture salient themes, key words, and participants’ views regarding entrepreneurial intention, motivation, and perceived obstacles. The codes were, in the beginning, linked with the core elements of the TPB and contextual factors like support from the university and social roles.
• Axial coding: In this phase, open codes were organized systematically into wider conceptual categories through the process of recognizing similarities and differences across cases. This stage allowed the demystification of the interrelationships between themes, e.g., family support, trust in accounting processes, and the university’s role in fostering or hindering entrepreneurial mindsets. The codes were rearranged to form meaningful categories consistent with the conceptual framework of the research.
• Selective coding: In the last phase, core themes were carefully expanded and integrated into core analytic categories that summarized the main phenomena shaping the development of entrepreneurial intention. This allowed the development of an early conceptual model that explains how accounting knowledge engages with educational and social environments in shaping students’ entrepreneurial paths (Example of Thematic Analysis Phases—Accounting Knowledge is presented in Appendix B).

During all three stages of analysis, memoing was used to capture theoretical notes, improve insights, and form intercode links and key themes [65]. In an attempt to ensure credibility and dependability in the findings, data triangulation was implemented in a process that compared responses obtained during interviews among different participants to identify prevailing patterns coupled with thematic congruity [60].

3.4.2. Case Study of Observations (Shawq)

Field observation was conducted as part of a targeted case study of a graduate entrepreneur named Shawq. This involved the use of observational memoing and analytic field notes to contextualize and augment the interview data. The observational data were thematically analyzed using the same coding structure that had been applied to the interviews. However, the analysis focused on behavioral signals, enterprise routines, and contextual adjustments that were observable in the field.

Observational notes were subjected to open coding to identify pragmatic practices that represent the core dimensions of the TPB, namely, decision-making practices (PBC), customer interaction (ATB), and role allocation guided by cultural norms (SN). For example, the decision to hire Saudi women as marketing staff while outsourcing the tailoring work to expatriate labor illustrated a strategic response to Saudi labor laws and gender expectations—both of which are associated with perceived institutional and social constraints.

Axial coding explained the relationships among Shawq’s reliance on accounting reports, her caution regarding labor sponsorship, and her trust in local supply chains; this implies a planned approach based on perceived control and environmental awareness. The application of university-acquired skills in marketing, finance, and planning aligns with the cognitive aspects of the TPB, with institutional education and family support also enhancing this.

This rich observation made it possible for an in-depth and contextualized understanding of the way intention is translated—or constrained—into action, thus supporting the qualitative grounding of the conceived conceptual model.

3.5. Maintaining Research Integrity and Establishing Study Parameters

To assess the rigor and credibility of this qualitative study, the researchers followed the criteria laid out by Lincoln and Guba [62], with a focus on the dimensions of credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability. The credibility of the study was maintained through detailed interaction with the participants, involving detailed interviews and field notes (for example, in the Shawq case), and member checking during and after the interviews to ensure the accuracy of the interpretations made. Validation of the results was further ensured by using triangulation over different sources of data, i.e., interview transcripts, observational field notes, and reflective memos. For dependability and confirmability, exhaustive audit trails and reflective records relating to analytical judgments and coding approaches were carefully preserved [65]. Transferability was ensured by making detailed descriptions relating to institutional, cultural, and academic contexts so that readers can judge the applicability of the findings in similar situations.

3.6. Sample Justification and Study Delimitations

The current study employed a multiple-case qualitative study design, which targeted a single graduate entrepreneur with a purposive sample of 45 female business students at the College of Business Administration, Taibah University—Yanbu Branch. The sample size here might seem limiting from a quantitative standpoint, yet it was more than sufficient for qualitative research that values thematic saturation over statistical representativeness [59,63]. This strategy was found effective in revealing persisting themes and patterns in the entrepreneurial experiences and activities of the participant group.

Furthermore, the recruitment of participants across different academic years fostered internal diversity within the sample, allowing for a richer comparative analysis within a qualitative context. The case of Shawq added contextual complexities by connecting intention to actual entrepreneurial behavior. This approach was methodologically verified to ensure a balanced incorporation of the richness of individual stories with thematic diversity at the group level, and thus, confirming the conceptual model and providing the basis for future quantitative or mixed-method research.

4. Findings

This study tracked the social, cognitive, and institutional determinants of Saudi female students’ EI, with the TPB as the underlying framework. The findings, supplemented with in-depth interviews and a detailed case study, reflect both the explanatory power and the limitations of the TPB in the Saudi transitional environment.

4.1. Case Study of a Graduate Enterprise for Designing and Selling Clothes (Abayas)

Shawq, a 25-year-old female entrepreneur who majored in management at the College of Business Administration (CBA) in Yanbu, founded an enterprise in the fashion design industry in 2022. Her selection of clothing manufacturing was based on her personal passion for fashion design and her conviction that the market required innovation in this domain. Her objective was to produce and sell abayas of superior quality with contemporary designs at fair prices to maximize her profits.

Based on observations, Shawq employed three male tailors from India and Pakistan, along with two Saudi women in the sales and marketing departments. During her interview, Shawq explained that she chose the five employees based on comprehensive evaluation criteria, such as their reputation and quality of production. It was observed that Shawq had implemented the Saudization system by hiring Saudi nationals for the cashier and marketing positions. She refrained from personally sponsoring foreign workers due to potential complications arising from the complexity of the system, such as issues in the event of a worker’s escape. To further prevent legal problems, Shawq maintained precise accounting records and opened a bank account for the enterprise. To ensure accessibility, Shawq established an online store and considered social media platforms crucial for customer communication and marketing. However, since she believed that customers prefer to see sizes and designs in person, she also owned an abaya store in Yanbu City.

Shawq’s motivation stemmed primarily from her family’s support, particularly that of her father, as well as the endorsement and acceptance of the enterprise by her community. Her father provided financial assistance for her small-scale individual enterprise, which operated with an estimated capital of 350,000 riyals. Despite the psychological and material support from her family, she had encountered some societal discouragement. However, she confirmed during her interview that women’s entrepreneurship had become more socially acceptable in her community. She stated, “As a result of women’s empowerment by the government, society has come to accept the idea that women are capable of being entrepreneurs”.

During her interviews, Shawq explained the bureaucratic challenges she faced in officially registering her enterprise; however, her prior experience in this domain enabled her to understand the process of establishing the enterprise and interacting with government agencies. Shawq acknowledged the challenges posed by suppliers and competitors; however, she was adept at managing these issues and recognized the significance of effective planning for tools and resources within the enterprise. She opted to engage with local suppliers to circumvent the logistical and customs-related challenges associated with importing from China. She leased a factory before establishing her current facility.

When asked about her academic experience during the interview, Shawq mentioned that she learned how to start her own enterprise through her university studies. As part of her entrepreneurship education, she studied the entrepreneurship curriculum and attended courses that helped her manage aspects of her enterprise, such as marketing, human resources, and accounting. She advocated for greater guidance and support in specialized fields, such as fashion design.

4.1.1. Factors Affecting the Enterprise Based on the Case Study

Positive ATB

The following factors indicated Shawq’s positive ATB, which helped reinforce her commitment to sustaining her business:

• Favorable enterprise idea: Shawq had a positive outlook regarding her clothing enterprise and was confident in its success due to the substantial and constant demand for abayas, which led to high profits.
• Passion for entrepreneurship: Her enthusiasm for the industry fueled her creativity, vigor, and resilience, allowing her to overcome obstacles.
• Identifying and addressing market needs: Recognizing a gap in the marketplace, where high-quality, contemporary abayas were both scarce and overpriced, Shawq capitalized on the opportunity by producing abayas that aligned with consumer demands to maximize profits.

As Shawq’s case illustrates, a strong positive attitude directly influenced her EI, leading to the execution of planned behavior. This observation supports the TPB.

SN

• Family and local community support: The most significant motivating factors in Shawq’s entrepreneurial journey were the financial and psychological support offered by her family, especially her father, and her local community’s acceptance of her decision to launch a clothing manufacturing and sales business.
• Resilience against opposition: While Shawq encountered some discouragement, it had little impact on her success due to the limited number of detractors and the strong, positive support from her family.

Shawq’s case illustrates how family and community support strengthened her EI, which led to the successful implementation of her enterprise. This observation aligns with the TPB and reflects the influence of SN on intentions and action.

PBC

• Understanding the enterprise’s administrative and managerial procedures: Shawq recognized the value of enterprise organization, planning, and foresight in effectively managing day-to-day operations. She had a strong understanding of Saudi regulations and compliance requirements to minimize legal risk. In addition, Shawq was knowledgeable about accounting processes, including opening a bank account, maintaining financial records, and estimating operating costs. Her success in managing her enterprise was a result of the entrepreneurship education she received through her university’s academic curriculum and extracurricular activities. However, she lacked awareness of certain labor regulations.
• Interacting with local suppliers: Shawq initially faced challenges with shipping and customs clearance when sourcing material from lower-cost external suppliers, such as those in China. Thus, the most advantageous option was to work with a local supplier.
• Overcoming legislative barriers: Although Shawq encountered difficulties in registering her business and completing transactions through official government procedures, her prior entrepreneurial experience helped her navigate these challenges more easily.

Shawq’s keen awareness of her ability to control the key factors affecting her enterprise enhanced her EI and enabled her to implement EB. This observation supports the TPB.

4.2. Re-Examining the TPB Factors in the Saudi Environment

The three constructs included in the TPB—ATB, SN, and PBC—impacted EI unequally. The dominance of PBC, cited in 80% of interview responses (as shown in

Table 2. Overview of factors influencing IE students.

Factor	Frequency of Themes	Frequency (%)
ATB	104	10%
SN	100	10%
PBC	797	80%
Total	1001	100%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

), reflects its perceived importance among students in accessing, coordinating, and deploying resources to shape their EI. This pattern is also evident in the descriptive statistics, where the average frequency of recurring themes across the three factors was 333.67, with a high standard deviation of 401.26 that reflects the concentration of a very strong factor (PBC). The median value of 104 explains the relatively low frequency of the remaining two factors.

Although positive entrepreneurial attitudes—such as the intent to innovate and contribute to sustainable development—were observed in 28% of the students (as shown in

Table 3. Overview of factors influencing students’ ATB.

Influencing Factors	Frequency (N)	Frequency (%)
Generating employment opportunities	24	23%
Desiring leadership and influence	11	11%
Offering innovative and sustainable products and services	29	28%
Being an entrepreneur	13	13%
Seeking profits and sustainable growth	27	26%
Total	104	100%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

), they primarily served as motivational factors rather than directly leading to action. Similarly, SN, particularly family and community support, contributed to intent formation in 82% of respondents (as shown in

Table 4. Overview of the influence of SN.

Influencing Factors	Frequency (N)	Frequency (%)
Number of female students influenced by favorable SN	32	71%
Favorable SN	100	82%
Women’s empowerment	74	74%
Socially well-accepted enterprise idea	21	21%
Government backing	5	5%
Number of female students influenced by unfavorable SN	13	29%
Unfavorable SN	22	18%
Entrepreneurship misperception	7	32%
Expect enterprise failure	9	41%
Discrimination against women	6	27%
Total number of recurring participants	45	100%
Total number of recurring themes	122	100%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

) but were insufficient to bridge the gap between intent and action. These findings suggest that while all TPB components were present, PBC emerges as the key determining factor.

4.3. Theoretical Expansion with Localized Dimensions

Beyond the TPB framework, this research investigated the influence of two contextual factors—educational institutional support and accounting education—which emerged as significant enablers within the Saudi context. Interestingly, educational institutional support was referenced in 58% of coded citations while accounting education appeared in 18% (as shown in

Table 5. Details of the influence of PBC.

Factors	Frequency Themes	Frequency (%)
PBC	797	80%
PBC: Control over access to materials	36	4%
PBC: Accounting factors	179	18%
PBC: Entrepreneurship education	582	58%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

). Although these factors were not included in the TPB framework, their influence on PBC suggests the need for a localized extension of the model. (See

Table 6. Overview of the influence of female students’ PBC over access to materials.

Influencing Factors	Frequency (N)	Frequency (%)
Number of female students controlling access to materials	31	69%
Number of female students not controlling access to materials	11	24%
Challenges of not controlling material access	18	100%
Insufficient supplies and materials	3	17%
Limited financial capital	6	33%
Lack of specialized research centers	4	22%
Foreign supplier communication difficulties	2	11%
Stakeholder conflicts	3	17%
Number of female students uncertain about access to materials	3	7%
Total number of recurring participants	45	100%
Total number of recurring themes	18	100%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

,

Table 7. Overview of the influence of female students’ PBC over the availability of accounting factors.

Influencing Factors	Frequency (N)	Frequency (%)
Number of female students controlling accounting practices	41	91%
Opportunities to control accounting practices	179	100%
Assessing enterprise performance and profitability	41	23%
Operations control	14	8%
Safeguarding the enterprise’s assets and preventing fraud	21	10%
Forecasting enterprises and making additional investments	13	7%
Complying with legislation and regulations	17	10%
Recording financial transactions	32	18%
Transparency and financial disclosure	18	10%
Using accounting information in the process of decision making	22	13%
Number of female students not controlling accounting practices	4	9%
Challenges of not controlling accounting practices	7	100%
Limited accounting knowledge	4	29%
Not required	2	57%
Double-checking and following up	1	14%
Total number of recurring participants	45	100%
Total number of recurring themes	186	100%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

and

Table 8. Overview of the influence of female students’ PBC on entrepreneurship education.

Influencing Factors	Frequency (N)	Frequency (%)
Number of female students benefited from entrepreneurship education	42	93%
Entrepreneurship education opportunities	291	100%
Providing guidance and hands-on experience	96	33%
Taking intensive entrepreneurial courses	62	21%
Entering entrepreneurship contests and exhibitions	78	27%
Existence of enterprise incubators	17	6%
Field visits to existing enterprises	38	13%
Number of female students not benefited from entrepreneurship education	3	7%
Entrepreneurship education challenges	5	100
No bazaar	1	20%
Distance courses	4	80%
Total number of recurring participants	45	100%
Total number of recurring themes	592	100%

Source: Authors’ analysis.

).

Self-confidence was encouraged through entrepreneurship training and the ability to be strategic and market sensitive. As seen in Abeer’s (FE32) case, college courses taught students how to create viable business concepts and understand regulatory and operating concerns. This is concisely documented in the following:

The entrepreneurial program made it much easier for me to plan my enterprise… I learned how to create an effective business strategy, manage resources, identify opportunities and risks, and assess the market and target audience. Meetings with professionals and experienced entrepreneurs have helped me develop my ability to observe business in the real world. Entrepreneurship contests motivate me to set up my enterprise.

Similarly, accounting studies helped students like Nouf (FE14) and Fatmah (FE35) gain a better understanding of financial analysis and long-term planning. According to Nouf (FE14), accounting principles play a crucial role in “supervising income and expenses, and evaluating enterprise performance”. Furthermore, Fatmah (FE35) stated, “Accounting knowledge enables the enterprise to obtain financing and attract investors”. However, the fact that only 7% of students applied these skills demonstrates a gap in practical applicability.

These findings confirm the reviewers’ observation that the original results were primarily descriptive and would benefit from a more analytical and theory-oriented interpretation.

4.4. Using Case Study Evidence

Shawq’s case serves as an empirical intersection between the quantitative and qualitative findings. Her entrepreneurship was encouraged by significant internal motivation (ATB), supplemented by both her own acceptance and that of her family (SN), and was initiated with high levels of PBC—due to her business experience and her studies in business and accounting. However, her experience testifies to the fact that navigating legal and organizational procedures is challenging, even for well-prepared students, as they require ongoing institutional backing to overcome structural barriers.

Shawq’s case demonstrates that EI is a multi-causal phenomenon and supports the argument for the value of examining case-specific action to reveal how theoretical elements synthesize into real-life contexts. It substantiates the reasoning that contextualizing the TPB through real-life stories strengthens its explanatory power.

4.5. Socio-Institutional Change and Context

The findings speak to significant Saudi Arabian socio-institutional transformations that are reconfiguring the context for women’s entrepreneurship. Social norms are shifting from limiting to enabling, with greater public discussion around women’s empowerment and the initiation of state-led programs through Vision 2030 to drive women’s entrepreneurship. The transformation defies TPB assumptions of fixed SN, with social influence shown to be dynamic and in constant flux.

These institutional reforms and community support dynamics create a more fertile terrain where the social legitimacy of female entrepreneurship becomes stronger. Community and family pride can be converted into motivational capital that aids the mobilization of institutional resources. For example, Nada (FE8) planned to develop a website focused on training and job search opportunities, stating, “Most people in my community back women entrepreneurs. In my enterprise satisfaction survey, most respondents supported me. My family encourages me and believes in my womanpower, and my community is proud of my accomplishments”. Therefore, this study provides empirical proof for the reconceptualization of TPB’s definition of SN in the context of cultural change.

5. Discussion

This section presents a theologically informed and academically rigorous discussion of the research findings of this study, focusing on its theoretical and practical contributions to the literature on Saudi Arabian women’s entrepreneurship. The incorporation of localized variables, such as educational support, accounting awareness, and gender norms, into the TPB framework addresses key gaps in traditional models and introduces an extended, context-sensitive model applicable to transitional economies.

5.1. Reconsideration of TPB in the Saudi Context

The findings revealed a strongly unbalanced dominance of PBC, accounting for 80% of the total thematic citations, compared to 10% each for ATB and SN. This skewness suggests that Saudi female students’ EI is primarily driven by their belief in their ability to overcome structural and regulatory barriers, rather than by motivational beliefs or social acceptance.

The findings align with recent studies, such as that by Meeralam and Adeinat [23], who assert that both the learning environment and university support significantly increase self-efficacy, making PBC the key driver of intention. Similarly, the findings corroborate Islam and Alharthi’s [24] assertion that self-efficacy in the Saudi learning environment is largely institution-driven and is a better predictor than social acceptance or general attitudes. In contrast to Western contexts, where TPB variables have a more balanced influence [6,68], the Saudi environment prioritizes PBC, supporting Liñán and Chen’s [69] call to recalibrate the TPB for culturally sensitive environments.

5.2. Educational Institutional Support and Accounting Knowledge: Atypical Enablers

The study’s findings highlight the importance of the learning environment in shaping EI. Educational institutional support accounted for 58% of the recurring concepts, corroborating the accounts of Salamzadeh et al. [38] and Bergmann et al. [39] in identifying the facilitative role of university-based environments in the development of self-efficacy and entrepreneurial capacity. The comparison of female students and female entrepreneur also demonstrated that entrepreneurship education, both curricular and extracurricular, plays a significant role in shaping entrepreneurial intentions and enhancing theoretical skills. Still, the transition to practical behavior involved unexpected challenges that are not covered by academic learning. This finding supports prior research on the role of curricular and extracurricular entrepreneurship education in the development of entrepreneurial intentions and the enhancement of entrepreneurial competencies [40,45,70,71]. Furthermore, it evidences that the development of an educational curriculum based on practical experience would be most effective for stimulating entrepreneurial intentions while imparting both theoretical and applied entrepreneurial knowledge [72].

More uniquely, accounting knowledge emerges as a critical—yet underutilized—cognitive facilitator. While 23% of the participants exhibited rudimentary accounting knowledge, only 7% utilized it strategically, such as for investment or finance planning. This resonates with Alshebami and Al Marri’s [25] finding of a disconnect between financial literacy and its practical application. As suggested by this study, accounting capability can be a cognitive aspect of PBC, allowing students to systematically manage uncertainty and risk [25,50].

The incorporation of accounting information into the TPB model is novel in the current literature. It is referred to as an exogenous variable that facilitates PBC and contributes to the extension of the cognitive portion of the TPB, particularly in transitional economies where access to formal financial counseling services is limited [47,50].

5.3. Gender Norms: From Constraints to Gradual Empowerment

Although SNs themselves were reported less frequently, 82% of participants indicated that social and familial approval played an important role in shaping their intentions. This aligns with Meeralam and Adeinat’s [23] argument that reinforcement from university and familial networks can moderate the inhibitive influence of conservative gender norms.

However, this subtle influence of SNs contrasts with their impact in other Arab countries, where gender expectations remain strongly restrictive for women entrepreneurs [34,35]. In Saudi Arabia, Vision 2030 and other reforms appear to be reshaping public opinion and fostering gradual norm change. This suggests that gender norms should be viewed as fluid and potentially empowering, especially when supported by educational institutions and national policy frameworks.

5.4. Case Study: The Synthesis of the Variables

The case study of Shawq’s narrative exemplifies the active interplay among attitude, social support, and perceived control, which are shaped by experience and education. Her ability to navigate bureaucracy and logistics demonstrates the resilience that stems from cumulative empowerment. Furthermore, her case provides empirical support for Tsou et al. [10], who argue that intention must be rooted within a supportive ecosystem to be translated into action.

5.5. Theoretical Contribution and the Postulated Model

This study posits a theologically grounded TPB model that includes the following:

• Academic institutional support as a source of self-efficacy.
• Accounting knowledge as a standalone facilitator.
• Gender expectations as mutually constructed and adaptable.

This model addresses the structural blind spots of mainstream TPB, which often overlook contextual variables. It also responds to calls from Roomi and Parrott [30] and McAdam [31] for models that incorporate socio-cultural determinants. Furthermore, it offers new insight into the intention–behavior gap, a persistent challenge in conservative settings.

5.6. Implications for Policy and Research

The findings of the present research are presented in action-oriented recommendations to enhance the EI of female students and facilitate their transition into actualized startups. First, the incorporation of applied accounting modules into entrepreneurship programs is needed to connect financial information with real startup settings. Second, universities and government institutions should introduce affordable and tailored financing programs for female student entrepreneurs, such as seed grants, interest-free loans, and simplified application procedures. Third, promoting the success stories of Saudi women entrepreneurs can help reshape societal beliefs and SN. Finally, introducing entrepreneurship modules at earlier stages of education, such as secondary school or the foundational years of university, may foster entrepreneurial orientations early on.

These recommendations align with global best practices. Gender-focused entrepreneurship programs—offering a combination of training, financing, and mentoring—have been shown to accelerate the rate of women’s business startups exponentially in Malaysia [36] and the UAE [45], for instance. Saudi Arabia may therefore benefit from adapting such holistic approaches to its unique cultural and institutional setting.

Future studies should build upon this research through longitudinal and mixed-method studies to assess the long-term effects of these interventions, particularly by comparing rural and urban populations. Further research could also explore the mediating effects of intersecting variables, such as marital status, household income, or access to technology, in bridging the intention-entrepreneurship behavior gap. Such insights would aid in developing context-specific policies to further empower Saudi women through entrepreneurship.

6. Conclusions

This study makes three significant contributions to the literature on women’s entrepreneurship in transitional economies. First, it extends TPB by demonstrating how accounting competencies function as critical cognitive resources that enhance perceived behavioral control—a novel integration that addresses previous gaps in applying psychological models to business education contexts. Second, it reveals the dynamic interplay between policy-driven social change (Vision 2030) and individual entrepreneurial development, showing how macro-level reforms manifest in micro-level intention formation. Third, the research provides empirical evidence that discipline-specific education can overcome traditional barriers to women’s economic participation.

Our findings have important implications for multiple stakeholders. For educators, we recommend the following: (1) integrating applied accounting modules into entrepreneurship curricula focusing on financial forecasting and compliance; (2) developing gender-sensitive pedagogical approaches that combine technical training with confidence-building; and (3) creating discipline-specific entrepreneurship tracks (e.g., for fashion design students). Policymakers should prioritize the provision of the following: (1) streamlined business registration processes for student entrepreneurs; (2) targeted funding mechanisms like seed grants with simplified application procedures; and (3) mentorship programs connecting students with successful female entrepreneurs. These interventions should be implemented in phases, beginning with pilot programs at selected universities before their nationwide rollout.

The study’s methodological approach suggests several specific directions for future research. First, a longitudinal study tracking accounting students’ entrepreneurial journeys over 3–5 years could provide stronger evidence of the education–intention–behavior pathway. Second, comparative research between business majors could reveal how different disciplinary backgrounds shape entrepreneurial preparedness. Third, experimental studies testing various curriculum interventions would help identify the most effective approaches for enhancing both accounting literacy and entrepreneurial mindset. These studies should employ mixed methods designs to address the current limitation of qualitative generalizability while maintaining rich contextual understanding.

At a broader level, this research demonstrates how human capital development can drive sustainable economic transformation. By equipping female students with both accounting expertise and entrepreneurial competencies, Saudi Arabia can accelerate progress toward Vision 2030’s diversification goals while creating more inclusive growth. The study’s most significant insight is that technical education, when properly designed and delivered, can be a powerful tool for women’s empowerment in changing societies—challenging traditional assumptions about the separation between skills training and socioeconomic advancement.

As Saudi Arabia continues its economic transformation, this research provides both a model for curriculum innovation and a framework for studying women’s entrepreneurship in evolving cultural contexts. The findings suggest that the most effective approaches will be those that recognize the interconnectedness of psychological, educational, and policy factors in shaping entrepreneurial outcomes. Future initiatives should therefore adopt an ecosystem perspective, simultaneously addressing skill development, confidence building, and environmental enablers to create sustainable pathways for women’s economic participation.