Can Food Waste Policies Promote Sustainability?: Relationships of Food Date Label Policies with Food Waste and Safety Outcomes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Need for a Focus on State Date Label Policies
1.2. The Impact of State Date Label Policies on Food Waste and Safety Outcomes
1.2.1. Date Label Policies and Food Waste
1.2.2. Date Label Policies and Food Safety
2. Methods
2.1. Date Label Policy Data
2.2. Food Waste and Foodborne Illness Data
3. Analytic Approach
4. Results
4.1. Relationships Between Date Label Policies and Food Waste
4.2. Relationships Between Date Label Policies and Foodborne Illness
5. Discussion
5.1. Date Label Recommendations and Future Research Directions
5.2. Limitations
5.3. Beyond Food Date Labels, Food Waste, and Food Safety
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
2012 Date Label Policy Variable Values | 2018 Date Label Policy Variable Values | |||||||
State | Label | Sale | Donation | Terminology | Label | Sale | Donation | Terminology |
Alabama | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 4 |
Alaska | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Arizona | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Arkansas | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
California | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Colorado | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Connecticut | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Delaware | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Florida | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Georgia | 5 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Hawaii | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Idaho | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Illinois | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Indiana | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Iowa | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Kansas | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Kentucky | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Louisiana | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Maine | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Maryland | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Massachusetts | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Michigan | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 2 |
Minnesota | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Mississippi | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Missouri | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Montana | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
Nebraska | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Nevada | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
New Hampshire | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
New Jersey | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
New Mexico | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
New York | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
North Carolina | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
North Dakota | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Ohio | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Oklahoma | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Oregon | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Pennsylvania | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Rhode Island | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
South Carolina | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
South Dakota | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Tennessee | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Texas | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Utah | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Vermont | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Virginia | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Washington | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
West Virginia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Wisconsin | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
Wyoming | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Note. Label = Date label requirement, Sale = Sale restrictions past label date, Donation = Donation restrictions past label date, Terminology = Specified terminology requirement. |
Appendix B
Policy Snapshot Year | Count of Food Types with the Enacted Policy | Date Label Policies | |||
Label | Sale | Donation | Terminology | ||
2012 | 0 | 14 | 31 | 48 | 33 |
1 | 20 | 14 | 2 | 16 | |
2 | 14 | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
5 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
2018 | 0 | 8 | 27 | 48 | 33 |
1 | 24 | 18 | 2 | 15 | |
2 | 14 | 2 | 0 | 1 | |
3 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
5 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | |
Note. Label = Date label requirement, Sale = Sale restrictions past label date, Donation = Donation restrictions past label date, Terminology = Specified terminology requirement. The numbers in column 2 show the values of the quantitative date label policy variables. The numbers in columns 3–6 are counts of states that had the respective values of each date label policy variable. States that do not impose date label requirement on any food types may impose sale/donation restrictions and/or require specified terminology for those manufacturers that choose to use date labels. |
Appendix C
Policy Snapshot Year | Label Category (Numeric Value) | Date Label Policies | ||
Label | Sale | Terminology | ||
2012 | Low (0) | 34 | 31 | 33 |
High (1) | 16 | 19 | 17 | |
2018 | Low (0) | 32 | 27 | 33 |
High (1) | 18 | 23 | 17 | |
Note. Label = Date label requirement, Sale = Sale restrictions past label date, Terminology = Specified terminology requirement. High (vs. low) category included the states with 2 or more food types for the Date variable and states with 1 or more food types for the Sale and Terminology variables. Cells in columns 3–5 show the number of states in each category of the respective binary date label policy variable. |
Appendix D
Variable | Data Source |
Population | Census Historical Population |
Household Size | American Community Survey |
Median Income | American Community Survey |
Mean Income | American Community Survey |
Percent Poverty | Census Historical Poverty Rates |
Welfare Spending | Annual Survey of State Government Finances |
Percent SNAP | American Community Survey |
Percent Farmland | USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service Farms and Land |
Percent Urban Population | Urban Area Delineation Program |
Percent Urban Land Area | Urban Area Delineation Program |
Grocery Stores Size | County Business Patterns |
Education | American Community Survey |
Partisanship | National Conference of State Legislatures |
Note. SNAP = Number of households participating in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. Number of Grocery Stores variable included grocery stores with more than 50, 100, 250, or 500 employees. |
Appendix E
State Food Waste per Household | ||||
Year | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
2023 | 7.62 | 0.80 | 6.14 | 10.21 |
State Foodborne Illness | ||||
Year | Mean | SD | Min | Max |
2013 | 251.57 | 229.97 | 3 | 1133 |
2014 | 260.19 | 262.94 | 6 | 1180 |
2015 | 280.69 | 284.30 | 3 | 1483 |
2016 | 268.65 | 251.03 | 10 | 1009 |
2017 | 272.96 | 327.34 | 6 | 1537 |
2018 | 314.00 | 334.41 | 7 | 1176 |
N = 50 states. SD = Standard deviation; Min = Minimum; Max = Maximum. Food waste is expressed in cups per households. Although we used per capita values of foodborne illness, the table presents the statistics based on raw values for ease of interpretation. |
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Label | Sale | Terminology | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Low | Cohen’s d | High | Low | Cohen’s d | High | Low | Cohen’s d | ||||||
M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | |||
7.71 | 0.53 | 7.57 | 0.92 | 0.17 | 7.76 | 0.72 | 7.51 | .86 | 0.31 | 7.73 | 0.79 | 7.57 | 0.81 | 0.20 |
Foodborne Illness Year | Label | Sale | Terminology | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Low | Cohen’s d | High | Low | Cohen’s d | High | Low | Cohen’s d | |||||||
M | SD | M | SD | St. (Robust) | M | SD | M | SD | St. (Robust) | M | SD | M | SD | St. (Robust) | |
2013 | 4.11 | 2.76 | 5.05 | 4.06 | −0.26 (−0.13) | 4.83 | 3.02 | 4.70 | 4.10 | 0.03 (0.18) | 3.95 | 3.07 | 5.16 | 3.96 | −0.33 (−0.27) |
2014 | 4.70 | 4.09 | 4.48 | 3.87 | 0.06 (0.03) | 4.23 | 2.53 | 4.75 | 4.57 | −0.13 (0.13) | 4.22 | 3.10 | 4.72 | 4.29 | −0.13 (0.04) |
2015 | 3.82 | 2.55 | 5.78 | 5.90 | −0.39 (−0.26) | 4.13 | 1.95 | 5.78 | 6.29 | −0.33 (−0.05) | 3.76 | 2.90 | 5.87 | 5.87 | −0.42 (−0.33) |
2016 | 3.89 | 2.62 | 5.35 | 4.35 | −0.38 (−0.43) | 5.68 | 5.16 | 4.40 | 2.90 | 0.34 (0.31) | 4.36 | 2.66 | 5.16 | 4.44 | −0.21 (−0.02) |
2017 | 4.39 | 3.60 | 4.15 | 3.79 | 0.07 (0.13) | 4.71 | 3.99 | 3.93 | 3.54 | 0.21 (0.24) | 3.86 | 3.39 | 4.41 | 3.88 | −0.15 (−0.09) |
2018 | 11.67 | 23.73 | 4.29 | 3.41 | 0.56 (0.29) | 9.67 | 21.76 | 4.79 | 4.55 | 0.36 (0.18) | 5.70 | 6.05 | 7.14 | 16.60 | −0.10 (0.04) |
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Alaybek, B.; Mika, G.; Aitken, J.A.; Hartman, R.; Painter, J.; Broad Leib, E.M.; Plekenpol, R.; Beckmann, J.S.; Leets, L.; Sprenger, A. Can Food Waste Policies Promote Sustainability?: Relationships of Food Date Label Policies with Food Waste and Safety Outcomes. Sustainability 2025, 17, 2630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062630
Alaybek B, Mika G, Aitken JA, Hartman R, Painter J, Broad Leib EM, Plekenpol R, Beckmann JS, Leets L, Sprenger A. Can Food Waste Policies Promote Sustainability?: Relationships of Food Date Label Policies with Food Waste and Safety Outcomes. Sustainability. 2025; 17(6):2630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062630
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlaybek, Balca, Grace Mika, John A. Aitken, Rob Hartman, Julia Painter, Emily M. Broad Leib, Regan Plekenpol, Joseph S. Beckmann, Laura Leets, and Amber Sprenger. 2025. "Can Food Waste Policies Promote Sustainability?: Relationships of Food Date Label Policies with Food Waste and Safety Outcomes" Sustainability 17, no. 6: 2630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062630
APA StyleAlaybek, B., Mika, G., Aitken, J. A., Hartman, R., Painter, J., Broad Leib, E. M., Plekenpol, R., Beckmann, J. S., Leets, L., & Sprenger, A. (2025). Can Food Waste Policies Promote Sustainability?: Relationships of Food Date Label Policies with Food Waste and Safety Outcomes. Sustainability, 17(6), 2630. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17062630