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Article

Identifying AMF-Rich Tir Wheat Rhizospheres to Foster Microbial Inoculants Useful in Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from the Van Lake Basin

by
Solmaz Najafi
1,*,
Mehmet Ülker
1,
Younes Rezaee Danesh
2,
Semra Demir
2,
Erol Oral
1,
Fevzi Altuner
3,
Siyami Karaca
4,
Meriç Balci
5,
Burak Özdemir
1,
Bulut Sargin
4,
Aynur Dilsiz
6,
Çağlar Sagun
6,
Ezelhan Selem
1,
Sana Jamal Salih
7,
Mina Najafi
8,
Beatrice Farda
9,* and
Marika Pellegrini
9
1
Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, Van Yuzuncu Yil University, 65090 Van, Türkiye
2
Department of Plant Protection, Faculty of Agriculture, Van Yuzuncu Yil University, 65090 Van, Türkiye
3
Plant and Animal Production Department, Gevaş Vocational School, Van Yuzuncu Yil University, 65090 Van, Türkiye
4
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Van Yuzuncu Yil University, 65090 Van, Türkiye
5
Department of Food Processing, Manavgat Vocational College, Akdeniz University, 07600 Manavgat, Türkiye
6
Soil, Fertilizer and Water Resources Central Research Institute, 06172 Ankara, Türkiye
7
Directorate of Agriculture Research, Sulaymaniyah, Bakrajo, Sulaymaniyah 46011, Iraq
8
Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Ege University, 35040 Izmir, Türkiye
9
Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, University of L’Aquila, 67100 L’Aquila, Italy
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(4), 1676; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041676
Submission received: 30 December 2024 / Revised: 1 February 2025 / Accepted: 16 February 2025 / Published: 18 February 2025
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Versions Notes

Abstract

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) play a pivotal role in sustainable agriculture by enhancing nutrient efficiency and reducing the dependence on synthetic fertilizers. Developing these sustainable, effective products requires knowledge of the target plant and its associated microbial communities in the production landscape of interest. This study focused on AMF populations associated with Tir wheat in six main locations of Türkiye’s Van Lake Basin. The Erçek-Özalp-Saray region exhibited the highest organic matter values. Higher available phosphorous contents were found for Erciş-Patnos and Muradiye. The Erciş-Patnos region exhibited the highest AMF density (120 spores/10 g soil) and frequency (75%), while the lowest AMF density (45 spores/10 g soil) was recorded in Muradiye. Sand contents correlated positively with spore number and mycorrhizal frequency and negatively with silt and clay. Based on these results, Erciş-Patnos was elected as the best location for the isolation of AMF spores suitable for the development of microbial-based tools for Tir wheat cultivation. These results are very important in the current context of climate change, which mandates the use of low-impact environmental strategies. Further research should explore the interactions of AMFs with other microorganisms to optimize their ecological benefits. However, the results of this study provide a valuable basis for future investigations of AMF-based products for use in sustainable Tir wheat cultivation.

1. Introduction

Climate variability threatens global food security, especially as the human population rises, placing additional strain on agricultural systems [1]. In regions heavily reliant on imported agricultural inputs, such as Türkiye, the rapid escalation in fertilizer costs presents significant challenges to food production [2]. Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a globally vital crop, ranking first in cultivation area and third in production. Its versatility as a staple food drives its extensive use [3]. The adoption of modern wheat varieties and climate change have caused a significant loss in genetic diversity, reducing the resilience to environmental stressors [4]. Efforts to mitigate this include developing synthetic wheat varieties using genetic material [5]. Türkiye, despite its rich genetic wheat resources, has underutilized local varieties in breeding programs [6]. In Van province, where wheat dominates field crop production, yields are below the national average due to unsuitable varieties and poor agricultural practices [7]. The local Tir variety, though consistently stable, faces the risk of being replaced by registered varieties, threatening the preservation of locally adapted varieties such as Kirik and Hevidi [8]. Addressing these challenges requires leveraging local genetic diversity to develop resilient, high-yielding varieties tailored to local conditions [9].
One promising solution lies in developing crops with enhanced nutrient uptake efficiency, mainly through symbiotic relationships with microorganisms [10]. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF, phylum Glomeromycota) form beneficial symbiotic associations with the roots of over 80% of terrestrial plant species [11,12,13,14,15]. Numerous studies have demonstrated that AMF also can be crucial to reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides [16,17]. To obtain effective spore isolation and cultivation, it is important to first study the AMF distribution within the rhizosphere of the plant of interest. This strategy improves the chances of obtaining valuable AMF species suitable for the plant in the pedoclimatic context of use [18]. Among Türkiye’s local varieties, we focused on Tir wheat (Triticum aestivum L. ssp. vulgare Vill. v. leucospermum Körn.). This staple plant is cultivated in the Van Lake Basin, mainly in the Van-Gevaş, Erçek-Özalp-Saray, Muş, Muradiye, Erciş-Patnos, and Bitlis-Ahlat locations, and possesses unique adaptations to the local climate and soil conditions [19].
Research on mycorrhizal fungi is relatively new in Türkiye [20,21,22]. However, there has been a noticeable increase in research projects to transfer endemic mycorrhizal fungal species into practical applications [23,24,25,26,27,28]. Despite various studies on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in Türkiye, there has been no investigation into the population status of these fungi in the Tir wheat rhizosphere, particularly in the Van region. Given local wheat’s geographical significance and ecological diversity in the region, we hypothesized a diverse AMF distribution and population dynamics across different sampling areas and wheat populations. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the mycorrhizal colonization rates in various local Tir wheat ecotypes and the frequency of fungal populations across different environments. The Van Lake Basin area was subjected to area study, location identification, and Tir wheat rhizosphere sampling. Samples were investigated for AMF population study and physicochemical parameters characterization. The relationships between the fungal populations’ abundance and wheat and soil’s physicochemical properties were explored statistically. This research contributes to understanding the interactions between the mycorrhizal fungi associated with local wheat varieties and the soil physicochemical parameters. It allows the best locations to be selected where AMF can be retrieved. The findings may also serve as a foundation for further studies on the ecological roles of AMF in Turkish agroecosystems.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Site

Soil samples containing host plant roots were randomly collected from 6 locations in the Van Lake Basin in which Tir wheat is commonly cultivated, including Van-Gevaş (7 samples), Erçek-Özalp-Saray (8 samples), Muş (6 samples), Muradiye (5 samples), Erciş-Patnos (5 samples), and Bitlis-Ahlat (7 samples).

2.2. Soil and Host Plant Root Sampling

Samples were collected from multiple sites to compare fungal spore populations and host plant ecotypes across various locations. Composite soil samples (approximately 5 kg) were prepared by mixing soils from different parts of each location. Each composite sample was labeled with a unique code and details and then stored in a plastic bag. Similarly, host plant roots were collected in separate plastic bags with corresponding codes and details. The GPS coordinates of all sampling locations were recorded, and the samples were kept in cooled conditions until they could be transferred to the laboratory. Samples were collected from the different areas (Figure S1 and Table S1, Supplementary Materials). Upon transferring the collected soil and root samples to laboratory conditions, the soil and root samples were separated for subsequent studies. First, root samples were isolated, packed in labeled plastic bags, and stored at −20 °C to estimate mycorrhizal fungal colonization indices. The soil samples were then sieved using a 2 mm sieve to ensure clean and homogenized samples for further analysis. A sample of 1–2 kg of sieved soil was set aside to determine physicochemical parameters. Also, 200 g of soil was preserved at 4 °C for AMF spore density assay.

2.3. Determination of Soil Physicochemical Parameters

Different soil physicochemical parameters, including electrical conductivity (EC), pH, available phosphorus, lime (CaCO3 content), organic matter content, and soil texture (clay, silt, sand), were determined in all collected soil samples.

2.3.1. Electrical Conductivity and pH

The electrical conductivity was measured using an electrical conductivity meter followed by the Jackson method [29]. A soil–water suspension (1:5 ratio) was prepared and stirred for 30 min. The supernatant was filtered, and EC was recorded using an electrical conductivity meter (Hanna Instruments Inc., Woonsocket, RI, USA). The pH values of the soils were determined using a pH meter in a soil–water suspension prepared at a ratio of 1:2.5, as described by Bayraklı [30]. A 10 g sample of air-dried soil was mixed with 25 mL of distilled water and stirred for 30 min. The pH was measured using a calibrated pH meter (Hanna Instruments Inc., Woonsocket, RI, USA).

2.3.2. Available Phosphorus

The available phosphorus contents were determined using the Olsen and Sommers method [31]. A 2.5 g sample of soil was extracted with 50 mL of 0.5 M NaHCO3 (pH 8.5) and shaken for 30 min. The extract was filtered, and phosphorus concentration was determined colorimetrically using the molybdate blue method and spectrophotometric determination at 882 nm.

2.3.3. Soil Structure

The soil texture, including the percentages of sand, silt, and clay fractions, was determined using the hydrometer method [32]. A 50 g sample of soil was dispersed in a sodium hexametaphosphate solution, shaken, and left to settle. The soil hydrometer (Gilson Company Inc., Worthington, OH, USA) was used to measure the suspension density at specific time intervals to determine the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. The lime contents were determined using the Scheibler calcimeter (Royal Eijkelkamp, Giesbeek, The Netherlands) [33]. A 1 g sample of finely ground soil was reacted with 10% HCl in a sealed Scheibler calcimeter. The volume of CO2 released was measured, expressed as calcium carbonate content, and used to calculate the lime content [32].

2.3.4. Organic Matter Contents

The organic matter contents were determined using the modified Walkley–Black method [29]. A 1 g sample of soil was mixed with potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid to oxidize the organic carbon. The remaining dichromate was titrated with ferrous sulfate, and the organic matter content was calculated based on the amount of oxidized carbon [32].

2.4. Determination of AMF Spore Numbers

One of the most important indices in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) biodiversity studies is the assessment of fungal spore density in soil. For this purpose, it is essential to isolate the fungal spores from the soil and quantify their populations by counting them in a defined soil volume. In this study, AMF spores and sporocarps were extracted from 10 g of each rhizosphere sample, maintained at 4 °C, from all sampling sites in three replicates using the ultrasound centrifuge technique [34]. A 1 g sample of rhizosphere was stirred in 20 mL of distilled water to create a slurry (4–5 rpm for 5 min). This mixture was subjected to ultrasound (30 s at 28 MHz, Hydraultrasonic Cop., Istanbul, Türkiye) and centrifugation (3 min at 3000 rpm) to separate spores from soil particles. The spore-containing fraction was carefully collected and observed with a microscope. The number of spores was recorded for each replicate and soil sample to give the average number of spores per sample.

2.5. Measurement of Mycorrhizal Colonization Indices in Host Plant Roots

Another important index in AMF biodiversity studies is the measurement of fungal colonization indices in host plant roots. For this purpose, the plant roots collected from different sampling areas were first cleaned and stained. Then, 0.5 g of roots from each collected sample (kept at −20 °C) was carefully washed in distilled water to remove all soil particles. The root clearing and staining process was performed using a standard method [35]. The AM fungal structures, including extraradical and intraradical mycelia, vesicles, spores, and arbuscules, were observed under a light microscope at 10×, 40×, and 100× magnifications. The AMF colonization indices, including mycorrhizal frequency (%F) and mycorrhizal density (%M), were determined in 3 replicates for each root sample with 9 segments of root pieces (0.5 cm each) using the method proposed by Trouvelot et al. [36]. The data were recorded for each replicate, and the averages were calculated for subsequent statistical analysis.

2.6. Statistical Analyses

Each experiment was conducted three times. The normality of data was checked by Kruskal–Wallis test. Given the non-normal distribution recorded, the comparison of means was carried out using the Conover–Iman test (α = 0.05). Correlation analysis was conducted to understand associations between AMF metrics and soil physicochemical properties. K-means clustering was performed on selected variables to identify clusters of samples based on similarity. K-means clustering is a statistical method that groups similar data points based on shared characteristics. We used this method to categorize soil samples according to their AMF spore numbers, mycorrhizal frequency, and sand content and to identify patterns and relationships most favorable for AMF colonization. The analyses were performed with Python programming language (version 3.11), using pandas (version 1.5.3), seaborn (version 0.12.2), matplotlib (version 3.7.1), statsmodels (version 0.14.0), and scikit-learn (version 1.2.2) libraries.

3. Results

Figure 1 reports the results of the soil chemical analysis, organized by location.
No significant differences were observed in pH, electrical conductivity, or calcium carbonate contents. Conversely, based on the organic matter and phosphorous contents, the locations differed significantly. The Erçek-Özalp-Saray region exhibited the highest organic matter average values, followed by Erciş-Patnos, Muradiye, and Muş. The lowest value was observed for the Van-Gevaş location. The best P content was found for Erciş-Patnos and Muradiye, followed by the Erçek-Özalp-Saray and Bitlis-Ahlat locations. The lowest values were observed for this parameter in the Van-Gevaş and Muş locations. Based on sand, silt, and clay contents, the sandy clay loam soil type was common in all locations and exclusive for Erciş-Patnos.
Figure 2 presents the results of the AMF spore densities across different soil samples collected from other locations.
The results showed a significant difference among soil samples collected from all the sampling regions. The highest SN was observed for Erçek-Özalp-Saray, while the lowest were for Muradiye and Bitlis-Ahlat. Mycorrhizal frequency was higher in Erciş-Patnos than in Muş; no significant difference was shown for the other locations. The lowest mycorrhizal density was observed for Erçek-Özalp-Saray, while the best one was observed for Erciş-Patnos.
A correlation analysis was performed to explore the physicochemical variables impacting the AMF results (Figure 3).
Sand showed a strong negative correlation with silt and clay (with a strong positive correlation). Moderate and slight negative correlations were found between silt and clay and AMF frequency and spore number even though, to a lesser extent, AMF density was negatively correlated with these parameters. With the same strength but with a positive correlation, the AMF parameters were positively correlated with sand. Other interesting patterns were found between calcium carbonate and pH (moderate positive correlation) and their moderate negative correlation with available phosphorus. AMF density showed a weak negative correlation with organic matter.
Given the differences between the locations and the correlations found among the AMF variables and soil chemical properties, the relationships among sand, silt, clay, SN, and F were further investigated by linear and multiple regression (Figure 4).
Sand positively influenced the number of spores, while silt and clay negatively influenced it. Sandier soils also favored mycorrhizal frequency, while soils with more silt or clay reduced it.
To clarify the contribution of sand to spore numbers and AMF frequencies, K-means clustering was performed. The sample distribution within clusters is presented in Table 1.
The distribution of the samples within the clusters revealed that the Bitlis, Gevaş, Patnos, and Saray sites were clustered together in cluster 1. Except for the Van-24 samples, Van’s location was clustered in cluster 2. The other sites clustered differently within the three clusters without a clear association. Except for one sample each, Erciş-Patnos and Bitlis-Ahlat were clustered.

4. Discussion

The physicochemical characterizations and their study by location underlined that the common soil type is the sandy clay loam, with significant changes in organic matter and phosphorous contents. Lakes act as a source and modifier of soils in basins, contributing to their formation via sedimentation together with erosion and deposition phenomena and climatic conditions [37]. This soil type has already been described in the Van Lake Basin, with its distribution influenced by the region’s topography and land use [38]. The changes in the phosphorous and organic matter contents are strictly connected to land use, especially for agricultural landscapes. Soil organic matter content is closely linked to management practices such as tillage, crop rotation, and the incorporation of organic residues [39]. Agricultural management practices also impact soil phosphorus levels. For instance, under specific crop rotations, long-term phosphorus fertilization can increase labile phosphorus fractions in soils. Conversely, organic recycling-based practices contribute to a decrease in soil phosphorus adsorption, enhancing the availability of this element in agroecosystems [40].
The correlations among the sand, silt, and clay fractions are fundamental to determining soil texture, significantly influencing soil behavior such as water retention, nutrient availability, and structural stability. As observed in our findings, these textural components are negatively correlated (an increase in sand content typically corresponds to a decrease in clay and silt fractions, and vice versa). This inverse relationship is crucial for classifying soils and predicting their physical properties [41]. Calcium carbonate plays a pivotal role in soil chemistry, particularly in modulating soil pH and nutrient availability. Elevated levels of calcium carbonate are associated with more alkaline soil conditions, as calcium carbonate acts as a buffering agent, neutralizing acidity and thereby increasing pH levels [42]. This alkalinity influences the solubility and availability of various nutrients, notably phosphorus, which tends to become less available in highly alkaline soils due to the formation of insoluble calcium–phosphate compounds [43]. While significant, the correlation between soil pH and calcium carbonate content is not absolute. The moderate strength of this correlation suggests that other factors also influence soil pH. The mineral composition, for example, affects the soil’s buffering capacity [44].
Overall, AMF distribution by location allowed us to underline that Erciş-Patnos, with a sandy clay loam texture, could be the best candidate for the isolation of AMF spores with a good ability to establish mycorrhizal associations (highest F and M). This type of soil is well aerated and draining [45], conditions that significantly affect AMF proliferation and AMF–plant association establishment. For instance, research on sugarcane fields with sandy clay loam soils reported higher AMF spore densities and root colonization rates compared with other soil types [46].
Beyond soil type, the study revealed a positive correlation between sandy soils and key AMF parameters, including spore number and mycorrhizal frequency. Conversely, a negative relationship was observed with soils rich in silt and clay. These findings align with the ecological adaptability of AMFs, which are known to thrive in well-drained, aerated sandy soils [47]. Previous studies have demonstrated that soil texture significantly influences AMF colonization, with sandy soils fostering higher spore counts and mycorrhizal activity due to reduced physical barriers to fungal hyphae growth [48]. On the other hand, compacted silt and clay soils, which limit oxygen availability and root penetration, were found to hinder AMF development. This behavior is consistent with findings in AMF studies on wheat rhizospheres, where colonization and spore density have been associated positively with sandy loam textures and negatively with fine-textured soils, supporting the hypothesis that AMFs are ecologically suited to more permeable substrates [49]. Notably, the findings diverge from certain studies conducted in high clay-content soils, where AMF adaptation strategies such as forming compact spore aggregations were observed, suggesting variability in AMF responses based on local environmental contexts [50].
Integrating AMF into wheat cultivation systems requires a strategic approach based on the study’s findings, particularly regarding soil texture influences. The identification of AMF-rich rhizospheres in the Van Lake Basin underscores the potential for targeted microbial inoculant development, with Erciş-Patnos emerging as a key site for AMF spore isolation due to its favorable sandy clay loam texture. Approaches in the methodology for practical application consider the selection of wheat varieties adapted to AMF, improvements in soil conditions for optimal fungal establishment, and minimum tillage that will protect the fungal networks [51]. Furthermore, as indicated by the high-AMF-density sites, ensuring adequate organic matter content and phosphorus availability might improve mycorrhizal colonization and nutrient absorption efficiency [52]. Soil texture is an important parameter in the success of AMF; sandy soils favor higher spore densities and frequency of mycorrhizae. These findings agreed with other works that reported positive effects of sandy loam soil on AMF colonization due to higher permissiveness and lower physical resistance against hyphal growth [53,54]. Any application planning should take into consideration the site’s soil quality specifically. It should comprise the inoculation of AM fungi under responsive conditions and longer-period monitoring of AMF persistence for longer-term benefits with the view to ensuring wheat production sustainability.
The positive interaction between AMF and sandy soils also highlights the role of these fungi in Tir wheat cultivation, particularly in semi-arid regions like Türkiye [55]. Through nutrient and water uptake improvements, AMF can contribute to reducing the dependency on synthetic fertilizers and enhancing crop yield under environmental stresses such as drought and salinity [56]. Plant–AMF symbiosis study could support the productivity and resilience of local wheat varieties, thereby safeguarding genetic diversity and fostering long-term agroecosystem sustainability [57]. This approach is in line with the global efforts to achieve food security [58] and address agricultural vulnerabilities in regions prone to soil degradation and water scarcity [59]. AMF-related practices applied in the cultivation of local wheat varieties support the conservation of genetic diversity and reduce the carbon footprint associated with high-input agriculture [60].
These benefits will further lead to the extended domain of sustainable agriculture by reducing the chemical stress put on the ecosystem by agriculture. Results from this work will, therefore, help attain some of the UN’s SDGs through encouraging ecological farming in respect to the application of AMF during wheat cultivation [61]. The study supports Sustainable Development Goal 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) by using fewer synthetic nutrients and improving soil health. This promotes sustainable farming practices and lessens the environmental impact of agriculture [62]. The role of AMF in improving soil structure and lowering chemical runoff helps achieve SDG 15 (Life on Land) by protecting land ecosystems, stopping soil damage, and boosting biodiversity in farming areas. This study helps make crops stronger against drought and uses water more efficiently [63]. This, in turn, supports SDG 13 (Climate Action) by providing ways to reduce the effects of climate change on food production. This study lays the groundwork for sustainable farming methods that help protect the environment, lower negative impacts on nature, and enhance food security. This is an important step toward global sustainability goals [64].
Although the work may be interesting, the focus of the study on the Van Lake Basin alone reduces its applicability to other areas, which might differ in pedoclimatic conditions. Variability in AMF responses, not considered here, might relate to microclimatic conditions, microbial competition, and seasonal variations that invite further investigation [65]. Additional research must investigate diverse soil types and meteorological circumstances to enhance comprehension of the influence of these variables on AMF dynamics [66]. The symbiotic relationship between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plants, together with beneficial bacteria and competing fungal species in the soil, necessitates additional research. All these interactions can help us understand the complexity of the interactions between bacteria influencing the health of plants, the nutrient supply, and the soil environment. It is also necessary regarding the effect of AMF on food production in different soil types and farming methods in order to understand the function and efficiency of this element in sustainable farming [67]. Since different types of wheat may respond differently to AMF, future research should also include the wheat variety variable. Choosing plant types that work better with beneficial microorganisms can improve nutrient absorption, help plants withstand pests and environmental challenges, and boost overall crop production. Genomic and behavioral [67] studies could improve this selection process to find traits linked to better interactions with AMF [68]. Long-term studies over several growing seasons are also needed to understand how stable and lasting AMF communities are in agricultural areas. These long-term studies would give important information about how AMF cooperation helps improve soil structure, keeps organic matter, and enhances crop growth over time. This study can help us understand how the improvements in soil health from AMF lead to better crop yields and less reliance on chemical fertilizers. This supports more eco-friendly and stronger farming methods [69].

5. Conclusions

The study provides the first description of AMF distribution in the Tir wheat rhizosphere of the Van Lake Basin. The results can be used in projects that isolate and cultivate AMF populations to develop biostimulants beneficial to Tir wheat crops. Additional studies are needed to extend its global relevance. For example, investigating the interactions of AMF with other soil microorganisms and their collective influence on crop yields under controlled and field conditions would enhance the understanding of soil microbiomes. Studies assessing AMFs’ role across multiple growing seasons would also be valuable to understanding their long-term effects on soil health and crop productivity. Nevertheless, this study adds knowledge to the field and could contribute to developing AMF-based biostimulants for Tir wheat cultivation in similar pedoclimatic contexts. The findings reinforce microbial solutions’ importance in addressing global agricultural challenges.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su17041676/s1, Figure S1: Maps with the locations of soil and host plant root samples collected; Table S1: The soil and host plant root samples’ identifiers and their coordinates.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.N., M.Ü. and Y.R.D.; data curation, Y.R.D., B.F. and M.P.; formal analysis, S.N., Y.R.D. and B.F.; funding acquisition, S.N.; investigation, E.O., F.A., B.S., A.D. and Ç.S.; methodology, S.D., S.K., M.B., B.Ö., B.S., A.D., Ç.S., E.S., S.J.S. and M.N.; project administration, S.N.; resources, S.N. and M.Ü.; software, B.F. and M.P.; supervision, S.N. and Y.R.D.; validation, S.N., M.Ü., Y.R.D., E.O., F.A., S.K., M.B., B.Ö., E.S., S.J.S. and M.N.; writing—original draft, S.N., M.Ü. and Y.R.D.; writing—review and editing, M.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was a research project supported by BAP ( Scientific and Research Projects) coordination No. FYD-2021-9380 at Van Yuzuncu Yil University, Van-Türkiye.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/Supplementary Materials. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Results of soil physicochemical parameters (i.e., electrical conductivity, organic matter, available phosphorous, calcium carbonate contents, and USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) soil texture classification) organized based on the six sampling locations: Bitlis-Ahlat, Erciş-Patnos, Erçek-Özalp-Saray, Muradiye, Muş, and Van-Gevaş. For organic matter and phosphorous, results followed by different case letters are significantly different according to the Conover–Iman test (p < 0.05).
Figure 1. Results of soil physicochemical parameters (i.e., electrical conductivity, organic matter, available phosphorous, calcium carbonate contents, and USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) soil texture classification) organized based on the six sampling locations: Bitlis-Ahlat, Erciş-Patnos, Erçek-Özalp-Saray, Muradiye, Muş, and Van-Gevaş. For organic matter and phosphorous, results followed by different case letters are significantly different according to the Conover–Iman test (p < 0.05).
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Figure 2. AMF parameters (spore number, mycorrhizal frequency, and mycorrhizal density) determined in soil samples collected from different locations. Means followed by the same case letter (a–c) are not significantly different according to the Conover–Iman test (α = 0.05).
Figure 2. AMF parameters (spore number, mycorrhizal frequency, and mycorrhizal density) determined in soil samples collected from different locations. Means followed by the same case letter (a–c) are not significantly different according to the Conover–Iman test (α = 0.05).
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Figure 3. Correlations among physicochemical and AMF soil parameters.
Figure 3. Correlations among physicochemical and AMF soil parameters.
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Figure 4. Linear regression plots showing relationships between soil texture components (sand, silt, and clay) and AMF parameters. Significant differences were recorded for all correlations investigated (p < 0.05). Coefficients of determination (R2) and p-values: SN vs. sand (R2 = 0.074, p = 0.003), SN vs. silt (R2 = 0.089, p = 0.001), SN vs. clay (R2 = 0.036, p = 0.043), F% vs. sand (R2 = 0.105, p = 0.0004), F% vs. silt (R2 = 0.124, p = 0.0001) (spore number—SN, mycorrhizal frequency—F%).
Figure 4. Linear regression plots showing relationships between soil texture components (sand, silt, and clay) and AMF parameters. Significant differences were recorded for all correlations investigated (p < 0.05). Coefficients of determination (R2) and p-values: SN vs. sand (R2 = 0.074, p = 0.003), SN vs. silt (R2 = 0.089, p = 0.001), SN vs. clay (R2 = 0.036, p = 0.043), F% vs. sand (R2 = 0.105, p = 0.0004), F% vs. silt (R2 = 0.124, p = 0.0001) (spore number—SN, mycorrhizal frequency—F%).
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Table 1. Distribution of sites within three clusters created based on SN, F, and sand variables.
Table 1. Distribution of sites within three clusters created based on SN, F, and sand variables.
Cluster Sites
0Ahlat-1Erciş-4Erçek-1Erçek-4Muş-6Van-24Özalp-7
1Ahlat-3Ahlat-5Bitlis 10Bitlis-1Bitlis-17Bitlis-6Bitlis-9Erciş-10Erciş-2
Gevaş-1Muradiye-1Muradiye-9 Muş-19Patnos-1Patnos-3Saray-1Saray-3Özalp-8
2Muradiye-12Muradiye-2Muradiye-6Muş-12Muş-14Muş-15Muş-3Van-17Van-21
Van-3Van-5Özalp-1Özalp-2
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Najafi, S.; Ülker, M.; Rezaee Danesh, Y.; Demir, S.; Oral, E.; Altuner, F.; Karaca, S.; Balci, M.; Özdemir, B.; Sargin, B.; et al. Identifying AMF-Rich Tir Wheat Rhizospheres to Foster Microbial Inoculants Useful in Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from the Van Lake Basin. Sustainability 2025, 17, 1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041676

AMA Style

Najafi S, Ülker M, Rezaee Danesh Y, Demir S, Oral E, Altuner F, Karaca S, Balci M, Özdemir B, Sargin B, et al. Identifying AMF-Rich Tir Wheat Rhizospheres to Foster Microbial Inoculants Useful in Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from the Van Lake Basin. Sustainability. 2025; 17(4):1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041676

Chicago/Turabian Style

Najafi, Solmaz, Mehmet Ülker, Younes Rezaee Danesh, Semra Demir, Erol Oral, Fevzi Altuner, Siyami Karaca, Meriç Balci, Burak Özdemir, Bulut Sargin, and et al. 2025. "Identifying AMF-Rich Tir Wheat Rhizospheres to Foster Microbial Inoculants Useful in Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from the Van Lake Basin" Sustainability 17, no. 4: 1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041676

APA Style

Najafi, S., Ülker, M., Rezaee Danesh, Y., Demir, S., Oral, E., Altuner, F., Karaca, S., Balci, M., Özdemir, B., Sargin, B., Dilsiz, A., Sagun, Ç., Selem, E., Salih, S. J., Najafi, M., Farda, B., & Pellegrini, M. (2025). Identifying AMF-Rich Tir Wheat Rhizospheres to Foster Microbial Inoculants Useful in Sustainable Agriculture: Evidence from the Van Lake Basin. Sustainability, 17(4), 1676. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17041676

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