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Article

Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom): A Low-Cost Strategy to Improve Profitability and Sustainability in Rural Communities in Semi-Arid Regions

by
Fernanda Díaz-Sánchez
1,
Jorge Cadena-Iñiguez
1,*,
Víctor Manuel Ruiz-Vera
1,
Héctor Silos-Espino
2,
Brenda I. Trejo-Téllez
1,
Alberto García-Reyes
1,
José Luis Yagüe-Blanco
3 and
Julio Sánchez-Escudero
4
1
Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus San Luis Potosí. Iturbide #73, Col. Centro, Salinas de Hidalgo, San Luis Potosí 78600, Mexico
2
Tecnológico Nacional de Mexico, Instituto Tecnológico El Llano Aguascalientes, Km. 18 Carretera Ags-S.L.P., El Llano Aguascalientes 20330, Mexico
3
Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica Alimentaria y de Biosistemas, Campus Ciudad Universitaria, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro, # 2-4, Madrid, Comunidad de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
4
Colegio de Postgraduados, Campus Montecillo, Km. 36.5 Carretera Mexico-Texcoco, Montecillo, Texcoco 56264, Mexico
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9481; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219481
Submission received: 28 August 2025 / Revised: 30 September 2025 / Accepted: 20 October 2025 / Published: 24 October 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Agriculture)
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Abstract

The rural population in semi-arid areas of Mexico suffers from poverty levels that hinder a dignified life, leading to migration and abandonment of their resources. This is exacerbated by climate change (droughts and high temperatures), which negatively impacts crops. While farmers attempt to adapt, their strategies are insufficient. A low-cost Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom) model was designed, using local resources to produce prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.) and corn (Zea mays L.), while simultaneously conserving regional germplasm of Opuntia spp. A randomized block design with three replications was used. Each block included seven varieties, with 125 plants per variety. Corn was grown as a monocrop in the same experimental site. Graphical analysis, analysis of variance with mean comparison test in RStudio, a profitability analysis, and a Land Equivalent (ELU) analysis were performed. The varieties Verdura, Atlixco, and Rojo Liso showed higher yield, internal rate of return, and net present value; their benefit–cost ratios were 7.97, 6.35, and 6.82, respectively. The ELU was greater than 1.0 when combining the prickly pear varieties. Agroclimatic conditions did not allow the corn to complete its phenological cycle, and its ELU was zero. Seventy prickly pear genotypes, with three replicates each, representing eight Opuntia species, were collected and integrated into the periphery of the production unit. This model was accepted by the Climate Action Platform for Agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (PLACA) for implementation in other communities.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

In Mexico, several factors limit the development of the rural population [1]. The main factor is poverty, which prevents people from living without socioeconomic deprivation. Poverty is closely related to food security, since without income or agricultural harvests, access to food is compromised [2]. This has led to the abandonment of means of production (rural plots) and has indirectly caused the erosion of local genetic resources due to abandonment [3] and lack of use [4].
In Mexico, rural areas represent 24.5% of the national population, of which 32.3% live in poverty and 54% of these in extreme poverty [5,6]. A related factor is migration, as rural residents change their means of income by working in the secondary and tertiary sectors [7] in non-rural areas of the country or abroad [8]. Although the main focus of agricultural models is to reduce poverty and rural migration, crops such as maize (Zea mays L.) and other staple grains, which have low prices and government control, make it difficult for rural families to achieve social justice [9].
Another factor that induces the abandonment of means of production is climate change. Rising temperatures, for example, induce more severe droughts that affect agricultural production [10]. These changes have negative effects on agriculture, reducing productivity and impacting food security [11]. One alternative to mitigate the negative impacts on agriculture and reduce rural abandonment is intercropping, especially with local or adapted species that require low technological management costs, as they exhibit greater tolerance to water stress due to their adaptation to the environment, and make better use of available water, obtaining yields that introduced varieties cannot achieve [12]. Intercropping consists of systems where two or more plant species are sown in the same area [13].
These crop associations are important for maintaining soil fertility and increasing the Land Use Efficiency Index [14], which promotes ecological balance and ensures a continuous supply of products, thus contributing to greater food and economic security for rural families [15].
Combining different crops on the same land is emerging as a promising technique, as it allows for more intensive and efficient use of land and natural resources [16]. Intercropping is an effective strategy for food security [17], as it offers an alternative to increase production, improve incomes, and use water efficiently [18]. Intercropping acts as a barrier against erosion, weeds, and pests, reducing losses [19,20,21] and has environmental benefits such as carbon sequestration, biological pest control, improved soil fertility, and contributes to the conservation of agro-biodiversity [18].
In Mexico, the semi-arid region of the Potosí highlands has not received rainfall for years, and although farmers have gained experience in dealing with this situation, it has not been enough [22]. Therefore, it is necessary to diversify agricultural practices and propose low-cost technological solutions so that rural residents can revitalize their livelihoods, generate income, and reduce migration [1,23]. To overcome the limitations of traditional rainfed monoculture agriculture, it is necessary to design low-cost production models that utilize local resources. In this regard, the implementation of Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom) models is an alternative to gradually mitigate these limitations, integrates small-scale agricultural production modules with staggered planting, production, and harvest times throughout the year, allowing farmers to receive income more frequently [24,25]. It uses high planting densities and can include rainwater harvesting systems [26,27]. Local plant species that can be marketed are used. It also includes the conservation of underutilized local species that are used by the community (tolerated and promoted) as a source of fodder or food [28].
Associative models can also incorporate agro-biodiversity species on the same land to reduce the risk of loss. In this respect, AgriCom is relevant to the Second Global Plan of Action promoted by the [29] and adopted by Mexico, which emphasizes the improvement of genetic resources for food and agriculture (GRFA), highlighting as a priority (activity number nine) support for plant breeding, the expansion of the genetic base, and its link to germplasm conservation and production systems. These measures seek to strengthen food security in the face of climate change and other threats by promoting sustainable models for the management of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA). Therefore, it is crucial to align germplasm conservation with food production, integrating participatory genetic management and improvement practices in productive units [30].
Agrobiodiversity includes biological diversity (domesticated and wild relatives) linked to food and agriculture, including plant, animal, microbial and fungal genetic resources, as well as organisms that perform key ecological functions (pollination, pest control and nutrient cycling) [31]. Its conservation depends on consumer demand and use, influenced by consumer knowledge and information dissemination [32]. An example is prickly pear (Opuntia spp.) a highly diverse GRFA in the Potosino-Zacatecana region (Mexico) whose germplasm, composed of local species and varieties, requires preservation, both for local consumption, export markets and as a source of secondary metabolites for public health bioprospective studies [33].
Based on the above, a complementary agriculture model was designed and evaluated with the objective of increasing the equivalent use of land and promoting the di-versification of primary activities to improve the local rural economy. The premise of this study is to analyze the differences in yield and economic benefits between different varieties of Opuntia ficus-indica, while verifying the efficiency of resource use in semi-arid regions, thus facilitating the development of viable strategies for the production and conservation of regional germplasm of Opuntia spp.

2. Materials and Methods

The AgriCom model was implemented in the community of El Carmen, Santa María del Río, San Luis Potosi, Mexico (longitude (dec): −100.665278, latitude (dec): 21.590000) at an altitude of 1940 m above sea level (Figure 1).
It is a community in the Potosí-Zacatecas semi-desert, with a semi-warm and semi-dry temperate climate, an average temperature of 18.5 °C, an absolute maximum of 37 °C, and a minimum of 4.5 °C. It is important to note that although statistically the community of El Carmen records up to 362 mm of annual precipitation, in 2022 there was no rainfall, causing damage to the few corn crops (Figure 2).

2.1. Geographical Area of Intervention

The population is 380 people, of whom 191 are men and 189 are women, with 27.63% of the total employed [34]. Families engage in various activities to earn a living, most commonly as agricultural laborers or bricklayers. Landowners have planted corn (Z. mays), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), and chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.). They also raise cattle, sheep, and pigs for their own consumption or to supplement the family income.

2.2. Research Phases

The research consisted of two phases. The first, called the field phase, involved designing the spatial distribution of the production modules (Figure 3), using seven organic varieties of Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. at high densities and a corn monoculture as a control. The second phase consisted of installing the rainwater harvesting system, the auxiliary irrigation system, agronomic management of the plantations, and determining profitability indices.

2.3. Plant Yield Variables

Seven different varieties of prickly pear cactus [Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill.] were used; these varieties are native to the region, and local rural communities are familiar with their uses for human food, animal feed, and local trade. Additionally, the study included a monoculture of maize (Zea mays L.) using a local variety that has been traditionally cultivated, in order to highlight the differences between using different species and between monoculture and intercropping systems (Table 1). Both the prickly pear varieties and the maize were planted in the same location and during the same period. The cultivation practices used were those typical of the local rural community.
The evaluation was carried out on nopal plots by planting a fully expanded cladode at physiological maturity at densities of 0.70 × 0.70 m, referred to as the first level, which produces new cladodes referred to as the second level, which in turn produces cladodes referred to as the third level. The latter are cut when immature and are called nopal vegetables, which are consumed as vegetables weighing approximately 100 g each and are selected and sent to market [35] (Figure 3D). Corn was planted according to traditional local guidelines, with a density of approximately 20,000 plants per hectare. Survival (%) at planting, time of emergence of the second and third levels of nopales, and yields were evaluated.

2.4. Equivalent Land Use (ELU)

To determine crop efficiency, equivalent land use (ELU) was used, which is defined as the sum of dividing the yield of the polyculture by the yield of the monoculture with the highest economic value (Z. mays). The result of this equation is not actual yield values, but rather proportional values that determine the efficiency of intercropping and is identical to relative total yield, as it is based on the relative land requirements for growing intercropping systems compared to monocrops [36]. According to [14], equivalent use is obtained with the following formula:
E L U = ∑ Y p i Y m i
where
ELU = Equivalent Land Use
Ypi = Yield in intercropping systems (kg ha−1)
Ymi = Yield in sole cropping (kg ha−1)
Authors such as Gliessman [14], mention that an ELU value equal to 1.0 indicates that there are no differences between the yields of the crop systems evaluated; however, if the value is greater than 1.0, it indicates that there is an advantage for the associated system. This means that there is positive interference between the crops that make up the association, and that any interspecific competition is not as negative as that of monoculture.

2.5. Collection, Uses and Geographical Origins

To ensure maximum genetic diversity in the collected sample, a physiologically mature cladode was taken from each of the three selected adult plants. With this information, the access was registered using passport data [37] in the BanGerMex format, approved by the SADER Subcommittee on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture [38]. The BanGerMex system functions as a database designed to preserve and manage biological resources stored in germplasm [38]. In addition, Mexico’s agri-food sector has benefited from various initiatives focused on researching, analyzing, and protecting national agrobiodiversity [39].
The passport information was used to create geographical distribution maps of the collections using QGIS 3.22 software. A survey was also conducted among residents of the collection areas to identify the main uses of the genotypes and represent the data using graphs.

2.6. Production Yields and Costs

Yields were recorded according to the emission of cladodes at different levels. Costs were classified according to their accounting nature to determine profitability indicators, such as direct and indirect costs in all their variables (labor, production, initial investment costs, working capital for balance sheet calculation, five-year projections, break-even point calculation, profit rate, as well as profitability under net present value (NPV) and internal rate of return (IRR) criteria.

2.7. Minimum Infrastructure

Even though the nopal cactus is a species adapted to arid and semi-arid areas where water is a limiting factor, the model included a reservoir to collect rainwater for drip irrigation so that production would be sustainable.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

A randomized complete block design with three replications was used. All seven varieties were represented in each block, with a plot size of 125 plants per variety. This design allowed for a control treatment for each variety. Maize was grown as a monocrop in the same experimental site. A graphical and variance analysis with a test of means was performed using the RStudio 4.3.0 program, a profitability analysis, and an analysis of Equivalent Land Use [14].

3. Results

3.1. First Phase: Survival After Sowing and Emission of the Second and Third Levels of Cladodes

Plant survival was 98%, which is considered successful given the lack of rainfall and emergency irrigation, as there was no infrastructure for rainwater harvesting at this stage. Figure 4A shows that, eight months after planting, the mother plant tolerates water stress and high temperatures. The highest emission of second-level cladodes was recorded in the Verdura and Atlixco varieties, with 735 and 501 cladodes, respectively. This is relevant because it helps producers trust the AgriCom model as a production alternative.
The other O. ficus-indica variants showed values ranging from 86 for Rojo liso to 283 for Pelón rojo, which, although not competitive, is important because they survived and can be integrated into forage or prickly pear production models. Figure 4B indicates that at twelve months, the emission of second-level cladodes showed a similar trend, highlighting the Verdura, Atlixco, Pelón blanco, and Pelón rojo genotypes, which emitted third-level cladodes.

3.2. Yields and ELU

The ELU calculation was performed by combining the seven cactus varieties against a corn monoculture. This result highlights the project’s advantage, as the yield is higher due to the cactus’s survival despite the low rainfall recorded during the year. Table 2 shows the cladode emission rate according to the second and third levels to calculate the percentage emission and future production projections, while Table 3 shows the ELU values, with all cactus varieties showing significant improvements in annualized and projected yields per hectare.
The emission ratio reflects the proportion of third-level cladodes relative to second-level growth, indicating productivity under low rainfall conditions. Higher ratios suggest greater resilience and yield potential. The relationship between the emission of the second and third levels of cladodes suggests that the Verdura, Atlixco, Rojo liso, and Pelón rojo genotypes ensure commercial yields 12 months after planting and on an annual basis projected to one hectare of production. Table 3 shows the yield projections based on average values (R1, R2, R3) derived from the experimental units in randomized blocks, and facilitated the projection of the model over a 12-month period.
The ELU values for nopal varieties (>1.0) reflect their higher productivity and income potential compared to maize under drought conditions. The ELU for maize is presented as a value 0 because, under the studied conditions, it did not reach viable production levels. This is consistent with Figure 2, which shows that maize yields were negligible due to the low rainfall, while nopal genotypes demonstrated resilience and consistent productivity. Therefore, the ELU comparison underscores the advantage of nopal polycultures over maize monocultures in arid environments.
The zero maize yield value was obtained because the plants did not reach the flowering stage and died due to lack of moisture, reaching an average height of one meter at the last measurement. To determine whether the intercropping system with prickly pear is more advantageous according to the ELU equation, the yield of the monocrop system is needed, but this data could not be obtained. This suggests that, mathematically, prickly pear appears to yield better results. However, Figure 5 shows that even among the different prickly pear varieties, there were differences in performance.
The analysis of variance showed high standard deviation values, in addition to a coefficient of variation of 20.79% (Figure 5), indicating that yields vary among nopal varieties. This can be attributed to their uses (forage, tuna, and vegetables) (Table 1). The emission rates of second- and third-level cladodes are differential (Table 2), with the Verdura, Pelón Blanco, and Copena varieties standing out with values of 42.96, 26.49, and 18.24%, respectively, which directly impact the production of nopal vegetables (vegetables) (Figure 5). This suggests the effects of indirect selection processes carried out by rural inhabitants on these genotypes.

3.3. General Costs and Profitability Indices

The model has the advantage of being adaptable to rural conditions, aiming to generate local rural employment, conserve local germplasm, and diversify production. Net present value (NPV) is an investment criterion that consists of discounting the income and payments of a project or investment to determine how much will be gained or lost from that investment, while the internal rate of return (IRR) is the interest or return offered by an investment. The IRR is the percentage of profit or loss involved in any investment, and the cost–benefit ratio (C/B) represents the overall relationship between costs and benefits over a given period, which is the total proposed monetary benefit divided by the total proposed monetary costs. Table 4 shows that all variety have acceptable profitability indicators, including the Pelon blanco and Pelon rojo, which are forage crops, making them attractive to remain in the production model. All variants exhibit positive NPV, an IRR above the opportunity cost of capital (supposedly >20%), and a benefit-to-benefit ratio (B/BR) >1, indicating economic viability. The forage variants (Pelón blanco and Pelón rojo) showed competitive profitability despite a lower IRR, reinforcing their role in diversified production systems in rural settings.

3.4. Structuring of the Rainwater Harvesting System, Emergency Irrigation System

The agroclimatic conditions in the semi-arid region are limited in terms of rainfall; however, to make use of rainwater when it does rain, a water storage reservoir with a geomembrane lining was constructed, funded with public funds, which will be used for supplementary irrigation or other purposes.
The rainwater collection tank was built at the highest point of the site and covered with a heavy-duty geomembrane with a guaranteed lifespan of 20 years. The dimensions were 10 × 5 × 1.0 m (capacity of 150 m3, which correspond to 150,000 L of water). The backup drip irrigation system consisted of 90,000-inch-wide tape with a flow rate of 0.5 Lh−1. It is simply a geomembrane tank located at the highest point of the land, and the water is distributed by gravity. Unfortunately, there were no rainfalls during the evaluation year, therefore no supplemental irrigation was applied.
Figure 6 shows the conceptual model for transferring and disseminating AgriCom to other rural communities.

3.5. Conservation of Genotypes Collected

The AgriCom model aims to simultaneously promote commercial production and conserve local genotypes of Opuntia L. During the 12-month evaluation period, 70 genotypes were collected, each with three replicates (N = 210), and planted along the perimeter of the experimental plot. This arrangement allowed them to serve as a living fence without competing with the commercially grown varieties. The main product of the model has been the immature cladode (prickly pear vegetable), and the genetic identity of each accession is maintained asexually (through vegetative propagation of physiologically mature cladodes). Therefore, there was no risk of sexual cross-pollination, even if the flowering periods of different genotypes coincided (Table 2).
The main collection included the following species: Opuntia ficus-indica, O. albicarpa, O. megacantha, O. lasiacantha, O. affinis lasiacantha, O. tezontepecana sp., O. robusta var. Larreyi, and O. joconostle. Among the collected material, several improved genotypes—still in use today—were identified and later introduced to rural communities, including Copena F-1, P-8, AGD, CNF, and T4. Additionally, genotypes from the State of Mexico, Puebla, Mexico City, Guanajuato, Tamaulipas, Hidalgo, and Nuevo León were documented.
Most accessions originated from San Luis Potosí (53%) and Tamaulipas (14%), with the remainder coming from Mexico City, Guanajuato, Hidalgo, Nuevo León, and Puebla. This distribution suggests that farmers transfer genotypes across regions based on their needs (Figure 7A). Notably, 69% of the accessions were gathered from the Potosino-Zacatecano highlands and adjacent areas with similar agroclimatic conditions (e.g., Jalisco, Aguascalientes), representing the most diverse collection preserved to date. The primary uses of the conserved genotypes (Figure 7B,C) included fruit production (prickly pear), vegetable consumption, and forage.

4. Discussion

Soil is considered a vital resource in the environment because it is composed of water, minerals, organic matter and microorganisms. Unfortunately, over the years, the soil surface has deteriorated due to monoculture agriculture [40]. This type of agricultural system causes soil degradation and affects ecosystem functions, losing biological diversity [41]. In addition, because of the homogeneity of monoculture, it is more likely that climate change, pests and diseases negatively impact their yield [12].
The association of crops diversifies the primary activity and have greater stability in yields even in drought conditions [12], which is an important condition given the climatic changes that were observed in the community El Carmen. Polycultures are an alternative to achieve sustainable agriculture in the short term (1–3 years) and possibly sustainable in the long term due to efficient resource management [42]. The association of crops in the same area has multiple benefits, as in the AgriCom model, there is an increase in land productivity as opposed to monoculture [43,44], which provides food security [45] and a more varied diet [46].
The difference between AgriCom and existing agroecological models, such as the milpa system (which is planted annually), is that Opuntia cactus allows for a perennial crop. Its high density and low height, maintained through pruning (no more than three levels of cladodes), maximizes the use of arable land and increases the potential for producing a marketable volume. Polyculture systems are successful when the area cultivated exceeds one hectare, allowing for a sufficient quantity to supply the market, or when there are groups of collaborating farmers. AgriCom, however, by integrating different varieties of Opuntia, generates fodder, prickly pear fruit, and edible cactus pads (nopalitos) throughout the year.
For a society, sustainability means having economic, ecological, social, and political conditions that guarantee its balanced functioning over time [47]. The AgriCom model promotes environmental sustainability by integrating local species such as O. ficus-indica, which are resilient to extreme climatic conditions [48]. This approach conserves agrobiodiversity and reduces soil degradation by minimizing tillage and wind erosion [49,50].
Authors such as [51,52] have conducted comparative studies between urban and rural areas (in Europe and China), considering agricultural production, forested areas, biodiversity, and their influence on the standard of living. Their findings indicate that land use efficiency and greater resilience to change are more prevalent in rural areas, which also tend to have higher biodiversity, although they generally have a lower standard of living. In Mexico, ejidos (communal landholdings) and rural communities comprise 53% of the country’s land area, and are home to just over 25 million people, of whom 11 million live in poverty and 35% in extreme poverty. It is difficult to compare studies conducted in countries with stricter environmental regulations and better job opportunities [5,6]. However, it is possible to implement agricultural production and biodiversity conservation schemes as a starting point for improving the standard of living of rural families who are committed to preserving their local genetic resources.
The economic benefits of AgriCom are evident in its higher yields and profitability compared to traditional monoculture. Varieties like Verdura and Atlixco demonstrated superior cladode production and strong financial indicators (NPV and IRR), ensuring economic viability for rural households. The model’s low-cost infrastructure, such as rainwater harvesting systems, further enhances its economic feasibility. Even though no rainfall was recorded during the evaluation period, the geomembrane water collection deposit was built with the understanding that rainfall will not always be absent, and therefore it is an integral part of the AgriCom model design.
The seven varieties of Opuntia cactus plants all survived successfully thanks to their inherent resilience as a local species. Their evolutionary history has endowed them with physiological adaptations that allow them to withstand the drought conditions, and the extreme temperatures, typical of semi-arid regions. In contrast, the maize plants only reached a height of one meter and died due to lack of moisture. The rainwater collection deposit lined with geomembrane did not collect any water because of the lack of rainfall during the evaluation period, and therefore no supplemental irrigation was possible.
Socially, AgriCom fosters self-employment and reduces reliance on seasonal crops like corn, which are vulnerable to climate variability. By providing continuous income through staggered harvests, the model mitigates migration pressures and strengthens rural livelihoods. The inclusion of local germplasm also empowers communities by preserving their agricultural heritage and adapting it to challenges.
Equivalent land use (ELU) helps to identify the advantages of the association or complementarity of cultivated species in the same area where monoculture has traditionally existed; especially where resources and inputs are scarce including the decrease in irrigation due to climatic factors [53]. By planting nopal used as forage, vegetable o fruit consumption, production increased compared to monoculture maize, showing greater physiological resilience to the lack of precipitation and providing the opportunity to diversify primary production and the diet of those involved, as well as economic income.
The AgriCom system is an option to reduce the agroecological limitations of semi-desert areas, helping to modify agricultural activities and discourage the abandonment of plots [54]. Similarly, the inclusion of a module for water capture or retention is an option that encourages rural actors to modify the traditional status of agriculture [55].
The inclusion of nopal (O. ficus-indica) varieties as a main component of the AgriCom model, due to its high agroclimatic resilience (tolerates high temperatures, extreme drought), favors farmers in arid and semi-arid zones.
The rate of immature cladodes production (Table 4) is the most important factor in achieving sustainable production, allowing residents to harvest every ten to fifteen days at most, rather than depending on a seasonal harvest like corn and beans. Another advantage is that the nopal cactus is tolerant of low or no rainfall, as occurs in the semi-desert area of Potosí-Zacatecas, which favors the diversification of rural productive activities as a strategy for obtaining income and food based on local resources [56], or in areas of the Central Valleys of Oaxaca with Nopalea sp. [57].
Arid and semi-arid areas depend on the proper management of natural resources and the sustainable development of productive systems that adapt to limiting factors such as high temperatures, degraded soils, low fertility, and water scarcity [58]. Therefore, the inclusion of nopal as an endogenous species in the study community is relevant, in addition to the fact that its production cycle is relatively permanent, since the emission of cladodes is vegetative and does not require sexual maturity.
As a relevant fact, the AgriCom model has been selected by the Latin American and Caribbean Climate Action Platform for Agriculture (PLACA) launched at COP25 [59] as a low-cost technological solution using local or endogenous species for agriculture. PLACA emerged in response to the need for ministries of agriculture to have a regional mechanism that strengthens institutional capacities related to the effects of climate change on agriculture [60].
The Platform considers social, environmental, and economic dimensions to seek synergies with major environmental conventions, such as Climate Change, the 2030 Agenda, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, and the conventions on Biological Diversity and Combating Desertification and Drought. In this regard, our model involves local species under topological arrangements that contribute to productivity, generate economic resources, and can mitigate migration and poverty in the semi-desert in the medium term. It also involves the conservation of Opuntia spp. at different levels of tolerance, promotion, cultivation, and even without current use [60]. It is important to mention that these species generate commercial goods, human food, and fodder for domestic livestock, such as sheep (Ovis aries L.), which complement the local economy.

Limitations and Future Perspectives of the Research

This study only conducted a one-year field trial. In the future, it will be necessary to conduct long-term monitoring of prickly pear production (forage, fruit, and vegetables) as well as monitoring soil improvement over time, since Opuntia ficus-indica is a perennial plant that is managed through pruning. It is suggested that experiments be conducted in different semi-arid regions of Latin America to validate the applicability of the model in other contexts, which would help demonstrate the validity of the research findings and inform the design of future studies [59].

5. Conclusions

AgriCom model addresses the three pillars of sustainability—environmental, economic, and social—by integrating activities that promote sustainability in conditions that are limiting for agriculture and people, so that leveraging local resources improves resilience and rural life. Its success in El Carmen serves as a model for similar communities facing climatic and socioeconomic challenges. In addition, having other Opuntia species may benefit future bioprospecting research.
The varieties integrated in the model are local and show tolerance to rainfall shortage. This model allows the conservation of plant germplasm with local resources that, in addition to their protection, can complement the economic income from the production of green cactus. The model improves primary production activities in areas with strong agro-climatic limitations. It reduces production costs, promotes self-employment and generates economic resources. It is possible that, in the medium term, this will lead to a reduction in migration and abandonment of the means of production. The business plan is fundamental for the acceptance of the AgriCom model as a profitable project. The evaluation of the project is a support for decision making in the short, medium and long term. This model has been accepted in the Bank of Low-Cost Technological Solutions and/or Based on Local Resources, in the Platform for Climate Action in Agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean (PLACA), to be installed in other communities in Latin America. It is currently established and delivered to producers in the community of El Carmen, Santa Maria del Rio, San Luis Potosi, Mexico, and will serve as a training and demonstration center for more producers and interested families.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.C.-I. and F.D.-S.; methodology, J.C.-I. and V.M.R.-V.; software, J.S.-E.; validation, B.I.T.-T. and J.L.Y.-B.; formal analysis, J.C.-I. and F.D.-S.; investigation, F.D.-S. and A.G.-R.; resources, B.I.T.-T. and H.S.-E.; data curation, J.S.-E.; writing—original draft preparation, J.C.-I. and F.D.-S.; writing—review and editing, J.C.-I. and V.M.R.-V.; funding acquisition, B.I.T.-T. and V.M.R.-V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was partially funded by the CONV_RGAA_2022_13 fund of the College of Postgraduates in Agricultural Sciences.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

To Colegio de Postgraduados en Ciencias Agrícolas, and Instituto Tecnológico Nacional, Instituto Tecnológico El Llano Aguascalientes of Mexico. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
AGRICOMComplementary Agriculture
ELUEquivalent Land Use
RTRRelative Total Yield
GRFAGenetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
NPVNet Present Value
IRRInternal Rate of Return

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Sustainability 17 09481 g001
Figure 1. Location of the “El Carmen” Ejido, San Luis Potosí. Source: Prepared by the authors based on Google Maps. The dashed lines indicate the geographical hierarchy of country, province and local community of study.
Figure 1. Location of the “El Carmen” Ejido, San Luis Potosí. Source: Prepared by the authors based on Google Maps. The dashed lines indicate the geographical hierarchy of country, province and local community of study.
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Figure 2. (A,B) Initial planting of corn (Zea mays L.) in the El Carmen community, Santa María del Río, SLP. (C,D) Final condition of the plant resulting from insufficient rainfall in the community. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Figure 2. (A,B) Initial planting of corn (Zea mays L.) in the El Carmen community, Santa María del Río, SLP. (C,D) Final condition of the plant resulting from insufficient rainfall in the community. Source: Prepared by the authors.
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Figure 3. Opuntia ficus-indica planting sequence. (A,B) Mature cladodes and first-level planting. (C) Second-level cladode emission. (D) Third-level cladode emission, (E) Nopal crop. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Figure 3. Opuntia ficus-indica planting sequence. (A,B) Mature cladodes and first-level planting. (C) Second-level cladode emission. (D) Third-level cladode emission, (E) Nopal crop. Source: Prepared by the authors.
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Figure 4. (A) Emission of immature cladodes (vegetables) from seven Opuntia ficus-indica varieties eight months after establishment. (B) Emission twelve months after establishment. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Figure 4. (A) Emission of immature cladodes (vegetables) from seven Opuntia ficus-indica varieties eight months after establishment. (B) Emission twelve months after establishment. Source: Prepared by the authors.
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Figure 5. Tukey means test (0.05%) for the cactus variants that make up the AgriCom model. Values for three observations ± standard deviation. Identical letters indicate no statistical difference. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Figure 5. Tukey means test (0.05%) for the cactus variants that make up the AgriCom model. Values for three observations ± standard deviation. Identical letters indicate no statistical difference. Source: Prepared by the authors.
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Figure 6. Conceptual model for transferring AgriCom to other rural communities.
Figure 6. Conceptual model for transferring AgriCom to other rural communities.
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Figure 7. (A–C) Main uses of the accessions (germplasm) of Opuntia spp. and recollection sites that make up the core collection.
Figure 7. (A–C) Main uses of the accessions (germplasm) of Opuntia spp. and recollection sites that make up the core collection.
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Table 1. Plant species, biological varieties, and planting densities used in the complementary agriculture model. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Table 1. Plant species, biological varieties, and planting densities used in the complementary agriculture model. Source: Prepared by the authors.
SpeciesVarietyUseDensity (Plants ha−1)
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.CopenaVegetable20,952
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.Pelón blancoForage20,952
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.VerduraVegetable20,952
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.Pelón rojoForage20,952
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.Rojo lisoVegetable20,952
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.AtlixcoVegetable20,952
Opuntia ficus-indica Mill.VillanuevaVegetable20,952
Zea mays L.Criollo localGrain20,000
All varieties of Opuntia ficus-indica and Zea mays were cultivated under the same conditions.
Table 2. Cladodes emission rate of second- and third-level cactus plants and annualized emission percentage from planting. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Table 2. Cladodes emission rate of second- and third-level cactus plants and annualized emission percentage from planting. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Variety
(Opuntia ficus-indica		Second Level
Emission (t ha−1)		Third Level
Emission (t ha−1)		Emission Ratio Between Second and Third Level (%)
Verdura10.834.65342.96
Atlixco10.382.75026.49
Rojo liso8.331.51918.24
Pelón rojo7.401.14915.53
Villanueva6.700.6339.45
Pelón Blanco6.400.3685.75
Copena5.9210.3025.10
Table 3. Annual and projected yield per hectare, which determines the equivalent land use (ELU) and income over a 12-month period. Source: Own calculations. *ELU: Equivalent land use; R1-R3: repetitions.
Table 3. Annual and projected yield per hectare, which determines the equivalent land use (ELU) and income over a 12-month period. Source: Own calculations. *ELU: Equivalent land use; R1-R3: repetitions.
VarietyYield (kg ha−1)Income
$ ha−1
($10.00 kg)		Yield
(kg ha−1)		Income
$ ha−1
($10.00 kg)		Yield
(kg ha−1)		Income
$ ha−1
($10.00 kg)		ELU (Nopal Variety Versus Corn)
R1 R2 R3
Verdura5276.9252,769.237543.5975,435.909052.3190,523.08>1.0
Atlixco6400.0064,000.006768.4267,684.218122.1181,221.05>1.0
Rojo liso5920.6359,206.356222.2262,222.227466.6774,666.67>1.0
Pelón rojo4913.9849,139.786215.0562,150.547458.0674,580.65>1.0
Villanueva3750.0037,500.004433.3344,333.335320.0053,200.00>1.0
Pelón Blanco3497.4934,974.874040.2040,402.014848.2448,482.41>1.0
Copena3526.3235,263.163859.6538,596.494631.5846,315.79>1.0
Corn 0.000.000.000.00
Table 4. Profitability indicators based on annual production of cactus varieties as the main component of productivity. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Table 4. Profitability indicators based on annual production of cactus varieties as the main component of productivity. Source: Prepared by the authors.
Variety (Opuntia ficus-indica)Net Present Value (NPV)Internal Rate of Return (IRR %) Benefit/Cost Ratio (B/CR)
Verdura231,077.73677.97
Atlixco143,831.02706.35
Rojo liso139,288.51516.82
Pelón rojo99,715.71486.28
Villanueva88,646.13425.67
Pelón Blanco51,580.62265.40
Copena38,630.41214.93
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Díaz-Sánchez, F.; Cadena-Iñiguez, J.; Ruiz-Vera, V.M.; Silos-Espino, H.; Trejo-Téllez, B.I.; García-Reyes, A.; Yagüe-Blanco, J.L.; Sánchez-Escudero, J. Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom): A Low-Cost Strategy to Improve Profitability and Sustainability in Rural Communities in Semi-Arid Regions. Sustainability 2025, 17, 9481. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219481

AMA Style

Díaz-Sánchez F, Cadena-Iñiguez J, Ruiz-Vera VM, Silos-Espino H, Trejo-Téllez BI, García-Reyes A, Yagüe-Blanco JL, Sánchez-Escudero J. Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom): A Low-Cost Strategy to Improve Profitability and Sustainability in Rural Communities in Semi-Arid Regions. Sustainability. 2025; 17(21):9481. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219481

Chicago/Turabian Style

Díaz-Sánchez, Fernanda, Jorge Cadena-Iñiguez, Víctor Manuel Ruiz-Vera, Héctor Silos-Espino, Brenda I. Trejo-Téllez, Alberto García-Reyes, José Luis Yagüe-Blanco, and Julio Sánchez-Escudero. 2025. "Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom): A Low-Cost Strategy to Improve Profitability and Sustainability in Rural Communities in Semi-Arid Regions" Sustainability 17, no. 21: 9481. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219481

APA Style

Díaz-Sánchez, F., Cadena-Iñiguez, J., Ruiz-Vera, V. M., Silos-Espino, H., Trejo-Téllez, B. I., García-Reyes, A., Yagüe-Blanco, J. L., & Sánchez-Escudero, J. (2025). Complementary Agriculture (AgriCom): A Low-Cost Strategy to Improve Profitability and Sustainability in Rural Communities in Semi-Arid Regions. Sustainability, 17(21), 9481. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219481

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