Current Status and Future Trends in China’s Photovoltaic Agriculture Development

Abstract

China possesses abundant solar energy resources and remains heavily dependent on agriculture. The integration of photovoltaic (PV) power generation with agricultural production has emerged as a strategic pathway to advance China’s ecological transition and dual carbon goals. By 2023, PV power generation represented 21% of the nation’s total installed capacity. The cumulative capacity was projected to reach approximately 887 GW by 2024. The novelty of this study lies in offering a systematic and integrative review of PV agriculture in China. This paper used a combination of field research, case studies, policy analysis, and a comparative evaluation of diverse “PV+” development models. The findings reveal a pronounced spatial imbalance. Western China possesses 42% of the country’s solar energy resources, whereas the eastern provinces of Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Anhui collectively comprise 37.8% of all PV agricultural projects. Three dominant “PV+” models are identified and categorized as follows: “PV + ecological restoration”, “PV + agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fisheries,” and “PV + facility agriculture.” These models provide multiple benefits. They enhance land use efficiency, stimulate local economic development, and contribute to food security by expanding the supply of essential agricultural products. Based on these insights, the study highlights future priorities in technological innovation, ecological evaluation, intelligent equipment, digitalization, and region-specific policy support. Overall, this research fills a key gap in systematically and comprehensively describing the current development status of photovoltaic agriculture in China. It also offers transferable lessons for sustainable agriculture and global energy transitions.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the progress of science and technology has led to a further increase in the energy dependence of economic development. Since the industrial revolution, fossil energy and other traditional energy reserves have been declining yearly, leading to ecological degradation in some regions and posing risks to human security [1]. With China’s “dual carbon” target for 2020, the energy sector, which is the main primary source of carbon emissions, will inevitably transform and upgrade to clean energy. Solar energy is an inexhaustible, renewable, clean energy source with a short construction cycle; its development and uses are conducive to human life and economic development [2], and are of great strategic significance to China’s goal of achieving a “dual carbon”. China’s solar energy is rich in total radiation resources. According to statistical analysis, more than half of the total area of the country’s annual sunshine hours is more than 2000 h. China’s total annual solar radiation received on land for 910–2400 kWh/m², which is comparable to the energy released by burning 2.4 × 10⁴ million tonnes of standard coal [3], providing a rich resource base for the development of China’s photovoltaic (PV) industry.

Although China is not the earliest country in the development of PV, it is the country with the most rapid development of PV. Solar PV power generation first began in Europe and the United States. In 1954, Bell Labs in the United States developed the world’s first silicon-based PV cell, which triggered a new wave in the PV industry [4]. In 1969, France established the first PV power plant and launched the modern PV power station generation. Since then, the scientific community has conducted systematic research on raw material for PV panels and other related issues, driving the iterative development of the PV market. In 1973, U.S. scientists introduced low-cost, high-efficiency polycrystalline and amorphous silicon, initiating large-scale production [5]. In the early 1980s, the U.S. PV industry accounted for more than 80% of global sales [6], virtually monopolizing the industry. In the context of the global PV fever, China also began to devote increasing attention to PV development. Since 2002, the rise of private PV enterprises has rapidly positioned China as a major player in the global PV industry chain, while the technology and integrity of the industry chain are also far superior to other countries [7]. In 2013, China’s State Council issued Several Opinions on Promoting the Healthy Development of the PV Industry, and local governments actively responded and issued important documents to support the development of PV. China’s PV power generation market scale is once again rapidly expanding, and the international influence is subsequently enhanced. As shown in Figure 1, by 2024, China’s PV power generation capacity led the world with 887 GW, becoming the world’s largest PV and solar thermal energy market, followed by the EU-27 (304.4 GW), U.S. (177.6 GW), and Japan (89.6 GW) [8]. China is currently a world leader in technology research and development, infrastructure, and market development, and seven of the world’s top ten manufacturers of PV silicon crystals are based in China [9]. National Energy Administration data show that by the end of 2023, cumulative PV installations accounted for 21% of China’s total power generation capacity. This milestone indicates that solar energy has jumped to become China’s second-largest power source [10]. In China’s PV Development Outlook 2050, it is predicted that PV will become China’s number one energy source, with a total installed capacity of 5000 GW.

Agriculture is the cornerstone of human civilization, and land is indispensable for agricultural development. As the global population continues to grow, economic and social development require more land to expand the scale of agricultural production. Soil quality is intrinsically linked to the health of the ecological environment; therefore, the degradation of this environment can directly constrain the development of the agricultural industry. PV agriculture, which integrates renewable clean energy into agricultural practices, maximizes land resource utilization and achieves the concept of ‘dual use of land’. This approach promotes energy savings and emission reductions and offers a scientifically efficient way to enhance agricultural productivity [11]. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China issued the ‘Ten Accurate Poverty Alleviation Projects’ which emphasize the concept of PV poverty alleviation [12], linking the development of the PV industry with targeted poverty alleviation efforts. In 2021, China achieved total poverty alleviation, shifting the focus from comprehensive poverty alleviation to more precise initiatives [13]. PV poverty alleviation, a crucial component of targeted poverty alleviation efforts, plays an indispensable role. On the one hand, China’s rural areas are facing energy shortages. PV and agriculture are in line with the country’s clean energy development needs, while creating a new model of modern agricultural development; the transformation of agriculture is also of great significance [14], helping to achieve the goal of common prosperity. On the other hand, PV agriculture enhances food security by enabling diversified production pathways and improving the stability of agricultural supply chains [15], thereby supporting the national food security strategy. However, PV agricultural technology still needs to be developed, and the subsequent development still faces difficult challenges. This paper is based on the distribution of China’s light and heat resources, summary analysis of China’s development of PV agricultural development status quo and the main problems, combined with the typical development mode of PV agriculture, targeted at the future development of PV agriculture development proposals and prospects.

Although many studies have explored the integration of global PV systems in agriculture, this article particularly focuses on China. It boasts the world’s largest PV market, unique agricultural conditions, and socio-political contexts. Nevertheless, despite the promising prospects and policy support, the development of PV agriculture in China still faces significant challenges and knowledge gaps. Existing research has provided valuable insights in specific fields (

Table 1. A comparative analysis of recent review studies on PV agriculture in China.

Review Study Focus	Primary Scope	Key Strengths	Distinction from the Present Review
Niche evaluation [16]	Evaluates the development potential and niche width of PV agriculture in different regions of China.	Provides a quantitative framework for assessing regional suitability and competitiveness.	Focus on evaluation metrics and spatial analysis. Our review offers a comprehensive status analysis, detailed typology of models, in-depth challenge discussion, and concrete future strategies, going beyond evaluation to provide a holistic development roadmap.
New opportunities at that time [17]	Introduces the concept and explores the preliminary opportunities and models of PV agriculture in China.	Early work that successfully identified and framed the potential of this emerging field.	An early-stage, opportunity-oriented review. Our review provides a mature, in-depth analysis based on years of subsequent development, empirical data, and a critical examination of real-world challenges and regional disparities that have since emerged.
Greenhouse micro-environment [18]	Specifically reviews the impacts of PV modules on the greenhouse microclimate (light, temperature, and humidity).	Detailed, specialized analysis of agronomic conditions under one specific PV application (greenhouses).	Only focus on the micro-environment of PV greenhouses. Our review adopts a broader, system-level perspective, encompassing all major PV agriculture models (greenhouses, fishery–solar, distributed PV, desert control), their socio-economic impacts, policy challenges, and integration with digital agriculture.
Present review	Current status, future trends, and development strategies of China’s PV agriculture	Comprehensive analysis of models, challenges, and strategies. Empirical data on capacity and distribution. Forward-looking with digital integration and ecological co-benefits.	This review comprehensively considers the current scale of China’s PV agriculture and the challenges in the real world to propose the “PV+” model and conduct a data-driven challenge assessment. Targeted strategies are proposed for key bottlenecks such as technological research and development, ecological protection, digitalization, and policy support, providing a specific roadmap for future development.

), such as the ecological niche assessment of PV agriculture [16], its general opportunities [17], and the micro-environmental impacts within PV greenhouses [18]. However, a comprehensive and systematic analysis of the current situation, the integration of empirical data from all major development models, and a critical review of multiple challenges (technology, ecology, finance, and region) from an integrated perspective are still lacking. Furthermore, there is an urgent need to transform these analyses into clear and actionable strategies for sustainable development in the future. This article provides a comprehensive classification of Chinese PV agricultural models such as “PV+”. Based on on-site cases and policies in recent years, it analyzes the current situation and challenges of PV agriculture in China and proposes targeted development strategies.

2. Fundamentals of PV Agriculture

PV power generation is a technology that uses semiconductor materials to convert light energy directly into electricity. Its principle is based on the PV effect, that is, when light irradiates the surface of the solar cell, the photons interact with the semiconductor atoms in the material, causing some electrons to leap from the valence band to the conduction band, realizing the collection, conversion, and transmission of electrical energy [19]. These solar cells are connected in series or parallel linking to the PV module. The specific operation process diagram of PV agriculture is shown in Figure 2. PV power generation is regarded as the safest and cleanest technology that can replace fossil energy sources in the future [20], which has led to a significant increase in PV installations in recent years.

In 1982, Goetzberger et al. [21] for the first time put forward the general idea of the integration of agriculture and light, and scholars began to focus on the combination of PV and agricultural production. PV panels and under-vegetation have complementary roles: the interaction between vegetation and PV panels can increase PV power generation. Vegetation enhances PV systems’ efficiency mainly through evaporative cooling and high reflectance. Arenandan et al. [22] evaluated the optimal height of PV panels and found that vegetation reduces the surface temperature of PV panels through evaporative cooling. Based on simulation results, Hendarti [23] suggested that green roofs covered with vegetation can improve light reflectivity, increasing PV output by 1–2% compared with concrete roofs. On the contrary, the shading of PV panels reduces the water demand of vegetation and soil substrate. Osma-Pinto [24] demonstrated through a designed experiment that vegetation in the shadow of PV panels is almost 50% higher than exposed vegetation. In addition, the establishment of PV panels reduces crop damage from inclement weather, and most of the studies have concluded that PV modules significantly contribute to the biomass, cover, and survival of crops below [25,26,27]. Recent experimental studies have also provided quantitative evidence on production efficiency. For example, in Sweden’s agricultural PV system, barley cultivation resulted in an increase of approximately 19.7% in straw yield and 2.2% in starch content compared with the open-field control [28]. Another important performance metric is the land equivalent ratio (LER), which is usually used to represent land use efficiency. Alson et al. [29] conducted a meta-analysis and reported that the average LER of agricultural PV systems is approximately 1.5 ± 0.3. This indicates that the combined yield of the integrated system is about 50% higher than that of either a monocrop or a stand-alone PV system. In India, a system cultivating mung beans under PV panels achieved a LER of 1.41 [30], further supporting this conclusion. These findings indicate that integrating PV with crops is feasible and can promote dual benefits for both energy generation and agricultural productivity.

3. The Main Forms of PV Agriculture and Their Development in China

3.1. PV Agricultural Greenhouses

PV agricultural greenhouses are one of the most widely utilized forms of PV agriculture in China and are also an important development direction for the PV industry in rural areas today (Figure 3). PV agricultural greenhouses have the function of collecting solar thermal energy, but PV agricultural greenhouses are susceptible to weather in actual application, unstable power generation resulting in the synergistic inefficiency of PV and agricultural production. To maximize energy use within greenhouses, integrated energy storage systems combining PV and LED lighting have been developed [31]. These systems follow a model of “daytime storage, nighttime discharge, and plant utilization”, maintaining the temperature and light needed for crop growth during nights or cloudy periods. The principle of PV greenhouses is to use PV modules consisting of translucent amorphous thin-film batteries and then change the transmittance in relation to the needs of the crops themselves, so that the solar spectrum inside the greenhouse can be controlled in a range suitable for the growth of plants. In order to increase the spectrum required by the plants, two methods can be used: roof thin-film solar panels are configured at intervals separated from ordinary transparent white glass; and LED lights are used to supplement the spectrum required by the plants to achieve the light environment for growth. On the other hand, solar modules using amorphous silicon film generate electricity with a primary spectrum of 600 nm, which is virtually unaffected by ultraviolet light and can effectively block the effects of ultraviolet light on plant growth. Plants are able to photosynthesize while generating electricity and maintaining the ambient temperature [32].

The technical and economic feasibility of PV greenhouses largely depends on their structural design and geographical location. Typically, the power capacity density ranges from 50 to 1500 kW/hm². This mainly depends on the coverage density and light transmittance of PV facilities [33]. The average energy conversion efficiency of semi-transparent amorphous silicon modules used in greenhouses is approximately 6%. Although this is lower than that of conventional crystalline silicon panels, these modules allow sufficient light transmission to support plant growth [34]. From an economic perspective, integrating PV power generation significantly increases the upfront investment costs. The installation cost of PV greenhouses is estimated to be 1.67% higher per 1 kW than that of traditional greenhouses [35,36]. This increase is primarily attributable to the PV system and the need for a reinforced structural framework.

By 2015, China’s cumulative had installed capacity of PV of about 43 GW, jumping to the first in the world. By 2024, the country’s installed capacity of solar power generation increased by 31% year-on-year compared to previous year, reaching about 887 GW. As of 2021, China had over existing agricultural greenhouses of more than 2.5 million hm². Several provinces, particularly Shandong, Henan, and Anhui, have completed and operationalized PV agricultural greenhouses. These provinces, rich in solar resources, can simultaneously provide light for crops and PV systems [37].

3.2. Fishery–Solar Hybrid Project

In fishery–solar hybrid project, PV systems are installed over lakes, reservoirs, rivers, and ponds (Figure 4). This model makes full use of local water and land resources, enabling “power generation above, aquaculture below”. The two main construction methods are floating and piling. In the floating method, solar panels are supported by buoyant frames; in the piling method, they are mounted on fixed structures anchored to the waterbed [38]. China currently adopts the appropriate piling construction method according to different water depth levels: “fixed piling + fixed bracket” is the main construction method in shallow water within 5 m, and “fixed piling + tracking bracket” is the main construction method. “Floating type” is not technologically feasible in deep water from 5 to 10 m. The floating type in deep water is not technically considered appropriate and is still under the demonstration stage, which could be the main development direction of water surface PV in the future [39]. After establishing the construction method, the light conditions should be evaluated in order to maximize the solar radiation received by the PV panels.

The fishery–solar hybrid model exhibits a high level of land use efficiency. A typical installation achieves a power capacity density of 1.6 MW/hm² of water surface. This value is substantially higher than that of most land-based agrivoltaic systems [40]. The floating structure typically covers 60–85% of the water surface. This coverage provides shade that can reduce water evaporation by up to 30% and suppress algal blooms, thereby enhancing water quality for aquaculture [40,41]. The cooling effect of the water body can enhance PV module efficiency by 5–10% relative to ground-mounted systems in the same region, particularly during hot seasons [42]. From an economic perspective, the initial investment is higher because of the floating structure and specialized installation. The associated costs are estimated to be 20–25% greater than those of equivalent ground-mounted systems [43]. Nevertheless, the levelized cost of energy (LCOE) remains competitive, ranging $0.05–$0.08/kWh in China. This competitiveness is supported by government subsidies [44].

At this stage, although the development of fishery–solar hybrid project is fast, the overall scale of water surface PV in China at present is relatively small. As of 2023, China’s installed offshore PV capacity is only 3 GW, accounting for 0.49% of the country’s total PV installed capacity (609 GW) that year [45]. With land resources increasingly scarce, PV development is shifting toward water-surface systems. These have relatively minor ecological impacts, align with China’s “dual carbon” goal and green development concept, and are being vigorously promoted in provinces such as Jiangxi, Anhui, and Zhejiang.

3.3. Rural-Distributed PV Power Plants

A distributed PV power generation system is a system that uses the integrated roofs or facades of agricultural buildings, residential buildings, and industrial and commercial buildings to construct power stations (Figure 5). This model meets local electricity demand and provides power for agricultural facilities and nearby communities. The power generated by it does not only meet its own development needs, but the remaining power can also provide power for the surrounding industrial manufacturing and commercial economic centers, solving the problem of local power shortages. Thus, they represent a PV agricultural model that maximizes land use efficiency [46]. Distributed PV power station is an innovative form of green building and is the main development direction of future distributed PV, to promote the realization of the “dual carbon” goal in an important way.

The typical capacity of rural-distributed PV systems ranges from approximately 5 kW for individual farms to several megawatts for large agricultural cooperatives or commercial facilities [47]. A suitable installation density on rooftop areas is typically 70–100 W/m². These systems primarily employ high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon panels, with the conversion efficiency of modern PV modules often exceeding 20% [48,49]. As rural distributed PV systems are constructed directly on building rooftops, they avoid incurring additional land costs. In China, the average installation cost for distributed rural PV systems has decreased to $600–$800/kW [50,51]. In many regions, achieving grid parity has resulted in the LCOE for distributed PV power becoming lower than commercial and agricultural retail electricity prices. The retail electricity price for agriculture is only $0.04 to $0.07/kWh, which makes self-use economically very feasible [52,53].

According to the China PV Industry Association, in 2020, China’s photovoltaic building integration (BIPV) installed capacity reached 0.7 GW, and some companies have exceeded the volume of BIPV in Europe [54]. During China’s “14th Five-Year Plan” period, BIPV market ushered in rapid development and it is expected that in 2025 BIPV installed capacity will reach 30.2 GW [55]. Taking Ningbo City, Zhejiang Province, as an example, the city accelerates the scale construction of ground-based distributed PV power plants. It makes full use of coastal beaches, reservoirs, and agricultural land resources in surrounding counties and cities to vigorously promote the development of distributed PV power stations. As of 2021, nine large-scale ground-based power stations had been built, with an installed capacity of 1.13 GW [56]. The PV building market was also expanded unprecedentedly in 2022, China’s PV building-integrated rooftop market space was 91.726 billion yuan, and is expected to reach 366.773 billion yuan by 2027 [57].

4. The Main Problems Faced in the Development of PV Agriculture in China

4.1. Insufficient Scientific and Technological Support Capacity of PV Agriculture

PV agriculture integrates energy and agricultural production into a synergistic model, potentially generating benefits greater than the sum of its parts. The design and development of more factors should be considered, and many key technologies and materials face critical bottlenecks. Although the total amount of solar energy in China is abundant, due to China’s PV agriculture starting late compared to developed countries, the development has occurred in a short period. There are obvious shortcomings in technological research and development; several areas require in-depth research.

The application of solar electric potential in agriculture needs to involve the integration of multiple disciplines and multidisciplinary fields such as crop science, machinery manufacturing, solar energy technology, and sensing technology. At present, research in China is often fragmented within single disciplines, which affects the development and application of PV technology in the agricultural industry [58]. At this stage, the actual application of PV agriculture, such as PV agricultural greenhouses and fishery–solar hybrid project design program, is not enough to adapt to the actual situation. As a result, energy conversion efficiency is low, overall conversion rates remain suboptimal, and the quality of related agricultural products is unsatisfactory. For example, dust accumulation on panels in arid regions can significantly reduce energy output, necessitating frequent maintenance [59]. The lack of standardized technical guidelines and performance metrics further poses a challenge for widespread replication and scalability.

Human talent is the primary driver of scientific and technological innovation. Insufficient introduction of human talent will cause low land utilization, unclear development direction, and other practical problems. Human talent configuration is unreasonable and configuration structure is single, which will lead to PV agricultural management technology being underdeveloped. At present, the PV power station personnel are mostly PV power generation-related technicians. In addition, the human talent reserve in rural areas is limited, and technology development and equipment operation and maintenance cannot effectively support the rapid development of PV agriculture, which leads to difficulties in ensuring the quality of agricultural products.

Beyond the issues of technological innovation and talent, the development of PV agriculture faces other systemic challenges. Social acceptance among farmers presents a significant hurdle. The transition to PV agriculture requires changes in traditional farming practices and poses a perceived risk to their primary source of income from crops. Without effective demonstration, training, and clear evidence of long-term economic benefits, farmers may be reluctant to adopt this novel system [60].

4.2. Increased Risk of Ecological Damage

In the PV construction process, there should not only be a reasonably designed PV power generation construction scale, but we should also adhere to the ecological bottom line. The principle that “lucid waters and lush mountains are invaluable assets” provides a scientific foundation for sustainable development. China is placing growing emphasis on the development of PV industry. However, the excessive use of land in the pursuit of large-scale PV power generation can destroy local ecosystems, drive biotic succession in an unfavorable direction, and lead to continuous ecological deterioration, which is contrary to the original purpose of development.

Blindly laying solar panels has an impact on the local fauna and microorganisms, as well as on the microclimate. The construction of PV power plant will cause some artificial interference to the soil formation and development of the construction site. This is particularly evident in northwestern China, where land is both rich in solar resources and ecologically fragile. Concentrated PV construction often involves excavation, landfilling, and human activities such as trampling, which impose short-term impacts on native vegetation. If the follow-up treatment is not proper, it will cause the cycle of biotope recovery to be prolonged, or even the disappearance of certain species. In addition, the atmospheric environment, noise pollution during the construction process, and water and light pollution after completion should not be ignored.

In summary, the ecological compensation mechanism for the purpose of protecting the natural environment and promoting the harmony between man and nature is an issue that should be considered while developing and constructing PV agricultural projects. In order to truly realize the principle of “green hills and clear waters” while advancing the modernization of agriculture and rural areas, PV development must simultaneously achieve tangible results in ecological protection and efficiency. Achievement of harmony between man and nature is the ultimate goal of the quality and efficiency of ecology. Conversely, ecological quality and efficiency represent the practical embodiment of this harmony, with the two mutually reinforcing one another [61]. Achievement of rural revitalization is an important purpose of PV agricultural construction. PV agriculture will revitalize the rural areas and quality of green hills and efficiency, which will not only help to promote the implementation of rural revitalization strategy, but will also be conducive to the realization of the ecologically more fragile environment in poor areas to develop solar energy resources with relative advantages. The construction of PV agriculture improves the quality of life of local residents and is favorable to the development of rural ecological civilization.

4.3. Shortage of Capital Investment

Given that PV is an emerging industry, the construction of complete PV facilities requires substantial investment in the early stage. In rural areas, to establish PV agricultural facilities, the initial capital mainly originates from national poverty alleviation policies, subsidies, bank loans to farmers, farmers’ personal savings, and investments from local enterprises [14]. In agricultural PV facilities, government funding accounted for the majority before completion. However, individual farmers who want to participate in the construction of PV facilities still need more funds to complete the construction; equipment procurement and maintenance also require investment. For local farmers, investment in PV agriculture often represents a necessary but substantial expenditure that exceeds their available liquidity. Although PV projects can enhance farmers’ income to some extent after completion, the initial revenue is insufficient to offset the high upfront investment, and the long cost recovery cycle substantially reduces farmers’ enthusiasm.

Furthermore, the lengthy payback period is a significant financial barrier. For open field agrivoltaic systems, the payback period typically ranges from 6 to 12 years [62]. For PV-greenhouses, which require higher initial investment in integrated structures and environmental controls, the payback period can be even longer, often between 8 and 15 years [28]. This extended timeframe is influenced by several factors including the high upfront costs of PV components and specialized infrastructure, the prevailing government subsidy policies and electricity pricing (e.g., feed-in tariffs), the agricultural revenue generated from chosen shade-tolerant crops, ongoing operation and maintenance expenses, and the local solar resource availability [63,64]. The long duration required to recoup the initial investment discourages farmers and investors who may lack the financial capacity to wait for returns over such an extended period.

For PV enterprises, the development of PV industry requires substantial financing. China’s PV policy for small-scale distributed PV power plant projects for farmers recommended a price of about 10 yuan/W. However, considering the limited economic capacity of poor farmers, many PV poverty alleviation projects were sold at prices below eight yuan/W [65]. This makes it difficult for enterprises to secure adequate profits. Data indicate that China Energy Conservation Solar Energy Company has financed nearly four billion yuan to support the promotion of enterprise PV power plant projects [66], demonstrating that the huge demand for capital makes it impossible to rely solely on its own funds to maintain the development of the PV industry. Tongwei, a leader in China’s “fishery–solar hybrid” sector, ranked second in net profit among listed PV companies in 2017, but it still needed to raise funds in the market [67]. Therefore, both the leading enterprises in the PV industry and small enterprises are facing financial challenges when developing PV agriculture.

Finally, whether the subsidies issued by the government for PV projects can be implemented or not is an issue that needs to be considered seriously. Failure to implement subsidies in a timely and appropriate manner will directly affect the construction of PV agriculture enterprises and farmers to participate in the enthusiasm.

4.4. Uneven Regional Development

As of the beginning of 2020, among the 31 provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the Central Government in China, excluding Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan, there were no PV agricultural projects in these five regions: Beijing, Heilongjiang, Shanghai, Chongqing, and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. The top three provinces with the highest number of PV agricultural projects are Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Anhui, while the provinces with the fewest projects are Sichuan, Tianjin, and Qinghai, of which Sichuan has only one fishery–solar hybrid project [68].

Qinghai’s solar resources are among the richest, with a technically exploitable capacity of 3.4 × 10⁶ MW. However, the number of PV agricultural facilities is relatively small, similar to the situation in Gansu and Tibet. Heilongjiang and Xinjiang, despite having higher technological exploitable capacity than Qinghai, have no PV agricultural projects. In contrast, Zhejiang’s technically exploitable solar energy capacity is only 2 × 10⁴ MW, but the number of its PV agricultural projects is the second highest in China.

Overall, the distribution of PV agricultural projects in China is unbalanced, and the use of PV resources is higher in the northern and eastern coastal cities and lower in the western inland areas, with an obviously zonal character. A huge number of PV agricultural projects are mainly installed in the eastern parts of coastal areas. Jiangsu, Zhejiang, and Anhui alone account for 37.8% of all PV agricultural projects in China (Figure 6). Notably, these three provinces fall within resourceful areas that are relatively poor in solar energy.

5. Potential for Future Development and Development Trend of PV Agriculture in China

China has enormous potential for the development of PV agriculture. First of all, China is rich in light and thermal resources. According to the National Meteorological Administration Wind Energy Solar Energy Assessment Center division standards, China’s solar energy resource areas are divided into the following four types: very resource-rich belt, resource-rich belt, resource-poor belt, and very resource-poor belt, respectively. Among them, the first, second, and third types of areas have good conditions for solar energy use. Although the conditions of solar energy resources in the fourth category of areas are poor, some areas still have the value of utilization. Furthermore, combined with the China wind and solar energy resources annual bulletin and, Wang gave the division of China’s solar energy resources use zoning indicators [69]. China’s solar energy resource-rich zones are mainly distributed in the western region of Xinjiang, Tibet, and other areas, accounting for 21% of the country’s land area. Solar energy resource-rich zones, poorer zones, and lack of sunlight zones of the total land area accounted for 42%, 31%, and 6%, respectively [70]. PV panel establishment can greatly utilize solar radiant energy. Shi [71] pointed out that the light energy utilization rate of general agricultural land with crops only can reach 0.4%. The PV panels are mainly divided into monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon, the two types in the market. Photoelectric conversion efficiency reached 15–16% and 12–13% [72].

In addition, the PV industry production of agricultural and livestock products can lead to crop planting and livestock breeding diversification, enriching the farmers’ “food basket”. In terms of income, pure PV power generation income is mainly power generation and subsidy income, while expenditures arise from equipment maintenance and other operational costs. PV agriculture, when implemented without ecological damage, uses PV panels to supply clean electricity for agricultural production and rural infrastructure. Surplus electricity can be fed into the grid to generate revenue through power sales and subsidies. Additionally, agricultural products, forage cultivation, and livestock breeding provide diversified income sources that enhance farmers’ earnings [73]. This contributes to country’s food security and rural revitalization and achieves sustainable development of agricultural production.

PV agricultural development for the green development concept and the “dual carbon” goal is of great significance. PV agriculture in China’s new development road has been spread and the specific development mode mainly includes desert land management, planting and breeding, and PV building-integrated new ‘PV+’ mode.

5.1. PV + Ecological Restoration: PV Sand Control

China’s Ningxia, Gansu, Xinjiang, and other northwestern regions have good ecological benefits; however, they are frequently influenced by natural sandstorms. As this region is rich in solar energy resources, the construction of PV power plants can make full use of local solar energy resources. Upon completion, PV power plants can prevent wind and sandstorms, and ecological restoration. PV panels have pronounced shade effect, reducing the evaporation of the sandy area, reducing the temperature, and improving the regional microclimate; furthermore, the panels can function as catchment to collect the rainwater, and improve the rainwater utilization [74], to achieve a win-win situation for both the resources and the environment.

Currently, the main method of PV sand control is a three-tier protection system: establish shelterbelts or grass grids in the windward direction at the periphery of the PV power station site in desertified land, as the first level of protection to prevent wind and fix sand; set up protection belts on both sides of the main roads in the site area, and plant sandy grasses or shrubs as the second level of protection on both sides of the maintenance roads; set up sand barriers under the PV facilities and between front and back rows of the PV facilities, and cultivate plant species adapted to sandy environment with agricultural value, as the third level of protection. Shrubs are commonly used in the tertiary protection of PV sand control (Figure 7). Such three-layer protection serves to improve the land quality, plays the role of windbreak and sand fixation, improves the environment [75], and can also produce certain agricultural value, which is conducive to promoting local agricultural development.

The new sand control model of “on-panel power generation, off-panel restoration” has been promoted to serious sandy areas across China. It serves as a reference for the northwestern and northeastern regions, which are rich in solar energy resources. In northwestern Liaoning, Changwu County, in the southern part of the Horqin sand land, a new development mode of PV sand control has been adopted. A pilot demonstration area of “PV + sand control” was established to enhance the ecological barriers of the central Liaoning urban agglomeration and the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei regions. It builds an ecological management system of “power generation on the board, restoration under the board and planting between the boards” in the ecotone between agriculture and animal husbandry. It has effectively blocked the march of the Horqin sand land to the south, protected the ecological security of the central Liaoning urban agglomeration and the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region, and guaranteed the national ecological, energy, and food security [76]. Meng et al. [77] conducted the deployment of three sand barriers inside a PV power plant in the Hobq Desert, China, and showed that all three sand barriers in the experimental area reduced the wind speed. Especially when the height of the PV panels is less than 50 cm, the gauze sand barriers have the greatest effect on the reduction of wind speed, with an average reduction rate of 101.5%. This demonstrates that the sand barriers can effectively protect the PV infrastructure safety and provide shelter for plants. Wang et al. [78] also suggested that between the solar panels, sand migration was reduced by 86% and 78% in the areas planted with Sedum aizoon L. and Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng., respectively. Among the plants used in PV sand control, Sedum aizoon L. and Pennisetum alopecuroides (L.) Spreng. are very suitable for planting between rows in the area of solar panels. These findings can provide valuable insights for the further development of PV agriculture.

5.2. PV + Agriculture, Forestry, Animal Husbandry, and Fishery: Power Generation on the Board, Planting, and Breeding Under the Board

In the early stages of China’s PV industry development, PV agriculture encountered the problem of indiscriminately planting any available crops under the panels and did not leave them unused. In the face of such dilemmas, crop selection should be combined with the local conditions of the ground, according to the local conditions to put forward a reasonable type of planting.

Ningxia, which is rich in solar energy resources and represents a major production area of wolfberry, hosts the PV wolfberry demonstration project in Figure 8a that serves as a benchmark of PV agriculture. The practical results show that the content of polysaccharides and carotenoids in wolfberries are significantly higher than that in other regions [79]. The product has obtained organic certification and Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) certification in the European Union, Japan, and the U.S.; Lin [80], through the study of agricultural and PV complementary projects on light-loving and shade-tolerant tea plant, found that the establishment of PV panels, although they would have a slightly impact on the light absorption of tea plant, substantially reduce the heat exchange between the tea plant and the air above them during the night. This led to an increase in leaf temperature. Hao et al. [81] assessed the adaptability of shade-tolerant herbs planted under PV panels according to different topographic and climatic factors in different regions of China. They identified the most suitable shade-tolerant herbs to be planted under PV panels in the eastern, central, and southwestern regions of China, respectively.

In addition, green leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, and kale can be grown under the open PV panels outdoors. These crops thrive in partial shade and can benefit from reduced evaporation [82]. Root vegetables such as radishes and carrots also perform well in dappled shadows [83]. Berries such as raspberries and blackberries have been successfully cultivated in PV agricultural systems in temperate regions [84]. For PV agricultural greenhouses, the suitable crops are also highly diverse. High-value crops such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers can optimize photosynthesis by supplementing LED lighting [85]. Medicinal plants, such as ginseng and certain varieties of basil, benefit from the controlled light and temperature conditions in PV agricultural greenhouses [86]. Mushrooms (such as Pleurotus ostreatus and Agaricus bisporus) require the least amount of light, making them an ideal choice for fully or partially shaded PV greenhouses [87]. While PV systems generate economic benefits, these crops can basically maintain the output of conventional agricultural systems. In some cases, yields of certain crops can exceed those from conventional agricultural systems, as quantified in

Table 2. A comparison of the yields of classic crops under PV agricultural systems and conventional agricultural systems.

Crop Type	PV System Type	Yield Comparison (PV Agriculture vs. Conventional)	Key Findings and Context
Lettuce	Under the outdoor PV panels	Improved 7% to 11%	Some varieties of lettuce under PV panels have a higher yield and produce nutrients more effectively [82]
Grape	Under the outdoor PV panels	No significant difference (≈0% yield change)	Although grape growth rates are slower under PV panels, fruit quality and yield remain unaffected [90]
Barley	Under the outdoor PV panels	Improved about 20%	The study shows that the yield and starch content of crops have increased by 19.7% and 2.2%, respectively [28]
Mung bean	Under the outdoor PV panels	Improved 8% to 12%	On the same land area, the combined output of crops and energy increased by 41% [30]
Tomato	PV agricultural greenhouse	Improved about 50%	The study shows that the total output of tomato crops increased by approximately 50% under shade [85]
Cucumber	PV agricultural greenhouse	No significant difference (≈0% yield change)	Although PV panels occupy nearly half of the greenhouses, the output of cucumbers has basically remained stable [91]
Mushroom	PV agricultural greenhouse	Improved about 10%	PV greenhouses provide an ideal microclimate for mushroom cultivation, thereby increasing the yield of mushrooms [87]

. Earlier international studies such as Ezzaeri et al. [88] and Marrou et al. [89] reported that crop yields decreased under PV panels, which contrasts with the results presented in Table 2. This discrepancy suggests that in the Chinese environment, yield increases can be attributed to the optimized panel configurations tailored to local conditions and the selection of adaptive crops.

PV panels are not only limited to growing plants, but can be used for aquaculture activities, as shown in Figure 8b, with reference to the current model of ‘fishery–solar hybrid project’. The current fishery–solar hybrid project is limited to fish farming, which has a small scope of application. In recent years, several new modes of PV aquaculture have been proposed. Xiao et al. [92] experimentally demonstrated the feasibility of farming ginseng-like far-blind earthworms with high medicinal value under PV panels with significant economic benefits. This method improves soil activity and nutrient content, and has a high potential for application; China Three Gorges Energy Jilin Shuangliao Suixian PV power station adopts the “PV + Agriculture and Animal Husbandry” mode. In this system, electricity is generated on the panels and animal husbandry breeds under the panels. The total installed area of PV facilities is about 1.2 million m², with a total installed capacity of PV facilities is 1.9 × 10⁵ kW, which is the largest agricultural and PV complementary project in Jilin Province [93].

5.3. PV + Building: Realizing Carbon Neutrality in the Building Sector

BIPV is different from the ordinary PV agricultural greenhouses in which the greenhouses and PV panels are separated from each other. BIPV is PV facilities directly attached to buildings, and it is a kind of technology that integrates solar power generation products into buildings. Combining BIPV with modern agriculture is also an important developmental pathway of PV agriculture.

One of the major products of BIPV in agriculture is the PV greenhouse. According to the way of laying PV panels, PV greenhouse can be divided into a fully paved PV greenhouse and a partially paved PV greenhouse. Fully paved PV greenhouses use solar panels to cover the roof of the greenhouse to maximize the amount of light used for power generation. In this case, light penetration is limited, temperatures are relatively balanced, and light-sparing plants such as edible mushrooms can be cultivated in greenhouses. In partially paved PV greenhouses, solar panels are installed at intervals. The light in these greenhouses is poorer than full light and generates less electricity than a fully paved PV greenhouse. However, most of the horticultural crops can be cultivated. The method of configuring solar panels in the partially paved type varies considerably, with the percentage of the shaded area ranging from 20 to 80%. In checkerboard-pattern PV greenhouses, light distribution is more uniform, which promotes plant growth [94]. However, there is a strong correlation between temperature and conversion efficiency during PV roof operation. Studies have shown that for every 1 °C increase in the temperature of sun-irradiated PV modules, their power decreases by about 0.48% [95]. In order to reduce the surface temperature of PV panels and to make full use of excess thermal energy, photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) systems have been developed.

Integrated PV/T system in BIPV is an emerging cogeneration technology. With the help of PV/T system, not only is the performance of PV power generation enhanced by cooling down the PV panels to maintain the optimal working condition, but also the effective regulation of the internal temperature of the greenhouse can be achieved. In addition, the thermal energy recovered by the system can be applied in a variety of agricultural activities, such as hot water supply, heating, and crop drying [96]. The PV/T system integrated with the greenhouse is shown in Figure 9.

5.4. Promotion Pathways and Regional Implementation Strategies for “PV+” Systems

Although the potential of the “PV+” system is evident, its successful deployment requires strategies that are tailored to regional resource endowments, prevailing agricultural practices, and socio-economic conditions. Based on the analysis of the three predominant “PV+” models, we propose region-specific implementation pathways. The “PV + ecological restoration” model is most suitable for the northwestern regions of China, including Ningxia, Gansu, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia. These arid and semi-arid regions are characterized by abundant solar resources, severe desertification, and fragile ecosystems. Government policies should prioritize the integration of PV development with desert control and grassland restoration. The “PV + agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fishery” model is well suited to the central and eastern regions of China, particularly Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, and Hubei. These provinces have relatively abundant water resources and stronger agricultural infrastructure, making them suitable for diversified agricultural–PV systems. The focus should be placed on the cultivation of high-value crops, aquaculture, and integrated farming systems under PV panels. The “PV + building” model is applicable to both urban and rural settlements across the country, with particular relevance to the Pearl River Delta, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region. These areas are characterized by high electricity demand and limited land availability, which makes them particularly suitable for suburban applications and new rural construction projects.

6. Suggestions for the Healthy Development of Future PV Agriculture

6.1. Scientific Evaluation of Ecological Benefits and Formulation of Ecological Protection Measures

Before construction, a comprehensive assessment and planning of the project’s potential environmental impacts should be conducted. Local biodiversity, soil health, and microclimate conditions should be monitored, and corresponding remedial measures should be formulated. For the monitoring after the completion of the project, an Internet of Things (IoT) sensor network can be deployed. This network enables real-time measurement of soil moisture, temperature, and light levels under PV panels. The collected data support adaptive management and the formulation of remedial measures [98]. A successful example is the ecological monitoring project implemented at the ground-mounted PV power station in Wuwei, Gansu Province. Researchers have deployed real-time IoT monitoring under the solar panels and conducted long-term studies on near-surface climate and soil moisture retention. It provides a valuable reference model for PV agricultural projects in ecologically fragile areas [99].

Simultaneously, there should also be reasonable planning of power generation to avoid the emergence of certain excessive power generation and cause power waste, overcapacity, and other problems. These issues can be addressed through advanced modeling and grid integration. For instance, the use of open-source tools like NREL’s System Advisor Model (SAM) or REopt can facilitate technical and economic optimization. These tools allow for the simulation of different PV capacities, storage sizes, and grid interaction scenarios based on local solar resource data and load profiles. They help in determining the optimal system configuration to maximize self-consumption and minimize power curtailment [100]. In addition, integrated energy storage systems represent a critical solution. Deploying “PV + energy storage” systems allows excess solar energy to be stored during peak generation periods and released during peak demand. This significantly reduces grid pressure and energy waste [101]. The implementation of advanced grid management strategies is indispensable. For instance, adaptive power control can predict the PV power threshold in real-time based on node voltage and power data, keeping the grid voltage within a safe range [102]. This strategy further enhances the utilization rate of solar energy and prevents overcapacity. The PV agricultural industry should adhere to the principles of clean, ecological, organic, and safe development. Through continuous monitoring of the entire planting and breeding process, a scientific management approach can be implemented. This ensures that PV technology not only provides renewable energy but also contributes to the production of higher-quality agricultural products. Ultimately, achieving harmony between humans and nature will promote the sustainable development of PV agriculture.

6.2. Strengthen Domestic and International Exchange and Cooperation, Increase Scientific and Technological Research and Development Efforts

In China, the government, enterprises, and individual farmers involved in cooperation should coordinate with each other and promote mutual collaboration among enterprises, research institutions, and farmers. The government should improve the rules and regulations, build a platform for mutual exchange between the main body, and form a market-oriented operation of the green innovation alliance. These measures can fully mobilize the enthusiasm of the main body of exchanges. Enterprises, scientific research institutes, and other institutions should engage in in-depth exchanges and carry out joint scientific research, to develop “PV+” industrial projects tailored to local characteristics.

From a global perspective, learning from advanced international models is essential to avoid duplicating efforts and to accelerate innovation. As illustrated in

Table 3. A comparative overview of primary agrivoltaic development models across different countries.

Country	Primary Characteristics & Drivers	Typical Model	Key Focus and Policy Instrument
France	Ecological synergy; Strict regulatory frameworks; Quality over pure scale	Continuous farming under arrays mandated; Introduction of innovative auction schemes to promote efficient dual land use	Environmental protection; Policy and market mechanisms (auctions) [103]
United States	Climate resilience; Addressing water and heat stress; Research-driven	Development of climate-adaptive PV agriculture; Provide tax credits and subsidy support for clean energy projects	Water conservation; Adapting to arid conditions [104]
Japan	Land optimization; High-tech solutions for minimal arable land; “Solar sharing”	High-mounted structures allowing full farm machinery operation; Maintaining 50–80% of conventional crop yield	Maintaining agricultural productivity on limited land [105]
India	Energy security and rural electrification; Supporting smallholder farmers	“KUSUM” scheme to solarize irrigation; Replacing diesel pumps; Providing additional income from power sales	Rural development; Farmer income support [106]

, countries around the world have developed distinct agrivoltaic strategies tailored to their unique resources and challenges.

China can draw valuable lessons from these diverse approaches. For instance, the ecological and quality-focused standards from the EU can inform the formulation of China’s technical guidelines and ecological compensation mechanisms. The water-saving and climate-resilient designs from the United States are highly applicable to the northwest arid zone of China. Japan’s high-mounted “solar sharing” model provides a solution for maintaining agricultural yields and supporting mechanized operations. These aspects remain key challenges for China’s PV agriculture. India’s focus on smallholder farmers provides experience for further promoting distributed PV projects and increasing farmer incomes in rural China.

At the same time, efforts should be made to strengthen personnel training in research institutes. Cooperation initiatives can establish integrated training bases for agricultural and interdisciplinary talent, thereby providing new human resources for the development of PV agriculture. Enterprises and farmers should engage in exchanges to better understand local agricultural advantages and farmers’ needs. This knowledge enables a more accurate determination of development priorities.

6.3. Embrace Digitalization and Smart Agriculture Integration

The future of PV agriculture lies in the integration of intelligence and digitalization. The next-generation PV agricultural system will utilize the Internet of Things, artificial intelligence (AI), and big data analysis to achieve smart agriculture [107]. The utilization of digital twins, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) technology, and real-time monitoring systems can significantly enhance the management efficiency and productivity of agricultural PV systems [108]. Sensors can continuously monitor the microclimate conditions, crop health status, and soil moisture under the panel. Through AI-driven algorithms, it dynamically optimizes the panel’s tilt angle to balance the power generation and crop light requirements. This enables automated and precise irrigation and fertilization. This will transform PV agriculture from static coexistence to dynamic management and an efficient agricultural ecosystem. This represents an important emerging trend in agricultural innovation. It also aligns with China’s national strategy of integrating AI and IoT in agriculture development.

6.4. Combine with the Local Natural Environment, Assemble Supporting Industrial System

For different areas, local conditions and economic development level and other basic factors are needed to determine the direction of the development of PV agriculture, to adapt according to local conditions, and set up a defense against hazards. With ‘PV+’ as the direction of development, a reasonable development model for PV agriculture should be formulated and applied to the production practice correctly. The government and enterprises should make full use of local resources, through other ways to build a complete supporting industrial system, such as the use of local natural landscape resources, the establishment of PV agriculture ecological exhibition halls, the establishment of tourist attractions, and other integrated industrial parks. These facilities can also provide outdoor practice bases for young people and university students, simultaneous increase in agricultural and tourism revenue.

6.5. Increase Capital Subsidies, Provide Relevant Policy Support

In underdeveloped inland regions, where the agricultural base is relatively weak, local government and enterprises often lack sufficient financial resources to promote the development of PV agriculture. The central government should allocate dedicated funds through unified planning and establish special financial programs to support PV agriculture in underdeveloped inland regions. In areas with abundant solar resources but relatively few PV agricultural projects, such as the northwest, large-scale PV power plants should be prioritized. Enterprises, banks, and other relevant funds should cooperate with the government to establish joint subsidy mechanisms. Such multi-party financial cooperation can help reduce the financial burden on farmers and prevent them from being deterred by PV agriculture due to financial issues. Add more agricultural PV integration equipment for rural areas to maximize the utilization of local solar energy resources.

In summary, the research gaps in China’s PV agriculture and the future strategic outlook are as described in

Table 4. Research gaps and future strategies for the development of PV agriculture in China.

Research Gap	Future Strategy
Technological constraints (e.g., low energy conversion efficiency, lack of integrated design)	Develop interdisciplinary R&D programs; promote intelligent PV agriculture systems with IoT and AI integration.
Ecological risks (e.g., soil degradation, biodiversity decline)	Conduct pre-construction ecological assessments; adopt regenerative agriculture practices under PV arrays.
Financial barriers (e.g., high upfront cost, extended payback period)	Enhance multi-stakeholder financing models; provide targeted subsidies and green credit support.
Regional imbalance (e.g., mismatch between solar resources and project distribution)	Promote tailored PV-agriculture models based on local resources; incentivize projects in western high-potential regions.

. It more intuitively presents the challenges and opportunities of China’s PV agriculture.

7. Conclusions

This review systematically examines the current status, predominant models, and challenges of PV agriculture in China. As a country endowed with abundance in both solar resources and agricultural activity, China strategically pursues PV agriculture to coordinate energy security, food production, and ecological protection. The development of models such as PV greenhouses, fishery–solar integrations, and distributed rural power plants demonstrates a pragmatic pathway toward achieving the “dual carbon” goals while simultaneously advancing rural revitalization. These initiatives successfully illustrate the potential for synergistic land use, where energy generation and agricultural production can coexist and mutually benefit. This dual-use strategy enhances land-use efficiency and increases farmer incomes.

However, the transition towards mature and widespread PV agriculture adoption is fraught with multifaceted challenges. This review identifies four critical barriers: (1) technological immaturity and a lack of interdisciplinary integration, leading to suboptimal system designs and inefficient energy conversions; (2) potential ecological risks if projects are not planned with environmental impact assessments and mitigation strategies at their core; (3) financial constraints characterized by high upfront costs and extended payback periods; and (4) significant regional disparities in development, where project distribution often does not correlate with solar resource potential.

Looking ahead, the future development of PV agriculture in China and globally must be built on a foundation of policy and financial support. Beyond the current focus, several forward-looking directions are paramount:

(1)

Intelligent and Digital Integration: technologies such as the IoT, AI, and big data analytics not only enhance productivity, but also support the transition to precision agriculture and sustainable resource utilization.

(2)

Ecological Co-benefit Design: Future research and projects must prioritize regenerative agriculture principles under PV arrays. PV agriculture should be designed as a tool for ecological restoration, particularly in degraded lands.

(3)

Global Relevance and Adaptation: China’s experience provides a valuable blueprint for other countries. The “PV+” model offers a multi-functional framework that can adapt to different climate zones, agricultural practices, and socio-economic backgrounds.

In conclusion, PV agriculture represents a complex yet promising pathway toward sustainable development. It strengthens agricultural resilience while accelerating the transition to clean energy. As a cornerstone of the green economy, PV agriculture provides a powerful impetus for the world to achieve sustainable development.