Low-Carbon and Recycled Mineral Composite Materials for Sustainable Infrastructure: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Infrastructure construction is a major contributor to carbon emissions, primarily due to the extensive use of mineral materials such as cement and aggregates, which release significant amounts of carbon dioxide during production and use. While existing research has predominantly centered on the applications of concrete, the present study extends the investigation to encompass inorganic–organic composites, alloy materials, and wastewater treatment systems, with particular attention to bridging the gap between theoretical potential and practical implementation. This study identifies China, the USA, and India as leaders in this field, attributing their progress to abundant material resources and sustained policy support. Key findings reveal that while geopolymers can fully replace cement, substitution rates of less than 50% are optimal for high-performance concrete to maintain structural integrity and decarbonization benefits. Aggregate replacements using materials such as air-cooled blast furnace slag show 50–100% feasibility. This review further highlights the multifunctional potential of red mud, rice husk ash, fly ash, and blast furnace slag as cement replacements, aggregates, reinforcers, catalysts, adsorbents, and composite fillers. However, challenges such as unstable raw material supply, lack of standardization, and insufficient international collaboration persist; these issues have often been overlooked in prior research and viable solutions have not been proposed. To address these barriers, a triple-objective framework is introduced in this study, integrating sustainable infrastructure, resource recycling, and environmental remediation, supported by optimized production processes and policy models from leading nations. Future research directions emphasize comprehensive life cycle assessments and enhanced global cooperation to bridge the divide between resource-rich and resource-scarce regions. By synthesizing cross-disciplinary applications and actionable solutions, this work advances the transition toward sustainable infrastructure systems.

1. Introduction

Infrastructure construction, maintenance, and repair significantly contribute to global CO₂ emissions, with four key materials—cement, iron, steel, and aluminum—accounting for 7.3% of annual emissions [1]. The infrastructure sector is responsible for nearly half of global cement-related emissions and over a quarter of emissions from iron, steel, and aluminum production [1]. To mitigate its environmental impact, the industry needs to adopt more sustainable construction practices.

Despite current efforts to transition to low-carbon and sustainable practices, more innovative solutions are necessary to address climate change effectively. Some studies have found that using fiber (e.g., glass fiber, carbon fiber and basalt fiber)-reinforced rebars, can significantly improve the durability of concrete, thereby extend the service life of buildings and contribute to carbon reduction [2,3,4]. Other methods involve modifying the composition of cement. Reducing the content of alite and increasing that of belite in Portland cement, for example, can effectively reduce carbon emissions [5,6]. However, these approaches may face challenges related to high raw material costs [7]. A promising alternative is substituting traditional materials with low-carbon and recycled mineral composite materials in infrastructure projects.

The recycling of non-metallic minerals has garnered increasing attention recently. This type of recycling has lagged behind metallic material recycling, and non-metallic mineral extraction and processing still contribute to land-use changes, deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution [8]. As a major consumer of non-metallic minerals, the infrastructure sector should prioritize recycling to alleviate environmental pressures and promote sustainable development.

Low-carbon mineral composite materials are characterized by their inexpensive, often waste-derived, and abundantly available mineral components. Their production process generates minimal pollution, and the resulting waste is typically recyclable. These composites rely on well-sourced energy-efficient raw materials, such as municipal solid waste and industrial by-products. Their exceptional durability reduces the frequency of replacement, further decreasing long-term emissions. By incorporating recyclable materials and supporting reusable designs, these composites offer a more sustainable alternative to traditional, carbon-intensive materials.

Various studies on green and sustainable infrastructure have focused on the development and application of environmentally friendly concrete. Orsini and Marrone (2019) [9] identified eight Low-Carbon-Emission Approaches to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in construction materials, integrating circular economy principles and life cycle assessments (LCAs). Their framework emphasized substituting Portland cement with alternative binders (e.g., fly ash (FA), slag), recycled aggregates, and natural materials (e.g., hemp, bamboo), alongside the adoption of carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). These strategies prioritized recycling, secondary raw materials, and performance-enhanced products to align with the Paris Agreement and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change targets. Similarly, Coffetti et al. (2022) [6] evaluated pathways to reduce the environmental impact of concrete through alternative binders (e.g., geopolymers), recycled aggregates, and CCUS. Their study advocated modernizing standards (ASTM, EN) and educational initiatives to overcome barriers to adopting non-Portland cement, while underscoring CCUS as critical for decarbonizing cement production and promoting industrial by-products such as FA to lower clinker dependency. Complementing these findings, Nilimaa (2023) [10] highlighted the role of smart materials (e.g., self-healing concrete, photocatalytic additives) and technologies (e.g., phase-change materials, 3D-printed structures) in enhancing sustainability, emphasizing their potential to reduce carbon emissions and improve durability. Siddiqui et al. (2025) [11] further integrated sustainable concrete solutions (e.g., permeable pavements, green roofs, vegetated systems) into green infrastructure to address urban heat islands and stormwater management. Their work highlighted the role of industrial by-products (e.g., steel slag (SS)) and emerging technologies (e.g., nanotechnology) in reducing environmental footprints through carbon-negative materials and optimized construction practices. This study advocated LCA-driven frameworks and green certifications (e.g., LEED, BREEAM) to advance eco-friendly urban development while addressing natural resource depletion.

Despite these advancements, three critical limitations persist in current research. First, the existing body of reviews exhibits a rather narrow focus, predominantly concentrating on concrete. Although concrete undeniably plays a vital role in construction, it is essential to recognize that other mineral composites, such as bricks and tiles, also form substantial and integral components of urban infrastructure. Second, when it comes to the integration of policy and technology, the existing studies tend to offer general suggestions without delving into specific policy case studies. Policy case studies are crucial as they offer real-world examples of how policies have been implemented, the challenges encountered, and the outcomes achieved. Without such detailed examinations, it becomes difficult to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of proposed technological interventions within a policy framework, thereby hindering their practical implementation on a larger scale. Third, regarding socioeconomic viability, the solutions proposed by existing studies, such as CCUS [12], are potentially cost-prohibitive. While CCUS holds promise as a potential solution for mitigating carbon emissions, its high cost poses a substantial barrier to widespread adoption. Previous work has largely overlooked this critical issue, neglecting to fully consider the economic implications and potential trade-offs associated with implementing such proposals.

This review proposes a multi-dimensional framework with the following aims: (1) Comprehensively exploring cost-effective, high-performance mineral composite materials for sustainable infrastructure. Building upon pervious concrete technology, the analysis integrates inorganic–organic composite materials, alloy materials, and wastewater treatment materials to broaden the scope of sustainable construction material innovation. (2) Providing rich case studies spanning standards, regulations, policy guidance, and technological advancements to assist policymakers in formulating actionable strategies. (3) Simultaneously addressing resource efficiency and recycling, restoration of environmentally degraded areas, and the development of sustainable infrastructure (Figure 1). This integrated framework establishes a transformative nexus between innovations in material science and the implementation of circular economic principles, providing an actionable pathway to upcycle industrial by-products into next-generation infrastructure solutions while simultaneously addressing technical viability, policy alignment, and environmental restoration.

2. Materials and Methods

The data collection process for this review was conducted across three primary sources: peer-reviewed journal articles, governmental policy documents, and international/national standards and codes.

Journal Articles: A systematic literature search was conducted using the Web of Science Core Collection database, focusing on studies published between 2010 and 2025. The rules of Boolean logic operations were applied: the operator “AND” was used to combine two terms [13]. Keywords included combinations of “materials” AND low-carbon and recycled mineral materials including natural by-products: “volcanic ash”; biomass wastes: “rice husk ash”; industrial by-products: “fly ash”, “blast furnace slag”, “silica fume”, “red mud”, “steel slag”, “ iron tailings”, “copper tailings”, “coal gangue”, and “waste rock dust”; municipal solid wastes: “waste incineration ash” and “waste glass”; and construction wastes: “recycled concrete”, respectively. The search was conducted on 10 April 2025, with “Article” and “Review Article” selected as the article types; the language of the articles was English (Figure 2). A total of 1463 articles were selected for initial evaluation based on their relevance to material properties and sustainability applications. A critical analysis was conducted for each article to extract and synthesize information relevant to the research questions. Two hundred and thirty-nine articles were selected as most pertinent to this study. VOSviewer (Version 1.6.20) was utilized to analyze the keyword co-occurrence between eco-friendly mineral materials and infrastructure construction materials in journal articles. The reference data were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection database, encompassing the 14 low-carbon and recycled mineral materials mentioned above combined with the search term “green material”, covering publications from 2020 to 2025. A total of 3252 articles were reviewed, containing 740 keywords. Among these, 43 keywords relevant to this study were selected for analysis.

Government Policies: National policies related to sustainable material utilization were sourced from official government portals, including those of China, the USA, the European Union, Russia, Japan, Australia, and India. Key search terms included all the materials mentioned above as well as “waste recycling”, “sustainable construction”, “green materials”, and “low-carbon materials”. Policies were filtered to include documents published post-2010, ensuring alignment with contemporary sustainability agendas.

Standards and Codes: Technical standards were extracted from authoritative platforms such as ASTM International (USA), the British Standards Institution, National Public Service Platform for Standards Information (China), UNE (Spain), AFNOR (France), DIN (Germany), JISC (Japan) and the Bureau of Indian Standards (see Supplementary Data). Key search terms included all the materials mentioned above.

This multi-source approach enabled a comprehensive synthesis of scientific, regulatory, and technical perspectives, ensuring robust validation of the reviewed materials’ viability in sustainable infrastructure development.

3. Low-Carbon and Recycled Mineral Material Resources

3.1. Natural By-Products

Naturally occurring mineral by-products usually refer to secondary mineral residues formed incidentally during primary geological processes (e.g., weathering, erosion, volcanism). Volcanic ash (VA), consisting of fine particles less than 2 mm in diameter that are violently ejected during eruptions, is often considered as waste and a contaminant in countries such as Algeria and Italy, which have active volcanoes, but it has the potential to be repurposed as a feasible, nature-based, and renewable material resource [14]. VA is ideal for geopolymerization, containing 60–95% alumina and silica, with 35% in the amorphous phase, making it highly reactive in alkaline solutions [15] (

Table 1. Research and application of low-carbon and recycled mineral resources in the field of infrastructure materials.

Resource		Type	Functions	Applications
Natural by-products	Volcanic ash	Pumice and scoria	Cement replacement, aggregate, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
Biomass waste	Rice husk ash	White and black	Cement replacement, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, coating, alloys, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
Industrial by-products	Fly ash	Siliceous, calcareous, and fluidized bed combustion	Cement replacement, additive, fine aggregate, reinforcer, catalyst, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, blocks, bricks, tiles, coating, alloys, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Blast furnace slag	Air cooled and water cooled	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, coating, alloys, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Silica fume	High-silicon	Cement replacement, additive, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, coating, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Red mud	Sinter and Bayer	Cement replacement, aggregate, reinforcer, catalyst, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, coating, alloys, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Steel slag	Basic oxygen furnace, electric-arc furnace, and ladle furnace	Cement replacement, aggregate, reinforcer, catalyst, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles coating, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Iron tailings	Depending on iron ore resources	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles coating, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Copper tailings	Wet and dry	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles coating, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Coal gangue	High-carbon and low-carbon	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate, reinforcer, adsorbent, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, polymer composites, and wastewater treatment
	Waste rock dust	Granite and marble	Cement replacement, additive, fine aggregate, reinforcer, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, blocks, bricks, tiles, alloys, and polymer composites
Municipal solid waste	Waste incineration ash	Bottom ash and fly ash	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate, reinforcer, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, and polymer composites
	Waste glass	Depending on different resources	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate, reinforcer, and composite filler	Mortar, concrete, bricks, tiles, alloys, and polymer composites
Construction waste	Recycled concrete	Aggregate and cement	Cement replacement, additive, aggregate	Concrete

). Select countries endowed with volcanic resources possess unique opportunities to develop localized low-carbon construction material supply chains.

3.2. Biomass Waste

Biomass waste is a promising mineral resource worthy of attention. About 800 million tons of rice were produced in 2023 [16], with about 160 million tons of rice husks. Prior methods of rice husk disposal, such as onsite burning for steam or electricity generation, open dumping, and landfilling, have resulted in significant environmental pollution, contributing to issues including smog, dust, and the greenhouse effect [17]. Because rice husks contain nearly 20% by mass of hydrated amorphous silica, they have now become an important raw material for the manufacture of high-value-added silicon composite products [18]. Rice husk ash (RHA) is produced by incinerating rice husks, with two types: white RHA from complete combustion, rich in silica (>95%) and highly reactive, and black RHA from incomplete combustion, containing both carbon and silica [19]. White RHA’s high-purity silica makes it a competitive replacement for conventional silica sources (Table 1). The decentralized nature of agricultural waste, however, necessitates the development of efficient collection and preprocessing supply chains to ensure a consistent and economical supply of raw material for industrial applications.

3.3. Industrial By-Products

Industrial by-products serve as crucial sources for mineral recycling. FA and blast furnace slag (BFS) are widely used industrial by-products, with annual global production estimates of 900 million tons for FA and 330 million tons for BFS [7]. FA is one of the residues generated by coal combustion for electricity and heat production and is captured using electrostatic precipitators, or bag filters, before the flue gases are emitted. FA can be classified into siliceous, calcareous, and fluidized bed combustion [20]. BFS is a by-product of ironmaking that can be obtained at approximately 1500 °C [21]. Depending on the cooling conditions, BFS can be cooled in water; in this case, it is known as ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), which is characterized by an amorphous nature, high hardness, and pozzolanic activity [22]. Air-cooled blast furnace slag (ACBFS) is produced by the solidification of the molten slag that forms at the top of the molten iron in a blast furnace under ambient conditions [23]. FA and GGBS, as industrial by-products, were among the earliest utilized supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), with large-scale applications dating back to 1865 (GGBS) and the early 20th century (FA), marking the foundation of modern SCM technologies in cement replacement [20] (Table 1). Despite their established use, future research should focus on standardizing the properties of these variable feedstocks to ensure consistent performance in high-value applications beyond traditional cement replacement.

Another widely used industrial by-product is silica fume (SF), which is produced in the silicon metal alloy industry (including the production of ferrosilicon and silicomanganese). Total annual global SF production is around 1 million tons [24]. It has low weight, low compressibility, and high specific surface area, but it also has high pozzolanic activity due to its high silica content [25] (Table 1).

Aluminum is one of the most widely consumed metal materials in the world. The waste produced during alumina refining is called red mud (RM), so named because of its characteristic color. Depending on the refining method, it can be classified as sinter RM or Bayer RM. Sintering processes typically yield RM with higher silica and calcium content, and lower levels of iron, sodium, and aluminum, compared to the Bayer process. On average, around 1.25 tons of RM are generated for every ton of alumina produced. Since 1974, over 4 billion tons of RM have been generated worldwide. Rich in valuable metals like iron, titanium, scandium, gallium, and germanium, as well as clay minerals, and possessing high alkalinity, RM holds significant potential for applications in metal recovery, wastewater treatment, acid environment restoration, and building materials [26] (Table 1).

A by-product generated during the steelmaking process, SS is an industrial waste material created from the impurities found in raw metal materials, along with fluxes and furnace linings. It demonstrates superior performance as a sustainable alternative to both cement and aggregates [27] (Table 1). In 2021, global steel production reached 1963 million tons, of which SS accounted for 10–15% of the total production [28]. SS is generally categorized into three types based on the manufacturing process: basic oxygen furnace slag, electric arc furnace slag, and ladle furnace slag [29]. While the exact composition of SS can vary, its primary constituents tend to remain consistent. Typically, a sample of SS comprises 45–60% CaO, 10–15% SiO₂, 1–5% Al₂O₃, 7–20% FeO, 3–9% Fe₂O₃, and 3–13% MgO [27]. The primary obstacle to its utilization is the volumetric instability caused by the presence of free calcium oxide (f-CaO), necessitating effective aging or treatment processes to prevent expansion and cracking in final products [30].

Mine tailings consist of ground rocks and effluents produced during mineral processing. They represent the waste left after the extraction of the desired products from mine ores [31]. As a leading mining country globally, China had a total of 1.211 billion tons of tailings in 2018, of which iron tailings (ITs) accounted for 39.22% and copper tailings (CTs) accounted for 24.94% [32]. Most mining tailings are stored in tailings dams or storage facilities and are rarely recycled and reused. However, because they are mostly rich in silicon, aluminum, and calcium oxide, they have been viewed in recent years as underutilized mineral resources with the potential to be utilized sustainably in construction and industry through more efficient mining processes [33] (Table 1). A critical first step is the characterization and classification of these diverse tailings based on their mineralogy and potential reactivity to create a database that can effectively match specific tailings to optimal application pathways.

Global coal production reached a substantial 7.742 billion tons in 2022, reflecting the continued significance of this fossil fuel in the world’s energy mix. Within this global context, China stands out as the dominant player in coal consumption [34]. Coal gangue (CG) is a solid waste produced during coal production and processing. Annual CG production typically amounts to approximately 10–15% of the corresponding year’s total coal output [35]. A significant part of the coal waste is stored in dumps, which constitute a threat to the natural environment. In recent years, the recycling of CG has received some attention. The utilization of CG is generally based on its carbon content and calorific value. For instance, high-carbon (>20%) CG is used for power generation and heating, and low-carbon (<4% or 4–6%) CG is used for building materials, cement production, and backfilling of mining subsidence areas [35] (Table 1).

The global stone industry produces 68 million tons of processed products annually, generating substantial waste that poses management challenges and environmental risks [36]. Waste from crushed stone production represents approximately 15–25% of total global output [37], amounting to millions of tons of colloidal waste annually [38]. Granite and marble dust constitute the largest portion of quarry waste, primarily due to their extensive use in the building materials industry for aggregates and flooring [39]. Waste rock dust (WRD), despite being a by-product of stone production, represents a valuable and environmentally friendly mineral resource, offering the potential to transform industrial waste into a useful commodity (Table 1).

3.4. Municipal Solid Waste

Urban waste generation has risen to 1.2 kg per person per day, with a total of approximately 1.3 billion tons produced annually, of which around 15% is incinerated. In industrialized nations, this incineration rate reaches as high as 62% [40]. Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) ash consists of bottom ash and fly ash, with fly ash accounting for 16.6–20% of the total ash residue [41]. Municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash (MSWIBA) has lower toxicity than municipal solid waste incineration fly ash (MSWIFA), allowing for simpler treatment and applications in engineering, such as in blended cement and road construction [42]. In contrast, MSWIFA contains high levels of toxic substances and pollutants, leading many countries to classify it as hazardous waste [43]. Now, many researchers believe MSWIFA can also be used effectively in the construction industry [44] (Table 1).

Glass is one of the most used materials in the world, and waste glass has attracted significant research attention. After undergoing screening and cleaning, the collected waste glass can be remelted to produce new glass products. Recycling glass in construction projects reduces raw material usage and costs; for example, recycling 1 ton of glass saves 1.2 tons of raw materials [45]. While Europe has a high glass recycling rate of 71.48%, countries such as Turkey and the USA recycle only a small portion, with Turkey recycling around 9% and the United States 26.63% [46]. Although recycling glass for reuse as glass may be costly and time-consuming, it uses as an aggregate in concrete offers more significant economic benefits [47] (Table 1).

3.5. Construction Waste

Modern infrastructure construction requires an increasing volume of construction materials. However, most of the abandoned construction materials are discarded as waste. Statistics indicate that major countries and regions around the globe generate over 3 billion tons of construction and demolition waste annually [48]. It is estimated that the total amount of construction and demolition waste generated per person per day worldwide in 2018 was about 1.68 kg [49]. As one of the most widely used building materials, concrete contains 60–75% aggregate in its volume and has great recycling potential [50] (Table 1).

3.6. Microstructure

The investigated materials exhibit a highly varied range of microstructural characteristics. VA displays an irregular and glassy morphology, often with a vesicular texture, while RHA is characterized by a highly porous and cellular structure [51,52]. FA is predominantly composed of spherical, glassy cenospheres, in contrast to the angular and granular particles of GGBS. SF is distinguished by its ultra-fine particle size and amorphous nature [53]. RM consists of fine, alkaline particles, and SS powder is typically irregular and dense [54,55]. ITs and CTs powders, along with WRD, generally present as fine, angular, and heterogeneous mixtures of crushed minerals [56,57,58]. CG powder exhibits an irregular and porous morphology, often containing carbonaceous matter [59]. Waste incineration residues are complex; bottom ash is porous and may contain metallic inclusions, whereas the fly ash is a fine powder frequently enriched with heavy metals [42]. Waste glass particles are angular with smooth surfaces, and recycled concrete aggregate is a multi-phase material comprising crushed angular aggregate with adhered cement paste [60,61].

3.7. Trends in Publications

For all material categories investigated, the number of journal articles from the past five years (2020–2025) substantially exceeds the cumulative total of the previous decade (2010–2019) (Figure 3a), demonstrating that low-carbon and recycled mineral materials have emerged as a definitive research priority globally. Institutions in China, the USA, and India consistently dominate the top three positions in publication output (Figure 3b), underscoring these nations’ urgent demands for mineral resource circularity solutions and their coordinated investments in advancing sustainable infrastructure innovation. The varied research emphases of other countries likely correlate with regional resource profiles. For instance, Australia, as a leading global alumina producer [62], exhibits proportionally greater focus on red mud recycling technologies. Notably, China has demonstrated exponential growth in research across nearly all material categories since 2017 (Figure 4). This trajectory appears to be strongly correlated with governmental stimulus policies, particularly the 2015 VAT rebate policy for new wall materials [63], which created significant industry-driven momentum for sustainable material development.

3.8. Co-Occurrence Analysis Result

The co-occurrence network (Figure 5), centered on “concrete” and “fly ash”, delineates a multifaceted research system where low-carbon and recycled mineral material resources and sustainable practices converge. FA emerges as a linchpin, densely connected to the keywords cement, aggregate, geopolymer, and replacement, underscoring its dual role in reducing clinker dependency and valorizing thermal power waste. Clusters around BFS and RHA highlight systematic efforts to integrate metallurgical and agricultural residues into concrete systems, aligning with circular economy principles. The yellow cluster, dominated by RM and CG, extends beyond construction into environmental remediation, evidenced by ties to the keywords adsorption and catalyst, suggesting nascent exploration of these mining wastes in heavy metal sequestration or catalytic wastewater treatment.

Recycling themes are robustly represented. For example, recycled aggregate concrete interlinks with recycled aggregate, illustrating closed-loop strategies for construction debris. Advanced applications such as 3D concrete printing intersect with recycled aggregate, reflecting innovations in multifunctional design without compromising sustainability.

This topology underscores a paradigm prioritizing waste-to-resource transitions and performance-driven material engineering, yet it also calls for deeper interdisciplinary synergy—particularly in scaling RM- and CG-based adsorbents—to fully harness their environmental and structural value.

4. Advanced Composite Materials

4.1. Partially Replaced Portland Cement Concrete

Ordinary Portland cement has been widely used in construction for a century, but its production contributes significantly to global CO₂ emissions, accounting for 5–8% of worldwide emissions [64]. So far, both academia and industry have been working hard to develop alternative bonding materials to ordinary Portland cement and low-carbon and recycled aggregates to traditional aggregates (Table 1).

In recent years, the use of WRD as a substitute for sand in concrete has been the focus of extensive research. This is driven by increasing concerns globally about the depletion of sand reserves, as well as the environmental and socioeconomic risks linked to sand extraction from riverbanks, coastal regions, and agricultural lands. Studies have shown that when used as a fine aggregate, WRD enhances the strength, mechanical properties, and durability of concrete [65]. However, due to the high water absorption of WRD, its use can affect the workability of the concrete. It is recommended that the replacement of natural sand with WRD should be between 41% and 58% [66]. In addition, Woo et al. (2021) [67] evaluated the use of incineration bottom ash as a fine aggregate in cement composites, showing that up to 20% substitution increases compressive strength and exhibits beneficial filler effects. However, challenges such as potential alkali–silica reactions and the presence of heavy metals require pre-treatment to ensure safe and effective use in construction materials.

Coarse aggregates from ACBFS can serve as a sustainable alternative in concrete, with larger slag aggregates enhancing mechanical properties in recycled slag aggregate concrete (SAC). Although SACs show slightly lower performance compared to natural aggregate concretes, they still offer a viable solution for utilizing slag waste, particularly with up to 100% slag in normal-strength and 50% in high-strength concrete [23]. Bijalwan and Senthil (2024) [68] examined the effects of partially replacing conventional coarse aggregates with SS (30%) in reinforced concrete beams under static and impact loads, showing that SS improves the performance of curved beams more significantly than straight beams. The findings also reveal that SS leads to smaller crack widths and higher peak acceleration in curved beams.

Substituting cement with certain Supplementary Materials can enhance concrete performance. The role of FA and BFS in replacing concrete composition and enhancing concrete performance has been extensively demonstrated. High-Ca FA modifies cement hydration and reduces alkali–silica reactions and chloride permeability but requires more admixtures [20]. GGBS enhances mechanical properties and durability but may reduce workability at high doses. The optimal GGBS content for durability and mechanical performance is around 20% [69]. SF improves the early hydration kinetics of composite cement pastes in cold environments by reducing temperature sensitivity, extending the acceleration stage, and mitigating the impact of low temperatures on hydration [70]. VA at 10–30% replacement improves durability, but higher ratios reduce compressive strength [71]. RHA and ITs significantly boost compressive and flexural strength and frost resistance, with optimal performance at 10% RHA and 40% ITs [72]. In addition, thermally activated RM can improve the corrosion resistance of reinforcing steel in concrete. This enhancement is due to increased passivation of steel in extract solutions and mortars, forming a protective steel–mortar interface that further boosts corrosion protection [73].

4.2. Engineered Cementitious Composites

Engineered cementitious composites (ECCs) are fiber-reinforced concrete with high tensile ductility and self-healing properties, and their environmental impact is mitigated by incorporating high volumes of SCMs to reduce carbon footprint [74].

Containing large amounts of FA, ECCs can maintain their multiple-cracking and strain-hardening properties at 200 °C, and their tensile properties improve at 100 °C [75]. However, the use of large amounts of FA may result in demand exceeding supply. One possible solution is the use of a durable ECC using VA as a complete replacement for FA, overcoming inherent challenges through rheological optimization and strategic additives, thus showcasing VA’s potential as a sustainable SCM with comparable performance in terms of tensile ductility, crack control, and self-healing capacity [74]. Substituting FA with RHA in ECCs significantly enhances compressive strength and tensile properties. RHA improves hydration, pozzolanic reactions, and pore distribution, while also increasing ductility through improved fiber–matrix interactions and a higher pseudo strain-hardening index [76].

4.3. Lightweight and Foam Materials

Lightweight/foam materials can be used in lightweight concrete, insulation panels, and roofing materials to reduce building weight and improve insulation performance.

Studies on the use of RHA and pumice powder in lightweight, sustainable cement-based composites have shown that using up to 25% RHA enhances mechanical properties and durability. However, an increased foam content reduces compressive strength and increases drying shrinkage [77]. FA-based lightweight wall materials incorporating 20% expanded perlite/SiO₂ aerogel composite exhibit significantly reduced thermal conductivity (0.050 W/(m·K)), making them effective as building insulation materials with good compressive strength and low bulk density [78]. RM enhanced foam stability and pore structure in hybrid alkali-activated foamed concrete by promoting flocculation, increasing yield stress, and improving pore sphericity, thereby providing a predictive tool for optimizing foam stability [79]. Additionally, lightweight aggregates with microcrystalline diopside as the main constituent can be prepared using waste glass and waste muck as raw materials. Adding a nucleating agent during the preparation process promotes diopside formation and growth, resulting in aggregates with high strength and low density [80].

4.4. Marine Engineering Materials

The marine environment presents a significant threat to the durability and integrity of concrete structures, leading to damage such as corrosion, rebar expansion, delamination, and spalling [81].

Reducing the permeability of materials is an important measure to prevent seawater corrosion. Incorporating SF into coral sand mortar improves its mechanical properties by reducing porosity and enhancing strength. The optimal performance was observed at 12% SF content due to the formation of a compact calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel structure [82]. Replacing cement with 7.5% SF in seawater sea sand concrete enhances compressive strength, reduces permeability, and improves microstructure. The formation of C-S-Hs and Friedel’s salt contributes to the improved performance [83]. On the other hand, seawater can enhance the strength development of RM-based marine binding materials, with an optimal mix ratio [84].

4.5. Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), developed based on the theory of close packing, has emerged as one of the most widely used materials in civil engineering due to its exceptional mechanical properties and outstanding durability [85].

Adding ≥20% SF to ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete accelerates secondary hydration, promotes the formation of self-healing products, enhances crack closure, and regenerates the fiber–matrix interface, leading to the restoration of flexural properties [86]. Moreover, Bahmani et al. (2024) [87] evaluated the enhancement of UHPC by replacing silica sand with SS, finding optimal mechanical performance at 50% replacement, improving compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths. The use of SS also reduces CO₂ emissions by 5.1%, offering both structural and environmental benefits, but exceeding 50% replacement weakens the bond between the cement matrix and aggregates. Furthermore, the use of CG powder as a super UHPC cementing material can improve its compressive strength, self-shrinking, and chloride ion penetration. However, the energy cost is higher, and the unmodified CG powder is more cost-effective [88].

4.6. Reused Concrete

Reused concrete is produced by recycling concrete to produce new concrete. Eco-friendly recycled powders from recycled concrete aggregate and brick waste can be used as SCMs in concrete, reducing cement demand and CO₂ emissions. Despite their lower pozzolanic activity compared to conventional pozzolans, recycled powders exhibited promising mechanical properties and durability enhancements in concrete, making them viable alternatives for sustainable construction [89]. Closed-loop recycling of waste concrete to produce fully recycled concrete (FRC) is feasible, with FRC exhibiting comparable physical properties and durability to conventional concrete. FRC has the potential to significantly reduce carbon emissions, with a reduction of up to 85% compared to ordinary concrete. However, the water absorption and carbonation behavior of FRC are influenced by the quality of the recycled binder [90].

4.7. Geopolymer Composites

Geopolymers are three-dimensional alumina–silicate binders formed from reactive alumina and silica sources such as metakaolin (MK) and FA in highly alkaline conditions [91].

Sustainable geopolymers can be produced by recycling industrial wastes such as granulated slag (GS), rockwool (RW), and SF. The optimal mix of 50GS-48RW-2SF significantly enhances compressive strength and microstructure due to the formation of C-S-Hs and sodium aluminosilicate hydrates, achieving a compressive strength of 39.12 MPa at 28 days [92]. In addition, it is found that the optimum ratio of sodium silicate/sodium hydroxide activator and curing conditions can improve the compressive strength, durability, and resistance to high temperatures and sulfate attacks of GGBS/FA-based self-compacting polymer concrete mixed with MK [93].

The addition of nanomaterials can greatly improve the cracking defect of geopolymers. An appropriate quantity of nano-SiO₂ can make the microstructure of FA-based geopolymers denser and produce higher mechanical strength [94]. Adding 5% nano-CaCO₃ to strain-hardening alkali-activated BFS-based composites significantly enhances their strain and energy absorption capacities, improving tensile behavior without greatly affecting compressive strength. The optimum compressive strength reaches 81.5 MPa at 2% nano-CaCO₃ [95].

4.8. Bricks and Tiles

Several studies have explored the use of waste materials in brick and tile production. Irfan-ul-Hassan et al. (2024) [96] developed a green structural block by coupling RM with other by-product wastes for geopolymerization, optimizing the RM content at 30% for the best performance under ambient and hot curing conditions. The industrial-scale production of this block shows a 202% increase in strength compared to lab-scale specimens, and it meets ASTM and ACI requirements, offering a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional bricks. Sun et al. (2021) [97] investigated the use of MSWIFA in fired clay brick production, showing that the introduction of MSWIFA reduces strength and alters morphology. However, washing soluble salts can improve brick performance. Leaching tests indicate that bricks containing 10 wt% of washed MSWIFA meet environmental safety regulations, making them suitable for use in harsh environments. Incorporating up to 40% rock dust into red clay for roof tile production can also improve properties such as strength (31.97 MPa) and water absorption (6.5%), while reducing the sintering temperature, with optimal firing at 900 °C [98].

4.9. Three-Dimensional Printed Materials

The fluidity of 3D-printed materials is crucial. CO₂ mixing, combined with SF addition, enhances the rheological properties, early-age strength, and buildability of 3D-printed mortar by promoting the formation of CaCO₃ and monocarboaluminate, with SF further amplifying these effects [99]. Wu et al. (2024) [100] explored the use of activated SS and sulfoaluminate cement in 3D-printed concrete, demonstrating that the addition of SS improves the rheological properties, reduces setting time, and enhances strength while lowering carbon emissions. In addition, Li et al. (2020) [101] presented an environmentally friendly 3D-printable building material made from CTs and ITs, with a 1:4 mass ratio providing optimal mechanical properties. The material’s microstructure, composed mainly of ettringite and C-S-H gel, enhances strength, while toxicity and radioactivity tests confirm its environmental safety.

4.10. Inorganic–Organic Composite Materials

Inorganic–organic composites are an important way to develop new materials (Table 1). Research on waste marble and granite dust as fillers in polymer composites has increased in the last decade. Studies show that incorporating marble and granite dust into various polymer matrices (e.g., high-density polyethylene, epoxy, polyester) can improve thermal, physical, mechanical, and tribological properties [39]. VA as a filler in polyphenylene sulfide composites significantly improves thermal and mechanical properties while reducing costs, despite decreasing erosion resistance, making it a viable reinforcement material for polyphenylene sulfide composites [102]. RM–polysulfone composite geosynthetic barriers prepared via phase inversion offer enhanced mechanical properties, including superior tensile and tearing strength, making them a promising solution for sustainable construction materials and RM utilization [103].

4.11. Alloy Composite Materials

The use of mineral materials to improve metal composites has received unprecedented attention (Table 1). The mechanical properties of AA6061 aluminum matrix composite were improved by adding 8% RHA, and the particles were uniformly dispersed without holes [104]. Aluminum-based metal matrix composites with 10% FA exhibit optimal mechanical properties and wear behavior, with enhanced tensile strength and hardness, and a reduced wear rate compared to the base metal [105]. Incorporating B₄C and BFS into Al7075 alloy through the liquid metallurgy stir casting technique enhances mechanical and tribological properties. Optimal results were achieved at 7.5 wt% BFS content, while SEM imaging confirmed uniform dispersion of reinforced particles in the aluminum matrix [106].

4.12. Materials for Wastewater Treatment

Some low-carbon mineral materials such as RM and SS have catalytic and absorptive properties, which are helpful for wastewater treatment (Table 1). Chen et al. (2024) [107] developed an iron-bearing catalyst from RM, which achieves 99.3% phenol degradation in synthetic wastewater under optimal conditions, due to the formation of ferrous polymetallic oxides and mesoscopic structures. The process follows pseudo-first-order kinetics, with a proposed degradation pathway leading to complete mineralization, offering a new method for efficient phenol wastewater treatment. In addition, RM loaded with MnO₂ significantly enhances the adsorption capacity for As(V) and As(III) removal from water. The performance was much higher than that of both raw RM and MnO₂, making it a promising adsorbent for the treatment of arsenic-contaminated wastewater [108]. Han et al. (2025) [109] investigated the use of composite particle electrodes (RMSSx:y) made from SS and RM for electro-Fenton degradation of organic pollutants such as tetracycline in wastewater, achieving high degradation efficiency under optimal conditions. The results highlighted the effectiveness of RMSS5:5 electrodes, demonstrating stability and successful treatment of various industrial wastewaters, while utilizing Na₂S₂O₃ as an electrolyte to enhance degradation by preventing iron ion leaching and promoting hydroxyl radical formation.

5. Challenges and Solutions

5.1. Feasibility of Long-Term Use of Low-Carbon and Recycled Mineral Composite Materials

Every year, increasing volumes of mineral waste and by-products are produced, but they are underutilized. The difficulty of quality control is one of the factors hindering the development of low-carbon mineral composite materials (Figure 6). The degree of GGBS utilization in the composition of cement and concrete is over 90% [7], whereas that of FA is about 40% [110]. The relatively low level of disposal uses results from the variable quality [7] as well as from different coal combustion techniques [111], e.g., combination of coal combustion with the dry desulfurization process in fluidized bed boilers. Solutions to this include (1) mechanical activation (most often grinding); (2) activation by introducing a small amount of a more reactive component than FA; (3) chemical activation; (4) controlling raw material mixing based on element composition and proportion; and (5) nanomaterial modification or carbonization [20,112]. The defects inherent in other materials can also be addressed to a certain extent at a particular technical level.

Another major reason for limiting the use of low-carbon and recycled mineral composite materials is that they may require additional additives, which can increase costs or environmental risk (Figure 6). Alkaline materials required for the activation of geopolymer cementitious materials may be one of the factors hindering its development, because the production of alkaline activators such as sodium silicate requires a large amount of energy and generates a significant amount of carbon dioxide [113]. The use of alkaline solid waste can solve such problems. For example, ternary alkali activators, particularly Na₂SO₄–calcium carbide residue–Na₂SiO₃, significantly enhance the performance of VA-based geopolymers, resulting in superior compressive strength, freeze–thaw resistance, and microstructure compared to dual activators, thus providing an effective method for utilizing VA and alkaline solid wastes in sustainable construction materials [114].

5.2. Standards Development and Continuous Innovation to Address the Lack of Trust

The establishment of a unified standard is an effective way to solve the problem of the wide range of sources and quality of low-carbon and recycled mineral material resources. China has established 125 standards to govern the safety and environmental protection of low-carbon and recycled mineral composite materials in infrastructure construction (Figure 7; Supplementary Data). Among them, there are now 42 standards on SS, because China, as the world’s largest steel production country, produced about 1019 million tons of steel products in 2023, which is more than seven times that of the second producer, India [28]. Attention has been given to the application of FA, BFS, and SF in the construction field in various countries (Figure 7; Supplementary Data) due to their wide use and excellent properties in cementitious materials [93,99]. The use of recycled concrete has relevant standards in China, the USA, and Britain, which represents the importance of these countries to the recovery and utilization of mineral resources and provides a model for other countries (Figure 7; Supplementary Data). However, standards for other bulk mineral waste resources, such as RM and MSWI ash (Table 1), need to be given more attention. Comprehensive standards for the utilization and testing of these materials will better guide industry organizations towards maximizing their potential applications.

5.3. Policy Guidance and Encouragement

Environmental sustainability has become a key factor to be addressed by industries under the policies and regulations of various countries and economies worldwide. Transforming waste into resources has been a central focus in sustainable development efforts. Policy decisions and directions provided by governments play a decisive role in the effective and large-scale applications of green materials. Policies in Australia and India have been focusing primarily on the environmental assessment of Bauxite Residue Disposal Areas but lack specific requirements for actual reuse (

Table 2. Measures to promote and encourage the use of low-carbon and recycled mineral composite materials.

Country	Year	Issuing Authority	Guideline and Policy	Content	Website
China	2015	Ministry of Finance of the People’s Republic of China	Notice of the State Administration of Taxation of the Ministry of Finance on the VAT policy of new wall materials	New wall materials produced with fly ash, coal gangue, construction waste, and other raw materials can enjoy a VAT rebate of 50%.	http://www.mof.gov.cn/gkml/caizhengwengao/wg2015/wg201508/201601/t20160107_1645703.htm (accessed on 24 January 2025)
	2024	Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China	Opinions on promoting the implementation of ultra-low emission in the cement industry	Promote raw material substitution to increase the proportion of waste slag replacing limestone, enhance the incorporation rate of industrial by-products such as slag and fly ash, reduce the clinker factor, and strengthen economic policy support.	https://www.mee.gov.cn/xxgk2018/xxgk/xxgk03/202401/W020240119512650483366.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2025)
	2024	Central Government of the People’s Republic of China	Opinions of the General Office of the State Council on accelerating the construction of a waste recycling system	Promote the fine management and recycling of waste, improve the level of resource utilization and reuse, foster and expand the resource recycling industry, and improve policy mechanisms.	https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/202402/content_6931080.htm (accessed on 24 January 2025)
	2025	Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People’s Republic of China	Action plan for comprehensive utilization of red mud	Reduce the yield of red mud, enhance its availability, develop new products, and aim to increase its comprehensive utilization rate to 25% by 2030. Provide tax incentives and credit financing support and encourage international cooperation.	https://www.miit.gov.cn/xwfb/gxdt/sjdt/art/2025/art_87cc14976a6c4275b37587d885ef156b.html (accessed on 24 January 2025)
India	2011	Central Pollution Control Board	Establish a Fly Ash Committee for Thermal Power Plants	Monitor the utilization of fly ash and consult with stakeholders. Ensure 100% utilization of fly ash in thermal power plants within three to five years.	https://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/flyash/CPCB-order-25052022-3.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2025)
	2023	Central Pollution Control Board	Guidelines for Handling and Management of Red Mud Generated from Alumina Plants	Classify red mud as ‘high-volume, low-effect waste,’ implement harmless environmental management for red mud, and conduct environmental assessments, risk assessments, and disaster management planning for the Bauxite Residue Disposal Area. Facilities should have detailed operational manuals, with both internal and third-party audits.	https://cpcb.nic.in/uploads/hwmd/Guidelines_HW_6.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2025)
Australia	2014	International Aluminium Institute	Bauxite Residue Management: Best Practice	Conduct environmental assessments and risk monitoring of bauxite residue storage areas and develop reasonable exit strategies to ensure that waste does not cause long-term environmental impacts. Refer to examples from other countries that utilize tailings and apply on-site remediation.	https://aluminium.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Bauxite_Residue_Management_-_Best_Practice_(IAI).pdf (accessed on 24 January 2025)
	2022	International Aluminium Institute	Sustainable Bauxite Mining Guidelines	Tailing management is the responsibility of mining companies; provide examples of other countries using tailings.	https://aluminium.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/SBMG-Second-Edition-Feb-2022.pdf (accessed on 24 January 2025)
UK	2016	Environment Agency	Quality protocol: aggregate from waste steel slag	Waste steel slag products that meet standards and pass testing will be considered fully recycled and no longer subject to waste controls, with specific management standards and operational requirements.	https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/aggregate-from-waste-steel-slag-quality-protocol/aggregate-from-waste-steel-slag-quality-protocol (accessed on 1 September 2025)
Japan	2022	e-GOV	Act on Recycling of Materials Related to Construction Work	Legislation for the classification, recycling, and resource recovery of construction and demolition waste materials.	https://laws.e-gov.go.jp/law/412AC0000000104 (accessed on 1 September 2025)

). The Indian government set up a Fly Ash Committee to mandate that all thermal power plants ensure 100% utilization of FA within three to five years [115]. According to the Central Pollution Control Board Annual Report 2022-23, FA utilization from thermal power plants has shown a substantial jump from 59.81% in 2015-16 to 95.95% in 2021-22 [116]. This shows a significant growth in promoting FA utilization.

Policy encouragement for the conversion of waste to resources in construction in China has not only emerged in the form of policies but also in financial support such as tax reductions (Table 2). Trans-disciplinary, trans-industrial, and trans-national research on the use of waste as resources has been emerging, with the common goal of treating wastes as a necessary resource for sustainable infrastructure. India and Russia signed the “Protocol on Fly Ash” on 16 December 2011, which covers the import of technology from India, the exchange of experience and expertise, and the development and implementation of investment projects for the establishment of industrial plants [117]. Government-led international collaboration has been witnessed in China (Table 2). Low-carbon and recycled mineral composite materials, redefining the identity of waste minerals, have become an indispensable factor in sustainable green construction. In addition, China, the USA, Canada, Australia, and Brazil showed strong collaboration in RM-related research [118]. To further accelerate this global transition, governments and industries should establish more multilateral platforms for joint R&D, standardized certification systems for waste-derived construction materials, and market-oriented incentive mechanisms to scale up these sustainable practices.

5.4. Stability in the Low-Carbon Transition of Infrastructure

The use of environmentally friendly materials may be hindered by a lack of long-term testing and reliable data to support their widespread application (Figure 6). However, there are methods to model the stability of these materials. For instance, an artificial neural network and an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system were utilized to model the compressive strength of natural VA mortar, employing the six-fold symmetry of concrete failure [119]. Machine learning, in particular XGBoost, plays an important role in accurately predicting the mechanical properties of RHA concrete, as proposed by Datta et al. (2024) [120]. Ansari et al. (2024) [121] demonstrated the effectiveness of machine learning techniques, particularly the AdaBoost model, in predicting the residual compressive strength of lightweight concrete with SF under thermal loads, highlighting their potential to optimize structural design and performance in engineering applications.

Life cycle assessment is increasingly used in material innovation and infrastructure policy and planning. LCA has demonstrated that building materials with FA have no adverse impact on the environment while maintaining their properties, reducing the consumption of raw materials, and helping to reduce global warming potential [122]. A review of comparative LCAs of road and rail infrastructure from 2016 to 2020 found varied approaches to determining the analysis period, maintenance frequency, and effects of climate change, suggesting a need for further research and development of approaches that can better reflect innovative solutions and climate change in decision-making for infrastructure policy and procurement [123].

With the advancement of society and technology, more advanced technologies and methods, such as artificial intelligence (AI), will continue to emerge for developing more environmentally friendly materials as well as more durable facilities to improve the recovery of mineral resources, environmental restoration, and sustainable infrastructure construction.

5.5. Further Research

Although this review highlights the potential of waste-derived mineral composites for sustainable infrastructure and identifies solutions, critical gaps remain in assessing their carbon footprint and economic feasibility at scale. Future work should develop techno-economic analysis (TEA) models to quantify cost–benefit tradeoffs, particularly for emerging applications such as 3D-printed materials. Establishing standardized LCA-TEA integrated protocols would ensure that innovations align with both carbon neutrality goals and industrial viability. Furthermore, embedding LCA early in material development (rather than as a post hoc assessment) can align research and production trajectories, avoiding bottlenecks during scale-up. A unified evaluation framework incorporating circular economy metrics (e.g., reuse potential, carbon emissions per functional unit) is essential to bridge laboratory breakthroughs with market-ready low-carbon solutions.

Another priority involves extending material applicability across diverse regions. Despite growing research on green low-carbon materials, global adoption remains uneven—overconcentration of raw materials in limited geographies (e.g., China) creates underutilized surpluses. Research should identify location-specific demands to develop regionally adapted products, enabling optimal resource allocation. International academic networks must accelerate the transfer of green technologies to advance sustainable resource utilization globally.

6. Conclusions

This review systematically examines the environmental challenges posed by CO₂ emissions from global infrastructure development and proposes low-carbon and recycled mineral composites as sustainable alternatives to conventional materials. It provides a comprehensive analysis of the global distribution and current research progress of these materials, identifying China, the USA, and India as the leading nations in this field, likely due to their abundant resources and consistent government support.

Building upon existing research, this study expands the scope beyond concrete alternatives to include inorganic–organic composites, alloy materials, and wastewater treatment applications. While geopolymers demonstrate potential for complete cement replacement, the review suggests limiting substitution to 50% in high-performance concrete to balance performance and decarbonization goals. For aggregates, replacement rates of 50–100% can be achieved using materials such as ACBFS. This review further highlights the versatile applications of RM, RHA, FA, and BFS as cement replacements, aggregates, reinforcers, catalysts, adsorbents, and composite fillers across multiple fields.

Despite being an active research area, challenges are faced in practical implementation, including inconsistent raw material supply, lack of standardized protocols, and insufficient international collaboration. To address these issues, this review presents solutions, such as optimized production processes and exemplary standards and policies from leading nations. By establishing a triple-objective framework encompassing sustainable infrastructure development, mineral resource recycling, and environmental remediation, this work provides actionable guidance for researchers, engineers, and policymakers.

Future studies should prioritize comprehensive LCAs to quantify the full value of these materials while fostering international cooperation to synergize the strengths of resource-abundant and resource-limited nations for global sustainability.