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Article

Local Identity and Urban Perception in an Intermediate City: Implications for Sustainable Urban Development

by
Edwin Arango Espinal
1,
Carlos Arango Pastrana
2 and
Carlos Osorio Andrade
2,3,*
1
Marketing Research Group and Research, Innovation, and Development in Specialty Coffees Group (GiiDCE), System of Regionalization, Universidad del Valle, Caicedonia 762540, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
2
Facultad de Ciencias de la Administración, Universidad del Valle, Cali 25360, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
3
Group Sinergia, Instituto de Educación Técnica Profesional de Roldanillo (INTEP), Roldanillo 761550, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(17), 7765; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177765
Submission received: 6 June 2025 / Revised: 14 July 2025 / Accepted: 16 July 2025 / Published: 29 August 2025
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Abstract

This study analyzes the factors that influence perceptions of the urban environment and local identity, considering them as key dimensions for understanding sustainable urban development in Latin America. Based on data from a representative sample of 701 residents in the medium-sized city of Tuluá, Colombia, the study examines the relationships between public services, safety, mobility, healthcare, and cultural offerings and these citizen perceptions. The data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), which allowed for the simultaneous evaluation of relationships between formative and reflective latent variables. The results reveal a strong positive relationship between the perception of the urban environment and local identity. Citizen security emerged as the most significant predictor in both constructs, followed by public services. In contrast, satisfaction with medical care, cultural offerings, and urban mobility did not show significant effects on the perception of the urban environment, although mobility had a moderate positive effect on local identity. These findings enrich the debate on urban dynamics in Latin American contexts and provide guidance for the design of public policies that strengthen territorial cohesion and quality of life from an integral perspective. In doing so, the study enhances the understanding of how urban sustainability can be advanced through both structural and perceptual factors.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Understanding how citizens perceive their urban environment and construct a sense of local identity is increasingly relevant in the context of sustainable development [1]. As cities in Latin America face rapid urbanization, insecurity, and inequality, grasping the subjective dimensions of urban experience is critical for shaping inclusive and resilient policies.
This study focuses on the medium-sized city of Tuluá, Colombia, where survey data collected between 2022 and 2023 is used to analyze how various dimensions of service provision, safety, mobility, healthcare, and culture [2,3,4,5] influence both urban perception [6] and local identity [7,8].
Although academic literature offers multiple studies on the factors affecting the perception of the urban environment and the construction of local identity, much of this research has focused on European or North American contexts, with limited empirical evidence in the Latin American context, particularly in Colombia. This absence is especially relevant considering that, within the framework of the decentralized Colombian State, municipalities are the basic units of territorial management and are legally required [2] to implement mechanisms for evaluating their institutional performance, aimed at improving the population’s quality of life. Addressing this national agenda and the need to strengthen empirical evidence from concrete territorial realities, this study aims to identify and analyze the factors influencing citizens’ perceptions of the urban environment and their local identities in the municipality of Tuluá, an intermediate city in the department of Valle del Cauca with over 200,000 inhabitants and significant challenges in terms of security, public services, mobility, and governance. To achieve this, empirical research was conducted based on a structured face-to-face survey applied in households selected through probabilistic sampling, which was executed by the specialized firm YanHaas between 5 December 2022 and 16 February 2023.
The exploration of the independent variables—satisfaction with medical care, satisfaction with public services, perception of security, satisfaction with cultural offerings, and perception of urban mobility—is based on a comprehensive vision of territorial development and citizen well-being, in line with the regulatory guidelines for municipal performance measurement established by the National Planning Department (DNP, Bogotá, Colombia). According to Feres and Mancero [9], quality of life is closely related to the ability of local governments to guarantee services that meet essential needs. This idea is reinforced from the perspective of Barrera [10], who classifies these needs into basic services (water, sewage, and solid waste), connectivity (mobility and internet), and energy generation. Additionally, following global phenomena such as climate warming and the COVID-19 pandemic, the effective provision of these services has gained even greater relevance in the public agenda, as indicated by Ortíz-Rodríguez et al. [11]. Complementarily, non-economic services of general interest (NESGI), such as healthcare, culture, and security, are also recognized as pillars of human and social development [12,13]. In Colombia, these services are part of the results component in the official measurement of municipal performance [14], and their evaluation is key to identifying equity gaps and guiding more effective public policies. Therefore, including these five dimensions in the present study allows for a systemic analysis of how the different components of the urban environment—both tangible and intangible—impact citizen perception and contribute to strengthening or weakening individuals’ ties to their territory.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Perception of the Urban Environment

The urban environment refers to the perception that inhabitants have of the physical and social surroundings in which they live within a city or municipality. This perception encompasses a wide range of aspects, from infrastructure and public spaces to security, air quality, and accessibility to basic services such as transportation, education, and health [15]. The way citizens perceive their environment can significantly influence their emotional well-being, daily behavior, and level of satisfaction with urban life [16].
The perception of the urban environment is crucial for understanding how people interact with their surroundings and how this affects their quality of life. A well-planned and managed urban environment can foster a sense of community, reduce stress, and promote healthy lifestyles [17]. Conversely, an environment perceived as chaotic, unsafe, or polluted can generate feelings of discomfort, anxiety, and dissatisfaction. For example, Coley [18] found that environmental chaos, including neighborhood and city disorder, is associated with physical and mental health problems in children. Exposure to chaotic environments can have harmful effects on health and development, suggesting that the perception of disorder and chaos can contribute to emotional distress.

2.2. Local Identity

Local identity, on the other hand, refers to the sense of belonging and connection that individuals feel towards their place of origin or residence, whether it be a neighborhood, a city, or a specific region. This identity is constructed through a combination of cultural, historical, social, and geographical elements that characterize a place and its inhabitants [19]. Local identity is deeply rooted in the daily lives of people, influencing their worldview, values, traditions, and community practices. Local identity manifests in how people identify with various aspects of their environment that they consider representative and significant. This includes not only symbols, customs, and physical spaces such as typical architecture, local festivals, gastronomy, and dialects [20] but also essential factors such as the safety of the environment, the quality and accessibility of health services, and access to public services such as water, electricity, and transportation [21,22].

2.3. Satisfaction with Medical Care

Satisfaction with medical care refers to a patient’s evaluation of the medical services received, including the quality of the services provided, interaction with healthcare professionals, and the accessibility of the services [23]. The literature suggests that medical satisfaction influences the perception of the urban environment in various ways. Firstly, patients who are satisfied with the medical system may feel more secure and confident in their urban environment, knowing they have access to quality medical care in case of an emergency for themselves and their families [24]. Similarly, satisfaction with medical care can reduce levels of anxiety and stress in individuals who constantly worry about their health and that of their loved ones, as they trust that the local health system can handle any illness that arises within the family [25]. Additionally, satisfaction with medical care can lead people to maintain healthy lifestyles and adopt habits that promote well-being [26]. Local medical services, for example, can provide information and education on how to lead a healthy lifestyle, as well as personalized recommendations to improve health, contributing to a more positive attitude towards the urban environment as people feel they live in a place that cares about promoting well-being and health.
H1a. 
Higher levels of satisfaction with medical care lead to a more positive perception of the urban environment.
Satisfaction with medical care can also influence people’s local identity, as it can be an important factor in how citizens feel about their place of residence. When people are satisfied with the medical care they receive, they are more likely to feel connected and committed to their local community [27]. This is because medical care is an important part of the social and service infrastructure in a community, and when it is perceived as high quality, it can create a sense of trust and satisfaction with society. Furthermore, when people have access to quality medical care, they are more likely to feel valued and respected by their community and the institutions that govern it [24]. This can foster a sense of pride and belonging in their place of residence, which in turn can contribute to a stronger local identity. Conversely, when people are not satisfied with the medical care they receive, they may feel marginalized and disconnected from their local community, fostering a negative local identity as they may feel excluded and alienated from the society around them [28]. Therefore, it is proposed that
H1b. 
Higher levels of satisfaction with medical care lead to a greater local identity.

2.4. Satisfaction with Public Services

Public services refer to those services provided by the government or its agencies to meet the needs of society. These services can include a wide range of activities and programs essential for the well-being and quality of life of the population, such as water supply, electricity, and waste management [29]. When public services function optimally and are provided efficiently, people may feel more satisfied with their urban environment. This can lead to a more positive perception of the city as a place that cares about the well-being of its inhabitants and strives to provide a comfortable living environment [30].
Conversely, when public services are of high quality and provided consistently without interruptions, they foster a greater sense of security and well-being in the territory [15]. On the other hand, when public services are inefficient, a more negative image of the urban environment is created. For example, if waste collection services are irregular or deficient, this can create a negative visual and olfactory impact on the city and contribute to people feeling uncomfortable or unsafe. Similarly, a poor-quality drinking water supply, with the presence of harmful substances in the water, can raise concerns about people’s health and safety, affecting the overall satisfaction of citizens with their place of residence. Therefore, it is proposed that
H2a. 
Higher levels of satisfaction with public services lead to a more positive perception of the urban environment.
The academic literature has also shown that satisfaction with public services can influence the local identity of citizens with the city [7]. When people are satisfied with the various programs and activities provided by the government and its institutions, they may feel greater self-esteem and perceive themselves as part of a strong and cohesive community. Conversely, when public services are deficient or insufficient, citizens are likely to feel lower self-esteem and feel disconnected from their community [31].
Some research in this regard has suggested that satisfaction with public services can manifest in various ways in relation to local identity. For example, it can improve citizens’ willingness to participate in community activities, contribute to a more positive attitude towards changes and decisions affecting the community, and even encourage volunteering. It can also foster a sense of belonging to the community and identification with its values and goals [32]. In line with the above, it is proposed that
H2b. 
Higher levels of satisfaction with public services lead to a greater local identity.

2.5. Perception of Security

The perception of security refers to the subjective evaluation that people make about their level of personal security in a specific context or situation [33]. This perception is related to objective factors such as the presence of crime in the area, lighting, and transportation infrastructure, among other variables, but it is also driven by subjective factors such as the citizen’s previous experiences, expectations, and cultural beliefs [16]. Research suggests that the perception of security can influence the perception of the urban environment. If people feel secure, they can fully enjoy public spaces and engage in activities such as walking around the city, visiting parks, using public transportation, and interacting with the community without fear of becoming victims of crime. This translates into a better quality of life and a more positive perception of their place of residence [34]. Conversely, when there is a low perception of security, citizens feel insecure and are less likely to enjoy public spaces and their city sufficiently [35]. For example, it is unlikely that people will stop at a public transportation stop or take advantage of a park for sports activities, which can limit people’s ability to interact with each other and enjoy the benefits of public spaces. Therefore, it is proposed that
H3a. 
A higher perception of security positively influences the perception of the urban environment.
Similarly, it has been shown that security can affect the perception of the urban environment. When citizens perceive their city as safe, it leads to a general sense of well-being, greater participation in community activities, and greater enjoyment of public spaces, which can lead to greater identification with the place where they live. However, when the perception of security is low, community life drastically decreases, which in turn weakens local identity [36]. Therefore, it is proposed that
H3b. 
A high perception of security positively influences local identity.

2.6. Satisfaction with Cultural Offerings

The cultural offerings of a city refer to the set of cultural activities and events available to the community in a given municipality [37]. In the Colombian context, the cultural dimension is an explicit part of the results component of the municipal performance measurement by the National Planning Department [14], and it is considered a fundamental service for territorial development and collective well-being [38]
Cultural offerings include museums, art galleries, theaters, cultural festivals, concerts, and events. These services, provided by local administrations, aim to meet the needs and preferences of citizens, promoting social development, integration, and well-being, as well as fostering tourism and improving the local economy [39,40]. Some studies in this regard have found that the cultural offerings of cities can drastically influence the perception of the urban environment by their inhabitants and visitors. This is because these activities enhance people’s quality of life and promote social integration [6]. Cultural offerings, such as art exhibitions, concerts, cinema, and festivals, can attract a diverse audience and encourage participation in the city’s cultural life, generating a perception that the place is more dynamic and cosmopolitan [41]. In this sense, it is proposed that
H4a. 
Greater satisfaction with the city’s cultural offerings has a positive effect on the perception of the urban environment.
On the other hand, cultural offerings can also foster civic pride and local identity. When a city offers a wide range of cultural activities, its inhabitants may feel more connected and prouder of their city [42]. This is because cultural offerings can create a sense of community and belonging among citizens, who feel more involved in urban life and the activities taking place within their place of residence [43]. Therefore, it is proposed that
H4b. 
High levels of satisfaction with cultural offerings positively influence the perception of the urban environment.

2.7. Perception of Urban Mobility

The perception of urban mobility refers to how city inhabitants perceive the ease and quality of their movements within the city. It includes the perception of accessibility to different locations, the efficiency and reliability of public transportation, the safety and comfort of roadways, and even the quality of the air and the urban environment in general [44]. The perception of urban mobility is important because it can affect the quality of life of citizens and the competitiveness of the city. A good perception of mobility can improve the satisfaction of city inhabitants by making them feel that the services and places offered by the city are accessible, and it can also attract investment and tourism [45]. Therefore, it is proposed that
H5a. 
A good perception of urban mobility positively influences the perception of the urban environment.
Some research has also shown that urban mobility affects local identity and civic pride. When residents perceive urban mobility as inclusive, efficient, safe, and accessible, and consider the needs of all users, the sense of belonging to the city increases, along with greater civic pride [46]. Therefore, it is proposed that
H5b. 
A positive perception of urban mobility contributes to territorial identity.

2.8. Perception of the Urban Environment and Its Impact on Territorial Identity

In addition to being influenced by multiple common factors, the perception of the urban environment and local identity are intrinsically related. Academic literature has extensively explored this relationship, suggesting that the way residents perceive their urban environment directly impacts the development and strengthening of their local identity [47]. The perception of the urban environment encompasses a wide range of elements, including the quality of infrastructure, the aesthetics of the urban landscape, the availability of green spaces, the cleanliness of the streets, and the functionality of public services [48]. When these elements are perceived positively, they tend to foster a sense of pride and attachment to the place of residence, which in turn reinforces local identity [16]. This link is especially strong in contexts where citizens actively participate in the improvement and maintenance of their environment, whether through community initiatives or participatory urban planning programs. Conversely, a negative perception of the urban environment can generate feelings of detachment and decrease identification with the locality, affecting the overall well-being of the inhabitants [49]. Considering the above, it is proposed that
H6. 
The perception of the urban environment is positively related to local identity.
Below, Figure 1 presents the research model proposed in this study:

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Sample and Data Collection

In this study, the population of interest consisted of all the inhabitants of the municipality of Tuluá, Colombia (approximately 221,000). The sample comprised 701 participants over the age of 18 who were selected through probabilistic, multi-stage, stratified, and cluster sampling. It is worth noting that the concept of “stratification” is associated with economic levels and has been implemented in Colombia as a public policy tool to classify households and facilitate the targeting of subsidies for public utility services. Households are grouped into classifications ranging from 0 (very low) to 6 (very high), based on their physical characteristics and their surroundings.
A margin of error of 3.9% and a confidence level of 95% were established to ensure the accuracy of the results. Data collection was carried out through a structured questionnaire designed to measure citizen perception, which was administered to the selected participants in the sample. The questionnaire included both closed and open-ended questions, designed to obtain detailed information on the variables of interest. Additionally, some questions were included to characterize the demographics of the participants. This questionnaire was administered in person in the participants’ homes by the Colombian survey company YanHaas (Bogotá, Colombia), from 5 December 2022 to 16 February 2023. Below, Table 1 presents the characterization of the individuals:
The characterization of the participants shows a gender balance with a slight majority of men (53.4%). In terms of age, the largest proportion of respondents is over 55 years old (26.8%), followed by the 26 to 35 age group (19.2%). Regarding economic level, the majority falls into the “Low-Medium” (39.9%) and “Medium” (33.66%) strata, while the “Very Low” and “Very High” levels are practically non-existent, suggesting a predominance of medium economic levels in the sample. In terms of education level, nearly half of the participants completed secondary education (46.7%), and a minority have professional (10.9%) or postgraduate (1.4%) education. This reflects a population with a predominantly secondary educational background, with a smaller proportion of individuals with higher education.

3.2. Measurement of Variables

To measure the variables in this study, questions commonly used in the “Red de Ciudades Cómo Vamos” initiative were employed. Established in 1998, this network is dedicated to analyzing citizens’ perceptions of their cities in Colombia, and its experience provides a solid foundation for measuring the variables of interest. However, it should be noted that academically validated measurement scales were not used, which is a limitation of the study. Despite this, the trajectory and recognition of the “Red de Ciudades Cómo Vamos” in evaluating citizen perception in Colombia support the validity of the questions used.
In this study, all variables were operationalized through a single question, except for the “public services” variable, which was defined as a formative indicator based on satisfaction with five specific services: water, sewage, energy, garbage collection, and domestic gas. Responses to all questions were collected on a Likert scale, which facilitated the quantification of participants’ perceptions and opinions on various aspects of the urban environment and local identity.
Although the use of single-item indicators for complex constructs is a practice that needs justification, it has been recognized as acceptable in social science research under certain conditions, especially in large-scale surveys [16]. Nevertheless, we acknowledge that this approach limits the ability to capture the multidimensional nature of variables such as medical satisfaction or mobility, potentially affecting the robustness of the measurement model, as will be discussed in the limitations.

3.3. Data Analysis

To analyze the collected data and test the hypotheses proposed in this study, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used. This statistical modeling technique is particularly suitable for this type of research for several reasons. Firstly, PLS-SEM is a robust technique that can effectively handle complex models with multiple relationships between variables, as is the case in this study. Additionally, it is especially useful when working with formative indicators, such as the public services variable in our model. The analysis was carried out in two stages following the procedure proposed by Hair [50]. In the first stage, the measurement model was evaluated, and subsequently, the structural model was applied, obtaining p-values and path coefficients.

3.4. Evaluation of the Measurement Model

For single-item variables, traditional tests of reliability and internal consistency were not performed, as these evaluations are not relevant for this type of variable. Discriminant validity was also not evaluated, given that most of the variables are single-item and do not include reflective constructs with multiple items that would justify such an evaluation. This reliance on single-item indicators is an inherent methodological limitation that reduces the possibility of conducting more exhaustive construct validity and reliability tests.
However, for the formative indicator related to public services, multicollinearity among the items was evaluated using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF). According to Hair [50], VIF values below 4.0 are considered acceptable, suggesting that there is no significant multicollinearity problem among the evaluated items. The specific results of this evaluation are presented in Table 2.
In Table 2, it is observed that the variables “Perception of the Urban Environment,” “Culture,” “Mobility,” “Health,” “Security,” and “Local Identity” have a VIF of 1.000, indicating that there is no multicollinearity among these variables and that they are completely independent of each other. In contrast, the items related to public services have VIF values ranging from 1.857 to 2.032, all below the critical threshold of 4.0, suggesting low collinearity among the components of this formative indicator. These results demonstrate that the public service items, such as water, sewerage, energy, garbage collection, and domestic gas, do not exhibit a level of collinearity that compromises the validity of the model, allowing for a reliable interpretation of the results in terms of their impact on the formative variable of public services. Subsequently, the weights of the formative indicator (public services) and their statistical significance were examined to determine the relative contribution of each item to the construct. Table 3, presented below, shows these results.
Table 3 displays the weights of each item composing the formative indicator of “Public Services” and their respective statistical significance. All weights are positive and highly significant (with p-values less than 0.05), indicating that each item contributes substantially and relevantly to the construct of public services. The highest weight corresponds to domestic gas (0.290), followed by garbage collection (0.285), suggesting that these items have the greatest influence within the construct.

3.5. Structural Model

Following the guidelines established by Hair [50], bootstrapping with 500 iterations was used to evaluate the influence of both the indicator weights and the path coefficients. Additionally, the adjusted R2 of the variables was calculated to verify the model fit. The global fit index (GoF) was determined by combining two elements: first, the geometric mean of the average variance extracted (AVE) from the constructs was calculated, which evaluates the amount of variance shared between the indicators and their latent construct; second, the R2 of the dependent endogenous constructs was averaged, representing the proportion of variance explained by the predictors in the model. Subsequently, the GoF was estimated using the following formula: GoF = √(AVE × R2). According to established criteria, GoF values are categorized as low (0.02), medium (0.25), and high (0.36). In this study, a GoF of 0.563 was found, indicating that the proposed model for analyzing the relationship between the perception of the urban environment and local identity with its predictor variables has a high fit, suggesting a reasonable performance of the model (see Table 4). This value significantly exceeds the threshold of 0.36, confirming the robustness of the model as a whole, adequately combining the quality of the measurement model and the structural model.
Regarding the proportion of variance explained by the predictors (R2), the perception of the urban environment shows an R2 of 0.152, indicating that the predictors explain 15.2% of the variance of this variable. On the other hand, local identity presents an R2 of 0.423, suggesting that 42.3% of the variance of this variable is explained by the predictors, a considerable value indicating a substantial influence of the predictors.
Finally, the Q2 values (CVR), which reflect the predictive capacity of the model, are 0.139 for the perception of the urban environment and 0.415 for local identity. A positive Q2 value indicates that the model has predictive capacity for the endogenous variable in question, while a negative value would suggest that the model is not predictive and that even an average model (without predictors) could be better. In general, the higher the Q2 value, the better the predictive capacity of the model [20]. In the provided table, the Q2 values for the perception of the urban environment and local identity constructs are 0.139 and 0.415, respectively. This means that the model has an acceptable predictive capacity for the perception of the urban environment, as the value is positive and close to 0.1, which is considered a basic threshold of predictive relevance. For local identity, the Q2 value is 0.415, which is significantly higher and suggests a strong predictive capacity of the model for this variable.

4. Results

Structural Model Results

After evaluating both the measurement model and the structural model, the research hypotheses were tested using bootstrapping. Specifically, the coefficients between the variables were determined to find their significance and direction. The results are shown in Table 5 below.
The results of the structural model illustrate the relationships between the predictor variables and the dependent variables, specifically the perception of the urban environment and local identity. The coefficients presented indicate both the magnitude and direction of these relationships, while the significance levels reflect the likelihood that these relationships are genuine and not due to chance. One asterisk indicates a 90% confidence level, two asterisks indicate a 95% confidence level, and three asterisks indicate a 99% confidence level. For the perception of the urban environment, the variable medical satisfaction has a coefficient of 0.008, indicating a positive but non-significant relationship. This suggests insufficient evidence to assert a significant influence, leading to the rejection of H1a. Public services show a coefficient of 0.129 with a 99% significance level, supporting H2a. The variable security has a coefficient of 0.345, which is also significant at the 99% level, which supports H3a. The variables culture and mobility have coefficients of 0.039 and 0.049, respectively, neither of which reaches statistical significance, leading to the rejection of H4a and H5a. Regarding local identity, medical satisfaction has a negative coefficient of −0.062 with a 95% significance level, allowing for the rejection of H1b. Public services have a coefficient of 0.050, which is significant at the 90% level, indicating a slight and marginally significant positive relationship with local identity, thus supporting H2b. The variable security presents a coefficient of 0.094, which is significant at the 95% level and supports H3b. The variable culture shows a non-significant coefficient of 0.055, leading to the rejection of H4b. Mobility has a coefficient of 0.057, which is significant at the 95% level, allowing for the acceptance of H5b. Finally, the perception of the urban environment shows a high coefficient of 0.596, which is significant at the 99% level, indicating a strong positive relationship with local identity. This suggests that a positive perception of the urban environment is highly correlated with greater local identity, supporting H6.

5. Discussion

This study provides valuable insights into the factors influencing the perception of the urban environment and local identity within a Latin American context, specifically in a medium-sized city in Colombia. The findings reveal the complexity of interactions between various urban elements and their impact on the citizen experience. A significant finding is the strong positive relationship between the perception of the urban environment and local identity, supporting observations by Knez [47] on the intrinsic interconnectedness between these two concepts. This result underscores the importance of creating pleasant and functional urban environments to foster a sense of belonging and pride among citizens. The magnitude of this relationship suggests that interventions aimed at improving the perception of the urban environment could have a significant cascading effect on strengthening local identity.
Regarding the factors influencing the perception of the urban environment, security emerges as the strongest predictor, aligning with findings by Barakovic [34]. This result reinforces the idea that a sense of security is fundamental for citizens to fully enjoy their urban environment. Public services also showed a significant, albeit lesser, influence on the perception of the urban environment, consistent with observations by Abella [30] on the importance of efficient services for citizen satisfaction.
Surprisingly, satisfaction with medical care, cultural offerings, and mobility did not show a significant influence on the perception of the urban environment. This contrasts with previous studies, such as those by Ramos-Vera et al. [24] and Kristiansen and Houlihan [41], which suggest a stronger relationship between these factors and the perception of the urban environment. This discrepancy, particularly in the case of culture and mobility, warrants deeper reflection. The lack of significance could indicate that, in the context of a medium-sized city like the one studied, more basic and pressing needs, such as security, overshadow the influence of other factors on everyday perception. It is possible that mobility and culture become more potent determinants of urban perception once a satisfactory threshold of security and basic services is achieved [51]. This result raises the need to explore not only the objective quality of the mobility system but also the dominant forms of displacement and their social appropriation within the territory.
Regarding local identity, the results reveal a more complex picture. The perception of the urban environment emerges as the strongest predictor, followed by security and mobility. These findings support the theory that a positive and secure urban environment fosters a greater sense of belonging, as suggested by Zhou [16] and Kun [36]. The significant influence of mobility on local identity, although moderate, underscores the importance of efficient transportation systems to connect citizens with their environment, as proposed by Morales [46]. This can be explained by the intensive use of means such as motorcycles, whose logic of appropriation is individual, fast, and direct, but which does not necessarily improve the perception of the environment as a common space. Thus, the concept of mobility in the context not only refers to infrastructure but also to the cultural, economic, and governance conditions that support it.
An intriguing result is the negative relationship between satisfaction with medical care and local identity. This finding contrasts with expectations based on previous studies, such as that by Froehlich [27], which suggest a positive relationship. This counterintuitive phenomenon could be interpreted from several perspectives that enrich the understanding of urban development. One possible explanation is that citizens with a stronger local identity may be more critical and demanding of public services, including health [52], resulting in a lower satisfaction evaluation. Their deep sense of belonging may lead them to have higher expectations and be more vocal about local deficiencies [53]. Alternatively, in an urban development pattern where public and private health systems of varying quality coexist, citizens with greater purchasing power could access high-quality private services [54], resulting in high medical satisfaction but at the same time could develop a lifestyle less connected to local structures and community, weakening their territorial identity [55]. This finding challenges the linear assumption that “better service always equals greater identity” and suggests that the relationship could be mediated by equity, citizen expectations, and social cohesion.
Analyzing the results obtained with the effects of mobility and medical satisfaction on the perception of the urban environment and local identity, it can be explained by the particular conditions of the municipality of Tuluá, where individual motorized transport, especially motorcycles, dominates daily dynamics, configuring mobility more oriented towards functionality than urban quality [56,57,58]. In this context, displacement is not necessarily associated with aesthetic or environmental attributes of public space but with efficiency, cost, and access. However, the recurrent use of personal transportation can reinforce the sense of territorial appropriation and belonging by facilitating the direct connection between the individual and the different spaces of the city [59]. Nevertheless, this pattern of intensive mobility can also be linked to environmental stress factors, such as constant noise, exposure to polluted air, or traffic risk, which negatively impact well-being and the perception of available medical services [60,61]. Hence, although citizens may declare high levels of satisfaction with mobility in terms of access or speed, this type of motorized transport could be correlated with a more critical evaluation of medical services, especially when health conditions are affected by traffic accidents, musculoskeletal ailments, or respiratory diseases not effectively addressed by the local health system. Thus, it is suggested that the relationship between mobility, public health, and urban perception should be analyzed under an intersectoral approach that recognizes both its pragmatic benefits and its social externalities [62,63].
Finally, the marginal but significant influence of public services on local identity partially supports observations by Batista [7] on the importance of these services for community cohesion. However, the relatively small magnitude of this relationship suggests that other factors may be more crucial in shaping local identity in the studied context.

6. Conclusions

The results of this study offer valuable contributions to urban planning aimed at collective well-being, particularly in Latin American contexts characterized by territorial inequalities and institutional constraints. Firstly, the strong relationship between the perception of the urban environment and local identity highlights the need to strengthen pleasant, safe, and functional urban environments as a strategy to generate a sense of belonging. Additionally, the identification of security as the most influential factor in both urban perception and local identity suggests that planning policies should prioritize interventions that improve coexistence, reduce crime, and strengthen institutional trust. On a practical level, this implies that local administrations should not view investment in security solely as an expense for crime control but as a direct investment in social capital and citizen well-being. Beyond policing measures, this translates into the need to implement “safe urban design” strategies (CPTED—Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design), such as improving public lighting, reclaiming abandoned public spaces, and promoting “natural surveillance” through mixed land uses that ensure the presence of people on the streets at different times [64].
The strong relationship between the perception of the urban environment and local identity indicates that improvements in the city’s physical environment can significantly impact citizens’ sense of belonging. Urban renewal projects, therefore, should focus not only on aesthetics but also on fostering social interaction and civic pride. Although public services showed a moderate influence, their importance should not be underestimated. Continued investment in basic services remains crucial but should be accompanied by effective communication that highlights these improvements to the citizenry.
The lack of a significant relationship between cultural offerings and the dependent variables suggests the need to rethink how these activities are offered and communicated. From a public policy perspective, this could mean the need to conduct participatory cultural assessments to align the offerings with local demands and traditions, rather than importing generic cultural models. An aspect that deserves further reflection is the inclusion of the variable satisfaction with cultural offerings as a direct predictor in the structural model. While its conceptual justification has been widely addressed from the perspective of non-economic services of general interest (NESGI), supported by international literature [12,13], its treatment in the analytical model can be debated, as it could operate as a mediating variable, modulating the effects of other structural factors, such as public services or security, on local identity. Indeed, access to cultural activities can amplify the impact of other determinants by favoring the symbolic appropriation of the territory and strengthening social cohesion. Although this study opted for a parsimonious approach, modeling culture as a direct predictor, future research should explore its potential role as a mediator, which would enrich the understanding of the complex links between institutional infrastructure, urban experience, and the construction of territorial identity.
It is important to recognize the methodological limitations of this study to adequately contextualize its findings. The data are derived from the Citizen Perception Survey of the “Red de Ciudades Cómo Vamos,” a highly technical and rigorous initiative in Colombia designed to monitor and compare urban quality of life through standardized indicators [65]. Within this framework, the use of single-item measures is a deliberate methodological choice that prioritizes thematic breadth and comparability between cities over the depth of individual constructs. While this approach is valid and robust for its purposes, it does not allow for an exhaustive analysis of construct validity offered by multi-item scales. Additionally, the focus on a single city warrants caution when generalizing the results. Therefore, future research could enrich this field by complementing these findings with studies that use validated multi-item scales and comparative designs among various cities, allowing for a deeper validation of the patterns identified here.
Future research scenarios could include the explicit inclusion of latent interaction effects and citizen expectations. Although the model in this research did not explicitly include unobserved latent variables, it is recognized that variables such as income level, type of health insurance, or institutional affiliation could moderate or mediate the relationship between medical satisfaction and local identity [66]. This opens the possibility that the negative relationship found is not linear but conditioned by structural factors that are not included.
In conclusion, this work provides a basis for informed decision-making in urban management, emphasizing the importance of a holistic approach that considers both the tangible and intangible aspects of the urban environment. However, it is crucial to recognize that each city is unique and that strategies must be adapted to the specific characteristics and needs of each urban context. The ultimate goal should be to improve the quality of life for residents and create more resilient and committed communities.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.O.A.; Methodology, E.A.E. and C.O.A.; Software, C.O.A.; Formal analysis, C.O.A.; Investigation, E.A.E. and C.A.P.; Resources, E.A.E.; Writing—original draft, E.A.E. and C.O.A.; Writing—review & editing, E.A.E. and C.A.P.; Project administration, C.A.P.; Funding acquisition, C.A.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was conducted within the framework of the project “Digital e-commerce ecosystem for biosecure economic revival-ECOMMERCE-19”, funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due to: The study has been classified as low-risk research, in accordance with the current ethical regulations in Colombia (Resolution 8430 of 1993 from the Ministry of Health, Chapter I, Article 11). The research was based on the analysis of publicly available open data from surveys conducted by the Red de Ciudades Cómo Vamos project, without direct intervention with individuals or collection of personal or sensitive data. The information used was secondary and publicly accessible, ensuring that all data were handled anonymously, without recording or using any personal identifiers.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study, in accordance with the ethical regulations established in Colombia, specifically Resolution 8430 of 1993 of the Ministry of Health, Chapter I, Article 11. This research was classified as a low-risk study, as it used publicly available open data from surveys conducted by the Red de Ciudades Cómo Vamos project.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are openly available in ZENODO at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15604507, reference number 15604507.

Acknowledgments

In the creation of this article, Anthropic’s Claude 3.7 Sonnet generative artificial intelligence was used to improve the orthotypographic quality of the manuscript content in English.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Sustainability 17 07765 g001
Figure 1. Research model.
Figure 1. Research model.
Sustainability 17 07765 g001
Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics.
VariableCategoryFrequency
GenderFemale32646.5%
Male37553.4%
Age18 to 2512617.9%
26 to 3513919.2%
36 to 4512617.9%
46 to 5512217.4%
Over 5518826.8%
Economic LevelVery Low (0)10.14%
Low (1)7710.9%
Low–Medium (2)28039.9%
Medium (3)23633.66%
Medium–High (4)547.7%
High (5)496.9%
Very High (6)40.57%
Education LevelNone466.5%
Primary14420.5%
Secondary32846.7%
Technical9613.6%
Professional7710.9%
Postgraduate101.4%
Table 2. Multicollinearity test.
Table 2. Multicollinearity test.
VariableVIF
Perception of the Urban Environment1.000
Culture1.000
Mobility1.000
Health1.000
Security1.000
Local Identity1.000
Public ServicesWater2.024
Sewerage2.018
Energy2.032
Garbage Collection1.857
Domestic Gas2.030
Table 3. Formative indicator weights.
Table 3. Formative indicator weights.
Public ServicesWeightsp-Value
Water0.2140.000
Sewerage0.2100.000
Energy0.2380.000
Garbage Collection0.2850.000
Domestic Gas0.2900.000
Table 4. Model fit.
Table 4. Model fit.
ScaleAVER2Q2 (CVR)
Perception of the Urban Environment1.0000.1520.139
Local Identity1.0000.4230.415
GoF 0.563
Table 5. Structural model.
Table 5. Structural model.
Variable/ModelPerception of the Urban EnvironmentLocal Identity
Satisfaction with medical care0.008−0.062 **
Public Services0.129 ***0.050 *
Perception of security0.345 ***0.094 **
Satisfaction with cultural offerings0.0390.055
Perception of urban mobility0.0490.057 **
Perception of the Urban EnvironmentN/A0.596 ***
p < 0.10 (*), p < 0.05 (**), p < 0.01 (***). Asterisks indicate the statistical significance of each coefficient.
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Arango Espinal, E.; Arango Pastrana, C.; Osorio Andrade, C. Local Identity and Urban Perception in an Intermediate City: Implications for Sustainable Urban Development. Sustainability 2025, 17, 7765. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177765

AMA Style

Arango Espinal E, Arango Pastrana C, Osorio Andrade C. Local Identity and Urban Perception in an Intermediate City: Implications for Sustainable Urban Development. Sustainability. 2025; 17(17):7765. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177765

Chicago/Turabian Style

Arango Espinal, Edwin, Carlos Arango Pastrana, and Carlos Osorio Andrade. 2025. "Local Identity and Urban Perception in an Intermediate City: Implications for Sustainable Urban Development" Sustainability 17, no. 17: 7765. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177765

APA Style

Arango Espinal, E., Arango Pastrana, C., & Osorio Andrade, C. (2025). Local Identity and Urban Perception in an Intermediate City: Implications for Sustainable Urban Development. Sustainability, 17(17), 7765. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17177765

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