Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Fruit: Strategic Crop for Food Security, Nutritional Benefits, Postharvest Quality, and Valorization into Emerging Functional Products
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Agricultural and Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, P.O. Box 34-123, Al-Khodh 123, Oman
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7491; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167491
Submission received: 29 June 2025
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Revised: 8 August 2025
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Accepted: 9 August 2025
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Published: 19 August 2025
Abstract
Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) is a vital crop cultivated primarily in developing regions, playing a strategic role in global food security through its significant contribution to nutrition, economy, and livelihoods. Global and regional production trends revealed increasing demand and expanded cultivation areas, underpinning the fruit’s importance in national food security policies and economic frameworks. The date fruit’s rich nutritional profile, encompassing carbohydrates, dietary fiber, minerals, and bioactive compounds, supports its status as a functional food with health benefits. Postharvest technologies and quality preservation strategies, including temperature-controlled storage, advanced drying, edible coatings, and emerging AI-driven monitoring systems, are critical to reducing losses and maintaining quality across diverse cultivars and maturity stages. Processing techniques such as drying, irradiation, and cold plasma distinctly influence sugar composition, texture, polyphenol retention, and sensory acceptance, with cultivar- and stage-specific responses guiding optimization efforts. The cold chain and innovative packaging solutions, including vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging, along with biopolymer-based edible coatings, enhance storage efficiency and microbial safety, though economic and practical constraints remain, especially for smallholders. Microbial contamination, a major challenge in date fruit storage and export, is addressed through integrated preservation approaches combining thermal, non-thermal, and biopreservative treatment. However, gaps in microbial safety data, mycotoxin evaluation, and regulatory harmonization hinder broader application. Date fruit derivatives such as flesh, syrup, seeds, press cake, pomace, and vinegar offer versatile functional roles across food systems. They improve nutritional value, sensory qualities, and shelf life in bakery, dairy, meat, and beverage products while supporting sustainable waste valorization. Emerging secondary derivatives like powders and extracts further expand the potential for clean-label, health-promoting applications. This comprehensive review underscores the need for multidisciplinary research and development to advance sustainable production, postharvest management, and value-added utilization of date palm fruits, fostering enhanced food security, economic benefits, and consumer health worldwide.
1. Introduction
The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.), historically cultivated for over 5000 years, originated in Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf [1]. While its early role was vital to ancient MENA civilizations, its modern significance lies in its expanding global footprint and strategic value in arid agriculture. Nowadays, dates are grown in over 30 countries, with Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Algeria as the top three leading producers [2]. Recent shifts in trade, climate resilience, and nutritional demand have driven cultivation into newer producers, including the U.S., South Africa, Namibia, Niger, and Peru, which are gaining prominence due to rising production and adaptable farming technologies [3,4]. This reflects the crop’s resilience to tropical and arid climates and its expanding global role. For instance, California’s Coachella Valley has become a major U.S. production hub for date production, demonstrating how innovation and climate suitability support cultivation beyond native regions [5,6]. A major force behind this expansion is the growing recognition of dates as a multifunctional food commodity with significant economic importance and strategic value for global food security [1]. With over 6000 varieties and 2000 recognized cultivars, date fruits show substantial intra-species diversity in morphology, ripening, and nutritional–functional properties [2]. Once a staple or snack, dates are now gaining attention in functional foods, nutraceuticals, and health-based products, reinforcing the importance of optimized postharvest handling, quality assessment, and value enhancement.
As a climacteric fruit, date palm fruit undergoes a well-defined maturation process comprising four key physiological stages: Kimri (immature and green), Khalal/Biser (full-size, firm, yellow or red), Rutab (softening and onset of browning), and Tamar (fully ripe, dry, and wrinkled) (Figure 1; Table 1). Each stage presents distinct changes in texture, moisture, sugar composition, and microbial susceptibility that influence the fruit’s postharvest behavior and commercial viability. As the fruit ripens, sugar content rises while levels of fiber, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity gradually decrease, resulting in reduced astringency and enhanced palatability. Moreover, despite their field resilience, dates are highly perishable postharvest, especially at the Khalal and Rutab stages due to high moisture and sugar concentration [7]. Given this perishability of date fruits, several preservation strategies have been developed to maintain postharvest quality and safety. These include cold storage, edible coatings, advanced packaging, emerging non-thermal techniques, and AI and machine vision for quality assessment and grading. These are discussed in detail in Section 4 of this review.
Table 1.
Tabulated explanation of date fruit maturity stages.
| Stage | Key Features | Biochemical Changes | Quality & Safety Considerations | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kimri | Small, hard, green; high moisture; astringent | Low sugar, high fiber, high phenolics and antioxidant activity | High microbial count; aflatoxigenic Aspergillus may be present, but aflatoxins rarely detected at this stage | [8,9] |
| Khalal | Full size, yellow/red, crunchy, less astringent | Rapid sugar accumulation (mainly sucrose), decrease in fiber and phenolics, peak vitamin C and antioxidant activity | Highly perishable due to high moisture and sugar; rapid ripening and spoilage risk | [10,11,12] |
| Rutab | Full size, softening, partial browning, sweet, moist | Sucrose converts to glucose/fructose, further decrease in fiber, phenolics, and antioxidants | Lactic acid bacteria may appear; spoilage risk remains high | [8,9,11] |
| Tamar | Fully ripe, brown/black, dry, wrinkled | Maximum sugar (glucose/fructose), lowest fiber, phenolics, and antioxidants | Lowest microbial count; aflatoxins and spoilage organisms rarely detected | [10,11,12] |
Figure 1.
Stages of maturation of date palm fruits (modified from [13]).
Figure 1.
Stages of maturation of date palm fruits (modified from [13]).
Nutritionally, dates are vital in food-insecure areas, offering sugars, fiber, key minerals (potassium, magnesium, iron), and antioxidants [14,15]. Sugar content rises from ~40% in fresh to >80% in dried dates [16], while fiber (6.4–11.5%) and protein (2.3–5.6%), making them nutrient-rich staples. Their shelf stability under proper storage also renders them strategic reserves during food scarcity [17,18].
From a phytochemical viewpoint, dates are rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, and fiber, which has many attributes, including antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects [19,20,21]. These properties support their use in health-focused diets. However, bioactive levels vary with cultivar, maturity, and storage, demanding more research to optimize retention. Phenolic compounds, for example, decline with ripening and poor storage [14,22]. Thus, effective postharvest treatments and shelf-life extension techniques are crucial to preserve functional quality. Innovative preservation strategies such as cold storage, edible coatings, modified atmosphere packaging, vacuum sealing, gamma irradiation, and cold plasma treatment have shown promise in maintaining quality and extending shelf life [10,23,24,25]. For instance, gamma irradiation can preserve antioxidant properties and enhance microbial safety, while gum arabic coatings with cold storage reduce weight loss and preserve texture in soft cultivars like Barhi [26].
Equally critical are expanding date-based products and utilizing byproducts. Beyond fresh and dried forms, innovations like syrups, vinegar, seed oil, press cake, and pomace contribute to health and sustainability by reducing waste. Date seed powder and oil offer functional benefits in bakery, dairy, and meat products due to high fiber and antioxidant content [27,28]. Date syrups and natural sweeteners are also used to support public health sugar reduction goals. To unlock the full potential of these date-based products, several gaps must be addressed. Standardized postharvest protocols for specific cultivars and ripening stages are lacking. Variability in moisture, sugars, and phytochemicals means generic approaches often fail.
Though technologies like drying, irradiation, and coating exist, their scalability and economic feasibility for small-scale producers remain underexplored. Likewise, advanced cutting-edge tools such as machine learning and spectroscopy for real-time quality monitoring require further development. Moreover, environmental and consumer concerns around packaging also demand attention. Plastics dominate due to higher performance and cheaper cost, yet they pose ecological risks. Biodegradable and compostable alternatives offer sustainable options, but trade-offs between preservation and environmental impact must be understood.
This review synthesizes current knowledge on global and regional date palm production trends and their economic significance within food security policies. It further examines the functional and nutritional significance of date palm fruits by detailing their nutrient and bioactive profiles alongside health benefits and phytochemical properties. Postharvest handling methods, shelf-life extension techniques, and quality assessment parameters are comprehensively evaluated. Additionally, the review explores diverse date fruit derivatives, including date flesh, syrup, seeds, press cake, pomace, vinegar, and emerging secondary derivatives and their functional roles in food systems. The overall goal is to provide a holistic framework that enhances quality, utilization, and economic returns across the global date fruit supply chain, bridging traditional knowledge with modern innovation toward sustainable, health-oriented agriculture.
Methodology of Literature Selection
This review ensures comprehensive and up-to-date coverage of peer-reviewed journal articles, reports, and databases published primarily between 2000 and mid-2025. Databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and FAOSTAT were searched using keywords including but not limited to “date palm,” “Phoenix dactylifera,” “postharvest,” “functional foods,” “bioactive compounds,” “health benefits,” and “food security,” and all relevant findings were incorporated. Preference was given to studies with original data, systematic methodologies, and relevance to global or regional production, nutritional value, postharvest technologies, microbial safety, and derivative valorization. Grey literature and non-English sources were excluded.
2. Date Palm Fruits: Strategic Crop for Global Production and Food Security
As climate resilience and nutritional stability become urgent global priorities, the date palm stands out as a vital crop. Its remarkable adaptability to arid environments, increasing global production, and rich nutritional profile play a significant role in agricultural and food security strategies. Global production trends and the crop’s economic and nutritional contributions are two significant aspects that highlight its growing importance.
2.1. Global and Regional Production Trends
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has documented a steady increase in global date palm fruit production over recent decades [29,30]. In 1961, production stood at just 1.8 million metric tons, which rose to 8.53 million metric tons by 2018 [31]. Since 2020, annual output has consistently exceeded 9 million metric tons, with approximately 9.46 million metric tons harvested in 2020 [32] and approximately 9.66 million metric tons in 2023 from an estimated 1.3 million hectares of cultivated land [3], reflecting a ~1.4% annual increase and contributing to an estimated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 2–3%. While data for 2024 and 2025 are still pending official FAO updates, current projections and national reports indicate continued upward trends. This growth is largely driven by expanded cultivation areas, improved irrigation and postharvest techniques, and heightened global demand for functional and climate-resilient crops. While MENA countries remain dominant, accounting for 90% of the world’s date production [2,30,33], and with Egypt ranking first, with 1.80 million metric tons, followed by Saudi Arabia at 1.64 million metric tons and Algeria at 1.32 million metric tons [3,33,34,35], emerging producers such as the United States, South Africa, Namibia, Mauritania, and Kenya have entered the global market, contributing smaller yet rapidly growing shares (Table 2) and underscoring the increasing global relevance of date palm beyond its traditional strongholds. Date fruit has a strong cultural and historical significance to the majority of these countries. Iraq, in particular, is historically significant in date cultivation [2]. Moreover, it is the primary fruit crop in several of these countries. For example, in Oman, dates make up over 80% of the country’s total fruit production, with an annual yield of 394,946 metric tons [3,18].
Furthermore, the higher production yield observed in certain countries with a smaller number of productive trees, such as Egypt, compared to others with larger tree populations, such as Saudi Arabia, may reflect a combination of agronomic and varietal factors. Current evidence suggests that Egypt’s superior productivity per tree and per hectare is largely attributable to cultivar selection (e.g., Zaghloul, Siwi), higher orchard density, efficient irrigation systems, and intensive management practices, particularly in the Nile Delta region [40]. In contrast, Saudi Arabia’s extensive cultivation systems often rely on traditional groves with older trees, wider spacing, and less uniform management, which may contribute to lower average yields per tree despite the country’s high overall tonnage [41]. However, to confirm the underlying drivers of this discrepancy, a controlled comparative study examining varietal performance, tree age, and orchard management across regions would be necessary.
Amid climate change and unstable food supply chains, the date palm offers a resilient, sustainable food option. Its survival in arid zones and rich nutritional profile make it critical for food security. This is especially true in areas where few crops can grow [42]. Countries like Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Oman show strong potential for production growth to meet both domestic and export demands. In Saudi Arabia, an interesting trend has been seen: Despite a reduction in cultivated areas, overall production has increased [3]. This is due to continued improve in farming practices such as using high-yield cultivars, efficient irrigation, and better postharvest handling [3,33]. These advances not only raise yields but also help maintain fruit quality, which is essential for table date markets.
Maintaining table date quality is crucial, as postharvest losses can affect food supply [43]. Research shows that storing dates under low temperatures and controlled humidity helps preserve physical, microbial, and nutritional quality [10]. These practices can extend shelf life, reduce waste, and ensure a steady supply to local and global markets.
2.2. Economic Importance in Food Security Policies
For decades, date palm fruit has gained notable importance in global trade [44]. The expanding reach of date palm cultivation has significant implications for global food security, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where traditional crops often fail [17]. Beyond their cultural value and nutrient-dense and shelf-stable nature, dates are capable of supporting populations during periods of scarcity, economic instability, or climate-related shocks [18]. As global production diversifies, with new contributors joining established producers, dates are increasingly viewed as a strategic reserve in the effort to combat food insecurity [39]. Moreover, their richness in nutritional and bioactive compounds makes them a cost-effective and impactful food source, especially for communities facing malnutrition or seasonal food shortages. Exports also play a major role in supporting economies in arid regions, where harsh climates restrict the cultivation of other crops [42]. For instance, Saudi Arabia’s date exports surged from 579,000 metric tons in 2016 to a record of over 1.4 million metric tons in 2024, backed by over 31 million palm trees and more than 137 specialized factories supporting national employment and agro-industrial growth. The country achieved a date self-sufficiency rate of 124%, producing over 1.6 million metric tons annually, with diversified value chains contributing significantly to rural livelihoods and non-oil exports [45]. Similarly, Egypt now accounts for approximately 16.6% of global date production, equivalent to 1.8 million metric tons annually, with exports reaching 42 countries across Africa and Asia. Strategic investments, including the planting of 2.5 million new palms, and enhanced trade diplomacy have positioned Egypt as a major player in the global date economy, bolstering employment in agriculture and agro-processing [46]. In Algeria, quantitative trade analysis between 2000 and 2018 shows a rising trend in export potential, with the Deglet Nour variety at the center of trade. However, challenges like high logistics costs and weak trade infrastructure persist. Recent policy recommendations underscore the importance of regional integration through the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA), infrastructure investment, and quality certification programs to expand exports and enhance competitiveness, with potential ripple effects in employment generation and rural economic development [47].
Therefore, strategic cultivation and preservation of date palms are central to strengthening food security. By adopting modern agricultural techniques and prioritizing quality maintenance, both traditional and emerging date-producing countries can help build a more resilient and nutritious global food system. Additionally, ensuring and improving the quality of table dates is not just an economic concern, it is also a key strategy for food security. However, in some countries, such as Sudan and Yemen, where production is increasing but infrastructure remains underdeveloped, high postharvest losses [3], commonly caused by microbial spoilage [5], insect infestation, and inadequate storage conditions [48], severely limit the potential of dates to serve as emergency or supplemental food reserves. These losses are particularly significant, and reducing such losses and maintaining quality through proper harvesting, minimal processing, modified atmosphere packaging, and reliable cold chain logistics is essential [49]. Nonetheless, a comprehensive economic analysis comparing the export value, employment contribution, and value-added processing across date-producing countries remains lacking. Future work should integrate trade, labor, and agro-industrial data to capture the full socio-economic impact on the economy of this strategic fruit crop.
3. Functional and Nutritional Significance of Date Palm Fruits
Date palm fruits are not only a traditional dietary staple food but also a powerful resource for advancing nutritional security and health promotion. Their rich macronutrient and micronutrient composition, coupled with an abundance of bioactive compounds, makes them a compelling candidate for functional food applications. The following two sections examine the compositional attributes and health-promoting properties of date fruits across different cultivars and maturity stages.
3.1. Nutrient and Bioactive Profile of Date Palm Fruits
The role of date fruit in ensuring nutritional security is significant [3]. While over 2000 cultivars of date palm exist globally, their core nutritional composition remains relatively consistent across major varieties, especially in terms of carbohydrates, fiber, potassium, and polyphenolic compounds. Although subtle differences have been reported, often attributed to varietal, environmental, or maturity stage factors, these generally fall within a narrow range [50,51]. Date palm fruits are particularly high in carbohydrates, primarily simple sugars. In fresh dates, sugars account for about 40%, increasing to around 80% in dried dates. These sugars are mostly glucose and fructose, present in nearly equal amounts [16]. In addition to their sugar content, dates are a valuable source of essential nutrients. They contain dietary fiber ranging from approximately 6.4% to 11.5%, protein content of between 2.3% and 5.6%, and a wide array of minerals (from 0.10 to 916 mg per 100 g dry weight), along with vitamins C, B1, B2, and B3 [14,15]. Dates are also rich in bioactive compounds. High levels of total phenolics and flavonoids are present at the early stages of ripening but decrease as the fruit matures [14,15,16]. Changes in color, texture, nutritional value, and overall quality also occur during ripening [22,52]. The water content of dates varies significantly by variety and ripening stage. It can be as low as 7% in dried dates and as high as 79% in fresh ones [22,53,54]. The high moisture content at harvest makes fresh dates susceptible to microbial spoilage. Therefore, proper handling and preservation are essential to maintaining fruit quality during storage and global transportation. Given this stability and the scope of the present review, emphasis has been placed on the bioactivities and health-promoting potential of date fruit as a category.
3.2. Health Benefits, Bioactivities, and Phytochemicals Properties of Date Palm Fruits
Date palm fruits are endowed with diverse bioactive compounds, notably polyphenols, flavonoids, and dietary fiber, which underpin many of their recognized health benefits. These bioactivities, along with substantial inter-cultivar variation in morphological, nutritional, and functional attributes, contribute to the fruit’s therapeutic value and commercial versatility [21,55,56,57]. These fruits possess therapeutic compounds with demonstrated anticancer [58], antioxidant [19,20,23,59,60], anti-inflammatory [19,61], antimutagenic [62], antidiabetic [21], and antianemic [2,21] activities. A comparative evaluation of the phytochemical composition and bioactivities of date fruits across different cultivars and maturity stages has been provided in this review. Findings compiled from various studies highlight consistent trends, occasional contradictions, and notable research gaps, summarized in Table 3. A recurrent observation across the literature is the strong influence of cultivar and ripening stage on total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant capacity. El-Beltagi et al. [20] reported that the Khalal stage of Dhakki dates contained significantly higher TPC (31.42 mg GAE/100 g) and TFC (45.82 mg/100 g) than later stages. Similar patterns were found by Rahman & Al-Farsi [63] and Biglari et al. [51], suggesting that earlier ripening stages preserve higher bioactivity levels due to reduced enzymatic degradation and oxidative polymerization. Contrastingly, Zein et al. [62] analyzed fully ripened Barhi dates (Tamr stage) and still reported substantial phytochemical content, including 630.78 µg/g gallic acid and notable biological activity. This suggests that some cultivars may retain or even enhance specific phenolics during ripening through metabolic adaptations, highlighting the need for detailed, cultivar-specific metabolomic studies. There is broad consensus regarding the antioxidant potential of date phenolics, especially those rich in gallic acid, catechin, and protocatechuic acid. Abdeen et al. [19] and Abdelhafez et al. [64] found that aqueous and methanolic extracts of dates significantly reduced oxidative stress markers such as malondialdehyde (MDA) and boosted antioxidant enzymes such as CAT, GPx, and SOD in rats exposed to toxic agents like carbon tetrachloride and gentamicin. However, Abdelhafez et al. [64] noted that the date extracts were ineffective against fipronil-induced toxicity, suggesting that the protective scope of date phenolics may be compound-specific. This underscores the need for mechanistic toxicology research to explore polyphenol–toxin interactions. Interestingly, Abdeen et al. [19] also reported strong antioxidant activity in the Khodry cultivar, despite its relatively low TPC (1.93 mg GAE/g). This discrepancy suggests that antioxidant effects may not always correlate directly with TPC and that minor phenolics or other compounds, such as flavones or fatty acids, may act synergistically. Similar conclusions were drawn by Djaoudene et al. [65] and Abdelhafez et al. [64], emphasizing the importance of considering matrix effects and bioactive diversity rather than relying solely on compound quantification. Advanced analytical approaches are also emerging. Alqahtani, Ali et al. [10] used HPLC-UV combined with XGBoost machine learning to predict antioxidant and enzyme-inhibitory activity based on phenolic profiles. Their work identified distinct phenolic fingerprints in Maghool and Ajwah cultivars that correlated with α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibition, indicating their antidiabetic potential. This transition from descriptive phytochemistry to predictive modeling may enable more targeted cultivar selection for functional food development. Zein et al. [62] explored anticancer potential, showing that Barhi date extracts influenced key apoptosis-related signaling pathways (PERK-eIF2α and AKT/PTEN) in hepatocarcinogenesis models. Kamal et al. [21] found that polyphenol-rich date extracts, despite high sugar content, improved body weight and reduced blood glucose in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. These findings support earlier conclusions by Miller et al. [66], which challenged the belief that dates worsen glycemic control, suggesting instead that moderate consumption may help manage blood glucose and lipid profiles in diabetic patients. In an in vitro digestion model, Kamal et al. [21] demonstrated that phenolic compounds from four date varieties (Safawi, Khalas, Khudri, and Booman) were gradually released during gastric and intestinal phases. Major compounds included 1,2-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, and catechin, all known for antioxidant and anti-metabolic disorder activities. Their release patterns varied with cultivar and digestion conditions, revealing their potential bioaccessibility. Al-Sheddi et al. [67] further demonstrated that date fruit extract significantly protected HepG2 liver cells from ethanol-induced toxicity. Treatment increased cell viability, reduced LDH leakage, inhibited caspase-3 activity, and restored antioxidant defenses in a dose-dependent manner. Ubah et al. [68] also reported that date extracts improved sperm motility and reduced abnormal sperm morphology in rats exposed to cypermethrin. Additionally, Nasiri et al. [69] confirmed that consuming dates during pregnancy and postpartum improved labor outcomes, including reduced gestation duration, greater cervical dilation, and shorter first and second labor stages.
Together, these studies suggest potential roles for date fruits in nutritional epigenetics and signaling modulation via dietary polyphenols. However, despite compelling in vitro and animal data, critical knowledge gaps remain. The bioaccessibility, metabolic fate, and clinical efficacy of these compounds in humans are still poorly understood. Few studies have assessed long-term toxicity, dose–response relationships, or chronic exposure. Furthermore, research tends to focus on a limited range of cultivars (e.g., Ajwah, Barhi, Khalas), overlooking underutilized varieties and by-products like date pits, which may serve as rich sources of polyphenols.
To fully harness the functional potential of dates, future research should move beyond compositional analysis toward standardized profiling, fractionation, mechanistic validation, and delivery system innovation. Simulated digestion models and encapsulation strategies could improve compound stability and bioavailability. Toxicological assessments (e.g., LD50, chronic models) and well-designed human intervention trials are essential to validate health claims and determine optimal intake levels. Broader exploration of wild or low-value varieties and their derivatives could also uncover untapped nutraceutical potential. Advancing in these directions will allow the full integration of date fruit into modern preventive nutrition strategies and functional food applications.
4. Postharvest Technologies and Quality Preservation Strategies for Date Fruits
Postharvest challenges in date palm vary significantly depending on cultivar type, maturity stage at harvest, and prevailing climatic conditions. Substantial postharvest losses due to quality deterioration during storage and transport remain a critical challenge in the date palm fruit industry [78]. In many producing regions, inadequate storage, microbial contamination, and poor packaging lead to significant losses [79]. These issues impact marketability, nutritional quality, and global competitiveness. Additionally, inefficiencies across the supply chain, from harvesting to marketing, further reduce returns for growers and processors [80]. Thus, effective preservation methods (Table 4) are vital to maintaining fruit quality and ensuring dates remain a sustainable, nutritious food source globally. Treatments like sanitizing washes and moisture removal prior to packing are among the important early steps known to extend shelf life by reducing the initial microbial load [16,81]. Furthermore, microbial load dynamics also vary across the ripening stages: Counts are generally found to be highest between the Kimri and Rutab phases but decline significantly at the Tamar stage, contributing to enhanced microbial stability and extended shelf life [8,9]. For instance, Khalal-stage fruits such as Barhi and Zahidi, which are harvested while still crunchy and high in moisture, are particularly susceptible to microbial spoilage, enzymatic browning, and textural breakdown, especially in humid climates like southern Iraq or Oman [10]. In contrast, semi-dried varieties such as Deglet Nour or Ajwa, typically harvested at the Tamar stage, demonstrate better storage stability due to lower water activity but are still prone to quality losses from insect infestation and oxidative rancidity under high temperatures common in arid regions like Algeria and Saudi Arabia [10,82]. Additionally, cultivars such as Medjool are known for their high sugar content, which predisposes them to stickiness and collapse under poor packaging or high humidity. These variety-specific and environment-sensitive vulnerabilities demand tailored postharvest interventions, including modified atmosphere packaging, cold chain infrastructure, and moisture-controlled storage to preserve quality, minimize losses, and meet export standards [82,83].
Given these physiological and biochemical transitions, accurate identification of ripeness stage is essential for optimizing harvest timing, storage, and quality retention. In recent years, innovations such as edible coatings, efficient drying techniques, advanced smart packaging, deep learning, and computer vision technologies have been increasingly adopted to automate the classification of date maturity stages with high accuracy, facilitating precision harvest and improving postharvest management in both research and industrial settings [10,84,85,86,87,88,89]. Several recent studies have demonstrated the potential of these technologies in enhancing harvest precision and postharvest quality control in date palm fruits.
This review synthesizes key postharvest interventions explored in recent studies, as outlined in Table 4. These strategies demonstrate considerable potential in extending shelf life and enhancing marketability, especially under resource-limited conditions. For instance, Altaheri et al. [86] developed a convolutional neural network (CNN)-based model capable of classifying date fruits across the four maturity stages (Kimri, Khalal, Rutab, and Tamar) using RGB imagery, enabling automated ripeness detection for harvest optimization. Abuowda et al. [89] employed a vision-based model incorporating YOLOv4 and CNN classifiers to monitor ripening progression in bulk-stored dates, supporting real-time decision-making during storage. Similarly, Faisal et al. [87] integrated hyperspectral imaging with deep learning algorithms to non-destructively assess maturity and surface defects, enhancing grading accuracy and reducing postharvest losses. More recently, Yousaf et al. [88] introduced a CNN system trained on image time series to predict early fungal spoilage trends during storage, offering a proactive approach to microbial quality control. These advances underscore the growing role of artificial intelligence in refining harvest timing, improving postharvest outcomes, and enhancing overall supply chain efficiency in date production systems.
From the active coating dimension, Alkaabi et al. [90] reported that aloe vera gel coatings with up to 3% lemongrass oil preserved texture and inhibited fungal growth in Khalas dates stored at room temperature for four weeks. Belili et al. [57] found that thyme oil-based coatings helped Deglet Nour dates retain flavonoids (119,313 µg/mL), retain 35.1% moisture, and reduce browning over six months, though bacterial growth was higher in cold than room storage. Alqahtani, Alkhamis, Alnemr et al. [49] applied 2.5–10% gum arabic coatings to Barhi dates under vacuum and ambient storage. Vacuum sealing at 4 °C with 5–10% coating best maintained physical quality and reduced spoilage. Their use of artificial neural networks (ANNs) to predict quality indicators marks a shift toward AI-driven postharvest monitoring. In another example, Noutfia et al. [91] compared convective and infrared drying of Mejhoul and Boufeggous dates. Convective drying lowered water activity and increased total soluble solids (TSSs), while Mejhoul retained more polyphenols. Infrared drying notably altered sugar profiles in Boufeggous. Ikram et al. [92] employed a custom bin-type solar dryer for Dhakki dates, halving drying time and achieving 19.4% thermal efficiency—a practical innovation, especially for small-scale producers. Alamer et al. [93] evaluated gum arabic–chitosan–PVA films enriched with hibiscus carbon dots on Barhi dates. Stored at 4 °C for 30 days, the films minimized weight loss and preserved firmness and acidity.
Alvi et al. [71] used microwave pretreatment (30–80 W, 30–50 s) on Khupra dates, improving TSS (60.3 °Brix), antioxidant activity (78%), and texture (724 g-force), with higher consumer preference over sun drying. AlYammahi et al. [94] applied supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) to sun-dried Sukkari dates using CO2 and ethanol/water co-solvents, yielding more sugars (70.45 g/100 g) and organic acids than conventional methods. Though costly, SFE offers a clean, scalable process that protects heat-sensitive compounds. Kaur et al. [74] applied hot water immersion (HWI) at 95 °C for up to 30 s before drying Khadrawi, Jihadi, Hillawi, and Mansi dates. The treatment enhanced the ripening index and improved sugars, dietary fiber (10.00–12.59%), protein (3.08–3.87%), potassium (703.85–860.93 mg/100 g), and iron (4.0–5.85 mg/100 g), transforming perishable Khalal-stage date fruit into a stable Tamar (ripened) form. El-Beltagi et al. [20] evaluated Dhakki dates stored at 2 °C, 12 °C, and 28 °C (67–70% RH), identifying 12 °C as optimal for retaining pH, ascorbic acid, and non-reducing sugars, especially at the Khalal stage.
Table 4.
Summary of the Postharvest Treatments and their Effects on Date Palm fruits’ Quality.
| Cultivar(s) | Maturity Stage | Conditions | Technique | Quality Info | Major Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Khalas | Tamer | Stored at room temp for 4 weeks | Aloe vera gel-based edible coatings LABMA | Maintained fruit texture and moisture |
| [90] |
| Deglet Nour | Rutab | Stored at 4 °C and room temp for 6 months | Vacuum packaging and thyme EO-based film coating LABMA | Preserved moisture (35.1%), reduced browning, maintained flavonoids |
| [57] |
| Mejhoul and Boufeggous | Tamer | Convective (60 °C/240 min) and infrared drying (50 Hz/150 min) | Convective (COVD) and infrared drying (INFD) LABMA | Reduced water activity, increased TSS, altered pH/acidity |
| [91] |
| Dhakki | Not specified | Solar drying (0–99 °C, RH up to 99%) using new and traditional dryers | Bin solar dryer (BSD), tray dryer (CSD), open sun (OSD) LABMA | Acceptable aerobic counts; targeted moisture content achieved |
| [92] |
| Barhi | Khalal | Cold storage at 4 °C for 30 days | Novel composite films (gum arabic + chitosan + PVA + hibiscus carbon dots) LABMA | Maintained firmness and reduced weight loss |
| [93] |
| Khupra | Khalal | RH 50%, 50 °C after microwave treatment | Microwave pretreatment (30–80 W, 30–50 s) LABMA | High TSS (60.3 °Brix), antioxidant capacity (78%) |
| [71] |
| Sukkari | Not specified | Sun-dried 2–3 days then ground | Supercritical fluid extraction (CO2 + ethanol/water) LABMA | High total sugar (70.45 g/100 g); high sucrose |
| [94] |
| Khadrawi, Jihadi, Hillawi, Mansi | Khalal | Hot water immersion (95 °C, 0–3 min) + drying at 48 °C for 48 h | Hot water immersion (HWI) + drying LABMA | Improved color and ripening index; higher sugars, fiber (10.00–12.59%), protein (3.08–3.87%), potassium (703.85–860.93 mg/100 g), and iron (4.0–5.85 mg/100 g) | 30 s HWI treatment improved immature date quality and bioactivities, and transformed perishable Khalal into storable Tamar. | [74] |
| Barhi | Khalal | Gum arabic coating (2.5–10%) + vacuum/carton/basket packaging at 4 °C & 24 °C | Edible coating + packaging + ANN modeling LABMA | Preserved weight, volume, density, and hardness; reduced weight loss and decay, especially at 4 °C with 5–10% GA and vacuum packaging | 10% gum arabic coating and vacuum packaging at 4 °C optimally preserved Barhi quality; ANN model predicted quality accurately | [49] |
| Dhakki | Khalal, Rutab, Tamar | Cold storage (2 °C, 12 °C, 28 °C) up to 45 days at 67–70% RH | Incubation (cold storage) LABMA | Khalal stage showed best moisture, pH, ascorbic acid, titratable acidity, and non-reducing sugar; 12 °C optimal for most properties | Khalal stage and storage at 12 °C for up to 45 days maintained superior quality in Dhakki variety | [20] |
Study type(s): LABMA = laboratory biochemical and microbiological analysis.
These findings emphasize the importance of temperature control and cultivar-specific strategies in preserving date quality. Cold storage at 4–12 °C consistently reduced spoilage [20,95]. While the Khalal stage remains highly perishable, Kaur et al. [74] suggest converting it to Tamar for improved stability, contrasting with El-Beltagi et al.’s focus on maintaining Khalal freshness. These contrasting approaches reflect how postharvest decisions vary with market objectives and consumer expectations.
Nonetheless, several gaps remain. Microbial safety in high-moisture or coated dates is underexplored. Cost–benefit analyses of new treatments are lacking, limiting commercial uptake. Moreover, few studies include sensory evaluations to gauge consumer acceptance. There is also limited comparative research across ripening stages, with Rutab and Tamar often excluded from standardized protocols. Future research should incorporate microbial safety (e.g., bacterial challenge tests), economic feasibility, and sensory assessments. Broader studies across all maturity stages and lesser-used cultivars are needed to deepen understanding of postharvest quality management in date fruits.
4.1. Impact of Processing Techniques on Date Fruit Quality and Integrity
Postharvest processing plays a crucial role in enhancing the commercial value, safety, and shelf life of date fruits [10,13,96,97,98,99,100,101]. Techniques such as drying, gamma irradiation, and cold plasma have been widely studied for their effects on functional, sensory, and nutritional parameters across cultivars and maturity stages [23,48,102,103,104,105].
4.1.1. Sugar Composition and Post-Processing Shifts
Drying and irradiation significantly alter sugar composition, affecting sweetness and storage stability [105]. Convective hot-air drying at 60 °C in Mejhoul and Boufeggous dates raised total soluble solids (TSSs) via sucrose inversion and moisture reduction, with stronger effects than infrared drying. Infrared had minimal sugar impact in Mejhoul but reduced sugars in Boufeggous, highlighting cultivar-dependent heat sensitivity [91]. In Dhakki dates, hybrid solar drying maintained ~31.5% total sugars, slightly surpassing open-sun methods in preserving sweetness and reducing enzymatic breakdown [92]. However, high-temperature hot-air drying can induce Maillard reactions and non-enzymatic browning, potentially degrading sugars and altering flavor. Gamma irradiation at 5 kGy raised reducing sugars while lowering sucrose in Sakouti and Bondoky, indicating hydrolysis to simpler sugars [24]. In Piarom, Zahedi, and Deiri cultivars, irradiation stabilized sugar levels during storage, likely by slowing enzymatic degradation [23,106,107]. Still, detailed studies on sugar transitions (e.g., glucose/fructose ratios) remain limited and warrant further investigation.
4.1.2. Textural Impacts of Thermal and Non-Thermal Processing
Texture is highly influenced by processing method. Convective drying produced firmer, chewier textures with crust formation, which is desirable for snacks, while infrared drying yielded dense, compact fruits with less pliability [108]. Open-sun drying led to uneven textures due to inconsistent moisture removal [105], whereas bin solar dryers achieved better textural uniformity through improved airflow and temperature control [109]. Hot-air drying often hardens fruit and collapses cell walls, particularly above 60 °C, while freeze-drying or low-temperature treatments better preserve mouthfeel. Gamma irradiation preserved the texture of Piarom dates, likely by stabilizing oxidative enzymes such as peroxidase [23]. Nonetheless, standardized texture profile analyses (TPAs) comparing all methods are still lacking and needed for industrial benchmarks.
4.1.3. Polyphenol Preservation and Color Stability
Date polyphenols, flavonoids, and tannins are heat-sensitive bioactives [98,110,111,112,113]. Gamma irradiation preserved total phenolic content (TPC) in Piarom, Sakouti, and Bondoky dates [23]. Convective drying enhanced TPC and flavonoids in Boufeggous and Mejhoul, likely due to concentration and increased extractability [114]. Although infrared drying yielded lower TPC, it retained more than expected under high intensity [91]. Bin solar drying moderately preserved vitamin C and polyphenols [92], whereas hot-air drying often degraded bioactives due to oxidative stress. The visual appeal driven by color and gloss is also processing-dependent. Hot-air and sun drying can cause browning and pigment loss, particularly in light-skinned varieties. Infrared-dried dates showed rich hues and gloss from surface sugar crystallization [115], while convective drying led to darker, matte finishes [91]. Bin solar dryers improved color uniformity due to controlled drying conditions [116]. However, objective color analysis using chromameters or computer vision tools is scarce, limiting visual quality standardization.
4.1.4. Sensory Acceptance and Nutritional Outcomes
Sensory attributes, including flavor, texture, sweetness, and appearance, greatly influence consumer acceptance. Gamma-irradiated Piarom dates at 5 kGy received favorable sensory ratings and retained antioxidant properties [23]. Convective-dried Boufeggous and Mejhoul were preferred for their balanced texture and taste [91], while infrared methods ranked highest in appearance but scored lower in mouthfeel [115]. Dhakki dates dried in bin solar dryers scored higher in taste and acidity and retained more vitamin C than sun-dried counterparts [56]. Moderate drying temperatures better preserved bioactives and color compared to uncontrolled high heat [117,118]. Yet, sensory evaluations across consumer demographics remain limited. Likewise, data on post-processing nutritional indices (e.g., fiber, vitamins, glycemic index) are scarce, restricting the accuracy of health claims and labeling.
Mechanical damage during harvesting, sorting, and packing significantly impacts microbial vulnerability and nutritional loss [119]. Several studies have investigated the quality of fresh and dried dates [49,92,120,121,122], while only a few studies examine the effects of physical injury on drying efficacy or bioactive stability. Moreover, while direct, peer-reviewed comparisons between manual and automated grading systems for date palm remain limited, some notable studies have explored machine vision-based approaches for quality assessment. Al-Janobi [123] developed an integrated belt-fed machine vision system that used neural networks to classify dates into commercial grades, achieving an effective throughput of 108 kg/h. More recently, Noutfia et al. [124] applied non-destructive image-based analysis to classify the external quality of Mejhoul and Boufeggous cultivars under long-term frozen storage. Their models, built using logistic classifiers and features extracted via MATLAB R2024a and Q-MAZDA 23.10 and WEKA 3.9 softwares, achieved classification accuracies exceeding 97% with flatbed scanner input. Additionally, Muhammad et al. [122] employed a Computer Vision System (CVS) to quantify shrinkage and assess quality changes in Biser stage dates during mechanical hot-air drying, demonstrating the role of CVS in capturing real-time morphological degradation and optimizing drying parameters. These findings suggest that while automated tools for grading and quality monitoring in date fruits are technically feasible, comprehensive, field-validated studies directly comparing them with traditional hand-sorting methods remain lacking. Bridging this gap would support scalable adoption, especially in regions with labor constraints or export-driven quality demands such as in date-producing countries. Future work should also consider mapping the sugar pathway across processing stages and head-to-head comparisons of TPC, antioxidant activity, and nutrient retention across technologies.
4.2. Role of Cold Chain and Packaging Conditions in Storage Efficiency
Storage environments significantly influence the postharvest quality, nutritional value, and marketability of date palm fruits. A wealth of research highlights how factors such as temperature, relative humidity (RH), and packaging approaches affect preservation across maturity stages. Cold storage, especially at 0 to 4 °C, is consistently recognized as the most effective method for slowing ripening, suppressing microbial growth, and retaining key physicochemical attributes [125,126,127]. For example, Barhi dates stored at 0–1 °C and 85–95% RH retained flavor and texture for 6–8 weeks by reducing respiration and moisture loss [10]. Likewise, Dhakki dates stored at 12 °C and 67–70% RH maintained acidity, moisture, and ascorbic acid better than other temperature settings [20], illustrating the cultivar-specific nature of optimal storage.
Kaur et al. [74] further demonstrated that hot water immersion (HWI) followed by drying transformed fragile Khalal-stage cultivars into Tamar forms with enhanced shelf stability and bioactive retention. Such strategies, when combined with cold storage, extend the usability of perishable varieties. Packaging innovations also significantly affect quality retention. For instance, vacuum-packed Barhi dates coated with 5–10% gum arabic and stored at 4 °C showed minimized decay and reduced weight loss [95]. Similarly, Ghafoor et al. [128] demonstrated that coatings based on lactic acid and guava leaf extracts preserved texture, color, and microbial safety in cold-stored Khalal and Barhi dates. Packaging material permeability plays a key role in phenolic and tannin preservation. Non-perforated films stored at 5 °C for 45 days better retained these compounds than perforated alternatives [129].
While these recent innovations in cold chain logistics and sustainable packaging show clear potential in improving the shelf life and quality of date palm fruits, comprehensive economic feasibility studies remain limited. Cost–benefit analyses, particularly those tailored to different production scales, climate regions, and packaging formats, are essential to assessing affordability and scalability in both traditional and emerging markets. Also, research remains narrow, with limited focus on non-commercial, smallholder operations or underutilized cultivars. There is also a lack of long-term microbial, biochemical, and sensory monitoring. More holistic investigations are needed, including multi-cultivar comparisons across maturity stages, integration of cold storage with biopreservatives, and cost–benefit analyses of combined approaches. This represents an important research gap that future interdisciplinary studies, particularly those involving agricultural economists, should aim to address. Additionally, future emphasis should be placed on low-cost, sustainable systems that combine temperature control with natural coatings and smart packaging technologies.
4.3. Microbial Contamination and Integrated Preservation Approaches
Microbial contamination critically affects the shelf life, safety, and export potential of date fruits. Spoilage organisms such as yeasts, molds, lactic acid bacteria, Staphylococcus spp., E. coli, Salmonella spp., and Aspergillus spp. are influenced by varietal traits, maturity stage, handling practices, and postharvest interventions [130]. Contamination is more prevalent in regions practicing open-air drying or using non-optimized packaging (e.g., Morocco, Algeria, Egypt). However, much of the current evidence remains fragmented, with few systematic studies mapping these risks across varietal, ecological, and technological variables. Table 5 summarizes the reported microbial infections affecting date palm fruits, along with the corresponding preservation techniques discussed in detail within this section. For example, Jdaini et al. [114] reported Total Viable Counts (TVCs) as high as 4.2 log CFU/g in Moroccan dates due to suboptimal sanitation and packaging, while fungal loads exceeding 109 CFU/g in Iranian cultivars highlight persistent gaps in preventive handling [23].
Thermal and non-thermal decontamination methods have been widely assessed. Gamma irradiation (5–25 kGy) consistently reduced microbial loads; in Piarom dates, 5 kGy irradiation notably reduced fungi [23], while in syrup, it eliminated mesophilic bacteria with minimal chemical degradation [131]. Combined with cold storage, irradiation enhanced safety in Medjool dates [42]. Cold plasma and dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) systems have shown >4-log microbial reductions in Barhi dates and model trials [132], offering clean-label, chemical-free alternatives.
Advanced drying methods also contributed to microbial safety. Closed solar drying (CSD) outperformed open sun drying in reducing microbial load in Siwi dates [133]. Microwave-assisted drying brought microbial counts below 1 log CFU/g in Khupra and Khidrawi varieties [56,71].
Edible coatings are another effective solution. Chitosan and citrus oil coatings inhibited 90% of Aspergillus flavus in Deglet Nour at the Rutab stage [134], while gum arabic coatings with cold storage limited fungal counts to <2 CFU/g [49].
Controlled atmospheres, including vacuum and CO2-enriched storage, suppressed microbial growth. CO2 delayed Gram-negative bacterial growth in Egyptian varieties [135], while vacuum packaging reduced yeast activity in Boushuhami clones [59]. Fungal pathogens were best controlled using irradiation and plasma methods, while surface-level bacteria responded well to coatings and heat-based treatments. Additionally, supercritical CO2 extraction, applied in Sukkari powder, offered dual benefits: pathogen reduction and bioactive retention.
Yet, major knowledge gaps persist. Many interventions are deployed uniformly across varieties, ignoring critical differences in sugar content, water activity, skin permeability, and phenolic profiles. Moreover, no global consensus exists on acceptable microbial thresholds for table or processed dates, complicating trade, particularly for emerging exporters. Additionally, combined preservation strategies such as coating + Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP), or irradiation + refrigeration, remain underexplored despite their synergistic potential. Moreover, market resistance to technologies like irradiation and plasma remains a barrier. Consumer education and regulatory alignment are needed to increase acceptance. Again, methodologically, most studies rely on classical culture-based assays, which overlook viable but non-culturable (VBNC) organisms and fail to capture complex microbial consortia. Metagenomics and real-time biosensor tools are urgently needed to provide higher-resolution monitoring. Meanwhile, aflatoxin risk, despite recurrent fungal reports, remains understudied, particularly in relation to temperature and humidity fluctuations during storage. AI-driven spoilage prediction tools could transform microbial monitoring. Also, research on mycotoxins, particularly aflatoxins, remains limited, despite frequent fungal reports. Consumer acceptance and regulatory barriers continue to limit the adoption of advanced microbial mitigation technologies. Despite being effective, irradiation and plasma face persistent misconceptions and legislative inertia in some markets. A concerted research–policy–industry nexus is needed to build trust, validate efficacy, and ensure scalable implementation. Future studies should consider addressing all these limitations.
Table 5.
Summary of microbial infections and preservation techniques for date palm fruits.
| Date Palm Variety | Maturity Stage | Microbial Infectant(s) | Affected Country | Assessment Technique | Decontamination Technique | Microbial Load | Major Findings | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Several varieties (11 total) | Not specified | Staphylococcus, Bacillus, LAB, yeasts, molds | Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia | Total viable count (TVC) | Not specified | TVC: 2.6–4.2 log CFU/g; yeasts 2.99 log CFU/g | High loads linked to poor hygiene and handling. Drying, sorting, and packaging are crucial. | [114] |
| Piarom, Zahedi, Deiri | Tamer | Fungi (total plate) | Iran | Fungal plate count | Gamma irradiation | 1.7–2.6 × 109 CFU/g, significantly reduced at 5 kGy | 5 kGy dose effective in fungal decontamination; storage- and cultivar-dependent. | [23] |
| Barhi | Khalal, Tamer | Mold, yeasts, total microbes | Iran | Count of mold, yeast, organisms | Cold plasma (120 s) | Mold: decreased from ~770 reduced to 50 CFU/g; yeasts ~470 to 55; total ~1995 to 116 | Cold plasma significantly reduced microbial load-crucial for spoilage control. | [132] |
| Siwi | Not specified | Coliforms, E. coli, Salmonella, fungi | Egypt | TBC and TFC | Open/closed solar drying | OSD: TBC 3.26–4.86, TFC 3.20–4.46; CSD: TBC 1.84–3.21, TFC 2.04–2.51 (log CFU/g) | Closed solar drying reduced microbial growth better than open sun. | [133] |
| Khazri | Not specified | Aspergillus niger | Saudi Arabia | SDBD + fungal culture | Non-thermal plasma (SDBD, 3 min) | A. niger reduced by ~4 log | SDBD effectively decontaminates dates from fungi, low-cost and eco-friendly. | [136] |
| Not specified | Not specified | Mesophilic bacteria, yeasts, molds | (Model study) | Mesophilic counts | Pulsed electric field | Bacteria from 1.18 × 104 to <10 CFU/g; yeasts/molds <10 CFU/g | PEF effectively eliminates spoilage microbes while preserving quality. | [136] |
| Sakkoty | Storage 4 mo | Total microbes | Saudi Arabia | Microbial enumeration | Gamma irradiation | Reduced water loss, flavonoid retention, lower microbial counts | Gamma improves quality and microbial safety during storage. | [23] |
| Not specified | Not specified | P. interpunctella larvae | Middle East | Insect mortality | Gamma irradiation (25–100 Krad) | 100% larval mortality at 50 Krad | Irradiation can also address infestation alongside microbes. | [24] |
| Zaghloul, Samany | Not specified | Gram-negative bacteria | Egypt | Microbial count | CO2 atmosphere | Suppression of bacterial growth | Controlled atmospheres can decrease bacteria in dates. | [135] |
| Various cultivars | Not specified | Mesophilic, yeasts, molds | Tunisia | Plate counting | Hot water immersion | ≥2 log reduction in microbes | Hot water dipping reduces surface microbial contamination. | [99] |
| Medjool | Tamar | E. coli, Salmonella | USA | TBC, TFC | Irradiation + cold storage | Pathogens eliminated | Gamma plus cold storage boosts safety in exports. | [42] |
| Khalal Barhi | Early harvest | Pen/Aspergillus | Saudi Arabia | Microbial enumeration | Edible coatings + cold storage | Fungal load < 2 CFU/g | Coating + cold storage effectively controls mold. | [49] |
| Deglet Nour rutab | Rutab | Aspergillus flavus | Tunisia | A. flavus plates | Chitosan + citrus EO coatings | 87–90% germination inhibition | Essential-oil coatings reduce toxigenic fungi. | [134] |
| Sukkari powder | Powder | Total microbial | Yemen | TVC count | Supercritical-CO2 extraction | Microbes undetectable | SFE ensures microbial safety in powder powders. | [94] |
| Thamar Khalal | Drying | Yeasts/molds | Iraq | TBC/TFC | Solar drying + fumigation | Yeasts < 2 log CFU/g; molds < 1 log | Traditional drying + fumigation can control microbes. | [76] |
| Khidrawi, Jihadi | Khalal | Total bacteria | Saudi Arabia | Microbial plating | Microwave + drying | Bacteria < 1 log CFU/g | Microwave drying offers hygienic drying alternative. | [56] |
| Khupra khalal | Khalal | Yeasts/molds | Pakistan | Microbial counts | Microwave pretreatment | Yeasts 2 log, molds < 1 log | Microwave pretreatment reduces spoilage organisms. | [71] |
| Boushuhami clone | Tamer | Yeasts | Morocco | Microbial counts | Vacuum packaging | Yeasts < 1 log CFU/g | VP limited yeast growth, packaging is crucial. | [59] |
4.4. Advances in Packaging Systems for Date Palm Fruits
Packaging serves as both a protective and a functional system that preserves date fruit quality by regulating gas exchange, moisture content, and microbial exposure [137,138,139]. Global trade growth, sustainability concerns, and consumer demands have catalyzed packaging innovation. However, cultivar-specific optimization and environmental adaptability remain limited [140].
Plastic bags, especially polyethylene films, are still widely used due to their affordability and flexibility [141]. They prevent moisture loss and mechanical damage but may create anaerobic environments unsuitable for high-respiration stages like Rutab [142,143]. Condensation within sealed bags under fluctuating temperatures can further promote microbial growth [144,145]. In contrast, rigid containers (e.g., polycarbonate or PET) offer enhanced protection, better stacking, and air circulation [146]. When equipped with perforated lids or liners, they reduce fungal risk, although cost and environmental impact restrict their broad adoption [13,144].
MAP is increasingly being explored, though is underutilized in dates. By regulating O2 and CO2, MAP slows ripening and spoilage. Its potential is particularly strong for delicate, premium cultivars like Medjool, where elevated CO2 helps maintain texture and suppress microbial growth [147]. The success of MAP depends on gas-permeable materials, such as polyamide–polyethylene composites, which are favored as they are well known for balancing permeability and moisture control.
Moisture regulation remains a major challenge. Dates, especially at the Rutab stage, are hygroscopic and prone to condensation [79,147]. Although desiccant-based active packaging is popular in other fruit systems, it is underexplored in dates. Similarly, antimicrobial packaging using essential oils, silver nanoparticles, or embedded biopolymers shows promise, but limited validation exists in date applications [49].
Sustainability is reshaping consumer preferences. Resistance to single-use plastics in Western markets has led to interest in biodegradable packaging from PLA, starch, or cellulose films [148]. Yet, these often perform poorly under humid conditions and lack durability [149]. Life-cycle assessments of date packaging materials are rare, and few studies assess consumer behavior or end-of-life disposal.
Emerging technologies such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) offer predictive tools for packaging design. ANN models can forecast browning, moisture loss, or spoilage based on packaging and storage inputs [147,150]. However, data are currently limited. Visual appeal and usability also influence packaging choices. Transparent resealable bags and clamshells are popular but risk photodegradation unless UV barriers are used [151]. These require further study to balance consumer preferences with shelf-life outcomes.
Persistent research gaps include a lack of comparative studies across cultivars, maturity stages, and storage conditions. Most trials use short durations and ideal environments, failing to mimic transport or retail stress. More interdisciplinary collaboration with material scientists, economists, and food engineers is needed. Above all, packaging must be cost-effective for small-scale producers, especially in arid, resource-limited regions.
4.5. Adoption and Acceptance Hesitancy of AI Tools in Postharvest Quality Monitoring
Recent advancements in AI-driven quality monitoring tools, such as artificial neural networks (ANNs) and gradient boosting models like XGBoost, have shown strong potential in predicting postharvest quality parameters of date palm fruits. For example, Alqahtani et al. [49] used ANN models to successfully forecast weight loss, density, firmness, and microbial spoilage in Barhi dates stored under different packaging and temperature conditions. The models were trained on real-time physicochemical data and validated using k-fold cross-validation and root mean square error (RMSE) values, demonstrating high predictive accuracy (R2 > 0.90). Similarly, in the study of Alqahtani et al. [10] XGBoost models have been trained on phenolic fingerprints to predict antioxidant capacity and enzyme inhibitory activities, showing strong classification performance and allowing cultivar-specific optimization. These tools enable real-time decision-making, reduce experimental burden, and support scalable postharvest quality control, though their integration into commercial supply chains remains limited and warrants further validation.
It is also worth noting that, despite their promise, the integration of AI tools in postharvest quality monitoring faces notable resistance among researchers and practitioners. One major concern stems from the perceived lack of ethical oversight in algorithm development, particularly regarding data ownership, transparency, and potential biases in model training datasets [152,153,154]. For example, models trained on limited cultivar types or regional conditions may yield unreliable predictions when generalized. Additionally, many researchers, especially those rooted in traditional agricultural sciences, express skepticism toward AI’s “black-box” nature and its rapid evolution, which often outpaces peer-reviewed validation. This technological inertia is further amplified by inadequate interdisciplinary collaboration between food scientists, data engineers, and ethicists. As a result, while AI continues to evolve, its adoption remains uneven, with a divide growing between data-forward innovators and conservative academics anchored in conventional methodologies. Bridging this gap will require not only technical refinement but also institutional reforms, cross-training programs, and inclusive frameworks for responsible AI deployment in agriculture. Moving forward, harmonizing innovation with ethical rigor and cross-disciplinary trust will be key to unlocking AI’s full potential in sustainable postharvest systems.
5. Date Fruit Derivatives and Their Functional Roles
Date palm fruit derivatives offer wide-ranging applications (Figure 2) in food systems due to their rich nutritional and functional profiles. Common derivatives include date flesh, syrup, seeds, seed oil, press cake, pomace, and vinegar (Table 6, Figure 3). Date flesh is widely applied in bakery and confectionery products as a natural sweetener and fiber enhancer, improving texture and moisture retention while boosting nutritional value [155]. Date syrup, rich in minerals like potassium and magnesium and phenolic antioxidants, is a healthier sugar alternative in baked goods, dairy, and beverages [156]. Date seeds, often roasted or ground, are added to bakery, dairy, meat, and dessert items to raise fiber, act as fat replacers, and enhance antioxidant content [27]. Seed oil is appreciated for its oxidative stability [157]. Date press cake, the fibrous residue after juice or syrup extraction, is incorporated into yogurt and other products to elevate fiber and antioxidant activity [158]. Date pomace, although similar to press cake, includes a mix of skin, pulp, and seed residues, and varies by processing method [159]. Date vinegar, made through juice fermentation, is rich in organic acids and polyphenols, offering antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic effects suitable for health-focused food uses [160]. Recent studies highlight growing interest in using these derivatives to create value-added bakery and dairy products, with potential to replace synthetic additives and enhance health and sustainability.
5.1. Date Flesh
Date flesh, particularly at the Tamar stage, is naturally rich in glucose, fructose, and sucrose, making it an excellent source of quick energy. Certain cultivars, such as Tamjouhert, also contain galactose in the Kimri stage [197], further contributing to its unique sugar profile. Due to its inherent sweetness, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds, date flesh serves as a health-promoting ingredient in a variety of food formulations. For instance, Sribureeruk et al. [161] used date flesh in whole wheat bread to reduce sugar content by 75% while maintaining positive sensory acceptance. Manickavasagan et al. [162] incorporated date derivatives into idli, with the chopped date variant yielding the highest phenolic content and consumer preference. In dairy-based products, SURVE [163] formulated a buffalo milkshake using 10% date flesh and 4% jaggery, reporting favorable sensory scores and nutritional attributes, including 25.57% total solids and 14.92% natural sugars. Notably, Wahyuni and Baska [164] found that date milkshakes contributed to significantly reduced first-stage labor duration, suggesting a role in maternal energy support. These findings accentuated the functional potential of date flesh in reducing added sugars while enhancing the nutritional and sensory profile of food products. However, a direct comparative analysis with other natural sweeteners is required. Future studies could explore this angle to guide food formulation and substitution strategies more comprehensively.
5.2. Date Syrup
Date syrup is widely used as a functional ingredient for its natural sweetness, antioxidant content, and nutritional richness. It has been especially studied in dairy products. Gad et al. [166] found that replacing 10% of reconstitution water with date syrup in skim milk yogurt boosted sweetness, antioxidants, and mineral content. Bankole et al. [198] observed that 2–8% syrup improved viscosity and water retention, though higher amounts reduced sensory scores. Almosawi et al. [199] reported that 20–30% syrup enhanced sensory ratings, pH, and total solids without compromising microbiological quality. In buffalo milk yogurt, Tammam et al. [170] noted flavor and lactobacilli count improvements at 6–8% syrup, with sensory decline at higher levels. S Abdel-Ghany and A Zaki [200] added bovine colostrum and saw gains in protein and IgG without loss in sensory quality. In probiotic frozen yogurt, Jambi [201] replaced 30–40% sucrose with date syrup, enhancing acceptability and probiotic viability. Shahein et al. [165] showed similar effects in fermented camel milk, where 6–8% syrup improved viscosity and minerals. In functional milk drinks, Raiesi et al. [167] found 10% syrup increased turbidity and consumer appeal. El-Loly et al. [168] reported that processed cheese with 25% syrup had better potassium, iron, and carbohydrate levels, with 20% yielding the best sensory results. Djaoud et al. [169] used 14% syrup and 2% powder in a date-based dairy dessert, enhancing antioxidants and flavor.
In ice cream, substituting up to 60% sugar with syrup improved nutrition and slowed melting, though it required careful overrun and microbial control [170]. In non-dairy applications, Din et al. [171] developed soy yogurt sweetened with 1.5% stevia and 5–15% date syrup, achieving balanced sweetness, smooth texture, and strong antioxidant activity. In chocolate and baked goods, Bennouri Dourssaf and Amani [172] used syrup in organic chocolate, boosting nutrition and acceptance. Lajnef et al. [173] created sponge cakes with 100% syrup substitution, delivering antioxidant-rich and flavorful products despite darker coloration. Hajalibaklo et al. [174] applied 20–60% syrup and 0–20% seed powder in gluten-free biscuits, improving texture, fiber, and antioxidant properties. Alqahtani et al. [95] tested 6.25–25% syrup in peanut butter; moderate levels (12.5–18.75%) enhanced phenolics and texture but higher levels impaired spreadability. Mohamed et al. [202] optimized syrup through high-pressure homogenization and double substitution, enhancing viscosity, gel stability, and pasting behavior for tailored food use. Altogether, date syrup shows strong versatility as a nutritious sweetener across diverse food applications.
5.3. Date Seeds
Date seeds are valuable functional ingredients used in baked goods, meat, dairy, chocolate, and condiments due to their high fiber and bioactive compounds. Their inclusion enhances nutritional, sensory, and shelf-life characteristics across food matrices.
In enhancing baked products like bread, cookies, cakes, and muffins, date seed powder has shown strong potential. Alamri et al. [175] reported that incorporating 4–12% ground date seeds in bread improved loaf volume and fiber content. Platat et al. [203] further demonstrated flavonoid and antioxidant enrichment in Arabic breads fortified with 5–20% seed powder, achieving phenolic contents of up to 6732.6 μg/g. Fermentation with Lactobacillus and yeast also improved Barbari bread shelf life [204], while Nabi et al. noted reduced staling in flatbreads with 10–20% inclusion. Germinated date seed powder (0.5–3%) delayed spoilage over five days [205], and Halaby et al. [206] highlighted hypoglycemic effects at 15% inclusion.
Cookies and biscuits tolerate 2.5–7.5% seed powder well, with Najjar et al. [28] finding 7.5% ideal for sensory quality. Gluten-free cookies enriched with 20% seed powder and 30% chestnut flour were well accepted by the panelists [207], while Abushal et al. [208] showed 5–15% enrichment boosted fiber to 15% of daily needs. Ghasemi et al. [176] added 10% to sponge cake, enhancing phenolics, fiber, and minerals. Cakes and muffins showed optimal quality at 2.5–5% inclusion [209,210], with Hamzacebi & Tacer-Caba [211] noting improved muffin hardness when blended with quinoa and oat bran. Ambigaipalan & Shahidi [212] reported enhanced flavor and texture using 2.5% hydrolyzed seed powder.
In meat products, seed powder enhances fiber, acts as fat replacer and antioxidant, and improves tenderness and cooking traits [213,214]. In beef burgers, 1.5–3% improved shelf life, color, and acceptability [177]. Phenolic extracts reduced oxidation in ground beef and camel sausages, with purified phenolics more effective [215,216]. At 5%, insoluble seed fibers enhanced turkey burger oil retention [217]. A seed blend with wheat germ and pumpkin flour replaced 75% of meatball fat without sensory loss [218]. Essa and Elsebaie [219] reported that 75% fat replacement increased polyphenols, yield, and moisture.
In dairy, date seeds enhance probiotic survival and sensory traits. Ghasrehamidi and Daneshi [178] added 1% to yogurt, maintaining probiotic viability and stability for two weeks. Yogurt with ≤3% matched controls in sensory traits, while higher levels impaired quality [220]. In cheese, 5% seed powder improved block cheese scores [221], and spreadable cheese tolerated up to 10%, with acceptable properties [222]. Dairy typically tolerates lower seed levels.
In chocolates, Zamzam et al. [179] used 150 μm seed powder at 1:9 ratio, improving texture, taste, and lowering fat and calories. Abushal et al. [208] found that 5–15% in chocolate sauce boosted fiber and shelf life. Bouaziz et al. [223] noted that soluble seed fibers had little impact on spread texture, but insoluble fibers altered sensory attributes. Alamri et al. [175] showed that puddings with up to 30% seed powder matched commercial texture and flavor.
5.4. Date Press Cake
Date press cake (DPC), a fibrous by-product of syrup and juice extraction, is a functional ingredient that enhances nutrition and textural quality in food. Its richness in dietary fiber, phenolics, minerals, and oleic acid offers health-promoting benefits. Particle size significantly influences DPC’s functionality. Finer fractions (167–210 µm) have higher sugar, fat, phenolic content, and antioxidant activity, along with better solubility and water-holding capacity, making them more effective in food fortification [181,182]. These attributes contribute to softer textures and improved antioxidant capacity in bakery items.
DPC at 5–15% in cakes, cookies, and biscuits enhances dietary fiber and antioxidant content while maintaining good sensory qualities. For example, 10% DPC in vegan biscuits achieved top scores, making it suitable for vegetarians and athletes [225]. Alqahtani et al. [226] showed that 10% DPC in cookies, with reduced sugar, increased fiber and ash without negatively affecting texture. However, DPC levels above 20% tend to reduce cake volume and springiness, making texture denser and firmer [181,227]. Finer DPC mitigates some negative effects. In dairy, low-to-moderate DPC levels (2–4%) enhance drinkable yogurt’s texture, viscosity, water retention, and antioxidant capacity while preserving sensory appeal [158,183]. DPC’s applications extend to gluten-free and beverage products. Adding 10% DPC to gluten-free noodles improved fiber, mineral content (Ca, Mg, K, Fe), cooking properties, and sensory traits [184]. Nano-sized DPC in carbonated date beverages (200 mg/18% TSS) improved probiotic viability, sensory appeal, and physicochemical stability, demonstrating its value in sustainable, functional beverages [184]. DPC is a cost-effective, sustainable ingredient that adds nutrition and functionality, but optimal particle size and inclusion levels are essential for balancing health benefits and sensory quality.
5.5. Date Pomace
Date pomace is gaining attention as a functional ingredient due to its high fiber and bioactive content. Almoumen et al. [185] fortified bread rolls with high-fiber pomace, noting that up to 15% inclusion preserved sensory appeal while significantly increasing fiber. At 20%, however, texture quality declined due to increased insoluble fiber. A follow-up study with desugared pomace enhanced antioxidant activity and dietary fiber while reducing in vitro glucose release, likely via polyphenol–enzyme interactions, though the glycemic impact was modest [228]. In dairy, Hamdia [186] added 2–6% pomace to yogurt, where 2–4% improved whey retention, texture, and sensory properties, while 6% introduced off-flavors and undesirable color. Abass et al. [187] used 5–20% pomace in chocolate cake to enhance ash and fiber and reduce fat and protein. A 10% level optimized appearance, freshness, and shelf life by limiting microbial growth during storage.
Functionally, date pomace is more effective in enhancing water-holding capacity and antioxidant potential in products like bread and yogurt, as seen in Almoumen et al. [185,228] and Hamdia [186]. DPC, on the other hand, provides superior textural enhancement and nutrient enrichment at moderate inclusion levels (typically 10%) and has broader applications beyond food, including activated carbon production, soap formulation, and biotechnological uses [181,225].
These findings support date pomace’s role in boosting fiber, antioxidant potential, and texture in dairy and bakery applications. Still, optimal formulation is crucial, as higher levels may affect sensory traits. Valorizing pomace supports clean-label, cost-effective, and health-focused innovations.
5.6. Date Vinegar
Date vinegar, a fermented by-product, offers antioxidant, antihyperlipidemic, and hepatoprotective benefits due to its rich content of phenolics, flavonoids, and organic acids [229]. Zahidi dates can yield over 4 L of vinegar per kg via two-step fermentation with high acetic acid content (6.62%) and >90% efficiency [189], offering a sustainable route for valorizing surplus fruit. Cantadori et al. [190] noted that acetic fermentation is underexplored compared to lactic/alcoholic processes, despite its potential to produce health-enhancing gluconic acid beverages. Siddeeg et al. [191] enhanced vinegar quality using ultrasound and pulsed electric fields, boosting phenolic, flavonoid, and volatile content while preserving sensory properties. Hegazy et al. [188] reported that commercial vinegars with added ingredients like garlic or pomegranate showed antimicrobial activity. Homemade vinegars often have higher phenolics and antioxidant potential [192]. Clinical trials show that daily intake of 20 mL vinegar improved HbA1c, fasting glucose, lipids, and liver enzymes in type 2 diabetics [193]. However, spontaneous fermentation risks excess ethanol and quality variability. Al-Kharousi et al. [194] identified three new Acetobacter species and developed a starter culture that cut fermentation time from 40 to 4 days. Khalas vinegar had higher antioxidant activity than other varieties [195]. Tang et al. [196] identified over 930 volatiles and 32 organic acids in lab-produced vinegar, showing high ACE2 inhibition and therapeutic potential.
These findings support vinegar’s role in health, waste reduction, and industrial innovation. Future studies should optimize production, assess bioavailability, and expand clinical validation.
5.7. Emerging Secondary Derivatives
Secondary derivatives such as date powder, fibers, and extracts are gaining traction as functional, natural ingredients. Date powder (DP), made from the Dhakki variety, served as a sugar substitute in cakes. Substituting up to 30% sugar with DP improved fiber, protein, fat, and sensory traits [230]. Date extract used in wheat–cowpea cakes enhanced iron and potassium content and maintained acceptable sensory scores, making it a suitable sugar alternative for nutrient-focused formulations [231]. Date fiber, a syrup by-product, partially replaced wheat flour (5–20%) in chocolate cake, increasing ash and fiber content and improving freshness and microbial stability. A 10% inclusion yielded optimal results without adverse textural effects [187].
These innovations highlight the dual role of date derivatives in improving nutritional profiles and functional properties, while promoting product stability and shelf life in clean-label food applications.
6. Conclusions
The growing global demand for nutritious, sustainable food systems continues to position date palm fruit as a strategic crop, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This review highlights three significant finding clusters: (i) postharvest technologies and packaging innovations show substantial potential in extending shelf life and preserving quality, though scalability and cultivar-specific optimization remain unresolved; (ii) date derivatives are increasingly valuable in functional food development, contributing to clean-label formulations, nutritional enhancement, and circular economy goals; and (iii) advanced monitoring tools including AI and computer vision offer promising solutions for real-time quality control, yet adoption remains limited due to ethical, technical, and economic constraints. Despite these advances, several research gaps persist. Future studies should prioritize: (i) cost-effective, scalable postharvest interventions tailored to local cultivars; (ii) comprehensive consumer acceptance and sensory research, especially on derivative products; and (iii) interdisciplinary efforts to integrate emerging technologies, while addressing ethical, regulatory, and adoption hesitations. Closing these gaps will be essential for fully unlocking the nutritional, economic, and sustainability potential of the date palm fruit across global food systems.
Funding
This project was funded by the His Majesty Trust Funds (SR/AGR/Food/23/01) on Food Products Using Low-Value Biser Date Fruit for Economic Diversity Amplification and Food Security. This project was also supported by the Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation (RC/RG-AGR/FOOD/23/01) on Micro and Nano-Size fibers from date pits for food applications.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
All data has been included in the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares having no known competing financial interest or personal relationships that could influence the work reported in this manuscript.
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Figure 2.
Functional and nutritional properties of date fruit derivatives in the food system.
Figure 3.
Emerging innovations in the utilization of date fruit derivatives (NM*: Not Mentioned).
Table 2.
Updated global and regional date production by country.
| Region | Country | Date Palm Fruit Production (Metric Tons) | No. of Productive Trees | Cultivation Area (ha) | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Africa | Egypt | 1,800,000 (2023) | 16,000,000 | 72,395 | [3,34] |
| Middle East | Saudi Arabia | 1,642,993 (2023) | 31,800,000 | 165,000 | [3,36] |
| Africa | Algeria | 1,324,767 (2023) | 16,400,000 | 179,150 | [3] |
| Asia | Iran | 1,024,117 (2023) | Not specified | 122,151 | [3] |
| Middle East | Iraq | 800,000 (2024) | 22,000,000 | 275,986 | [3,37] |
| Asia | Pakistan | 503,787 (2023) | Data not specified | 109,078 | [3] |
| Africa | Sudan | 442,674 (2023) | Data not specified | 37,029 | [3] |
| Middle East | Oman | 394,946 (2023) | Data not specified | 26,698 | [3] |
| Africa | Tunisia | 369,000 (2022) | Data not specified | 60,000 | [38] |
| Middle East | United Arab Emirates | 329,446 (2023) | Data not specified | 39,771 | [3] |
| Africa | Libya | 188,289 (2023) | Data not specified | 34,723 | [3] |
| Asia | China | 161,450 (2023) | Data not specified | 12,396 | [3] |
| Africa | Morocco | 107,375 (2023) | 6,000,000 | 67,014 | [3] |
| North America | USA | 44,500 (2023) | Data not specified | 5989 | [39] |
| Middle East | Qatar | 35,547 (2023) | Data not specified | 2734 | [3] |
| Middle East | Jordan | 31,657 (2023) | 750,000 | 4495 | [3] |
| Africa | Mauritania | 22,205 (2023) | Data not specified | 9105 | [3] |
| Africa | Chad | 21,823 (2023) | Data not specified | 10,464 | [3] |
| Africa | Niger | 17,174 (2023) | Data not specified | 5361 | [3] |
| North America | Mexico | 16,962 (2022) | Data not specified | 2424 | [3] |
| Europe | Albania | 14,916 (2023) | Data not specified | 490 | [3] |
| Middle East | Bahrain | 14,800 (2023) | Data not specified | 1961 | [3] |
| Africa | Somalia | 14,201 (2023) | Data not specified | 2776 | [3] |
| Middle East | Syria | 3368 (2023) | Data not specified | 408 | [3] |
| Africa | Benin | 1444 (2023) | Data not specified | 584 | [3] |
| Africa | Namibia | 1434 (2023) | Data not specified | 562 | [3] |
| Africa | Kenya | 1087 (2023) | Data not specified | 478 | [3] |
| Africa | Mali | 751 (2023) | Data not specified | 83 | [3] |
| Africa | Cameroon | 587 (2023) | Data not specified | 161 | [3] |
| South America | Peru | 526 (2023) | Data not specified | 156 | [3] |
Table 3.
Summary of health benefits, bioactivities and phytochemicals properties of date palm fruits.
Table 3.
Summary of health benefits, bioactivities and phytochemicals properties of date palm fruits.
| Cultivar(s) | Maturity Stage | Phytochemicals Identified | Health Benefits/Biological Activities | Analytical Methods/Treatment | Quantitative Results | Major Findings | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Deglet Nour | Rutab | Phenolic acids, stilbenes, flavonoids, lignans, tannins | Antioxidant, antimicrobial | Thyme essential oil coating + 2 months intervals assessment for 6 months LABMA |
| Polyphenols and antioxidant activities varied with time, treatment, and temperature. Vacuum packaging preserved the highest antioxidant activity. | [57] |
| Safawi, Khalas, Khudri, Booman | Not specified | 1,2-Dihydroxy benzoic acid, 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, catechin, rutin hydrate, and quercetin. | Antidiabetic, antioxidant, antilipidemic | HPLC with in vitro simulated digestion LABMA + IVT | Not specified | More phenolics released during intestinal digestion; Khalas showed the highest lipase inhibition (IC50 = 1.88 μg/mL); pH affected compound stability. | [21] |
| Multiple varieties (18 total) | Tamer | Broad spectrum, incl. apigenin, quercetin, caffeic, chlorogenic, vanillic acids | Antioxidant | UPLC-QTOF-MS and UPLC-UV LABMA |
| 59 peaks found, 45 identified. Gallic, ferulic acids dominate. Varieties differ in phenolic profile and content. | [70] |
| Khupra | Khalal | Not specified | Antioxidant (Free radical scavenging) | Gravimetric (DPPH assay) LABMA | DPPH inhibition: sun-dried = 70.7%, microwave = 64.4–78.0%. | Antioxidant activity decreased with higher temperatures. | [71] |
| Safawi, Khalas, Khudri, Booman | Not specified | 1,2-Dihydroxy benzoic acid, 4-hydroxy benzoic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, syringic acid, catechin, and rutin hydrate. | Antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-obesity, antilipidemic | HPLC-UV at 275 nm LABMA | TPC: 186.5–358.14 mg GAE/100 g DPPH (Khalas): 320 µg/mL ABTS (Khalas): 969 µg/mL DPP-IV inhibition (Safawi + Khalas): IC50 = 2.85 µg/mL. | Digested samples showed stronger inhibition of lipase and glucosidase. Oral polyphenol-rich extracts improved weight and glycemic outcomes in diabetic rats. | [21] |
| Sukri, Barhi, Rothana | Not specified | Rare compounds (e.g., oxaziridine, butaneboronate) | Antibacterial, immune-modulating, apoptosis regulation | Folin–Ciocalteau LABMA | TPC = 1.24 mg GAE/100 g | Uncommon phytocompounds found; bioactivity not fully explored. | [72] |
| Zahidi | Not specified | Flavonols, phenolic acids | Cardio- and hepatoprotection, antioxidant, antidiabetic, potential antiatherogenic | In vitro + rat model IVT + IVV |
| Extract reduced cardiac stress markers and LDL oxidation; enhanced HDL function. | [73] |
| Khidrawi, Halawi, Dhakki | Khalal | Phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins | High antioxidant potential | Antioxidant screening, DPPH, TPC, TFC LABMA |
| Microwave improved antioxidant capacity; Dhakki had highest antioxidant potential. | [56] |
| Khadrawi, Jihadi, Hillawi, Mansi | Khalal | Phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoids, | Neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidants | Folin-Ciocalteau, AlCl3 assay, titrimetric LABMA |
| Blanching at high temp reduced antioxidant content; degradation observed at extreme processing conditions. | [74] |
| Sayer, Jabri, Khalas, Lulu, Booman | Not specified | Polyphenols | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-hemolytic, inhibition of diabetic and lipidemia-related enzymes | Folin-Ciocalteu assay LABMA | TPC range (217.3 ± 24.3–570.8 ± 14.3 mg GAE/100 g) |
| [61] |
| Tazizaout, Tazarzeit, Tazoughar, Ouaouchet, Oukasaba Delat, Tamezwert n’telet | Khalal | Gallic acid, sinapinic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, vanillic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, rutin, isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside, apigenin, kaempferol derivatives | Radical scavenging, antioxidant, α-glucosidase, tyrosinase, AChE, BChE inhibition | Folin–Ciocalteu, AlCl3 method, UHPLC, DPPH, FRAP, ABTS, ORAC, dopachrome assay LABMA |
|
| [65] |
| Ajwa | Not specified | Malic acid, citric acid, pyroglutamic acid glucoside, syringyl pyroglutamic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid pentoside, syringyl pyroglutamic acid, acetyl-O-galloyl glucose, ferulic acid glucoside, caffeoyl shikimate, kaempferol 3-O-glucosyl-rutinoside, quercetin glucoside sulphate, kaempferol glucoside sulphate, rutin, kaempferol rutinoside, kaempferol rhamnosyl-glucoside, diosmetin glucoside sulphate, isorhamnetin glucoside, and diosmetin | Enhanced food intake, improved renal antioxidant status, reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, modulated gene expression (Nrf2, NOX4), anti-anemia | LC-MS/MS, acute toxicity, biochemical, DNA fragmentation, gene expression assays LABMA |
|
| [75] |
| Umsellah, Khalas | Tamer | Ferulic, caffeic, gallic, syringic, p-coumaric, o-coumaric, vanillic acids | Not specified | Folin–Ciocalteu, HPLC, enzymatic-gravimetric method LABMA | Umsellah: 164.22 mg GAE/100 g Khalas: 103.85 mg GAE/100 g |
| [76] |
| Khalas | Tamer | Not specified | Antifibrotic effect in pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs), chemopreventive potential | TLC, cell culture, protein assays, ROS assay, immunoblotting LABMA + IVT | Not specified |
| [58] |
| Not specified | Not specified | Gallic, caffeic, ferulic, sinapic, syringic acids; dactyliferic acid; quercetin, luteolin, apigenin, catechin, epicatechin, isorhamnetin, chrysoeriol derivatives, and others | Inhibited hIAPP aggregation, protected cells from toxicity, potential for amyloid disease prevention | ThT fluorescence, DLS, ANS fluorescence, cell viability, docking studies LABMA + IVT + IS | Not specified |
| [31] |
| Tanteboucht | Not specified | Gallic, caffeic, chlorogenic, p-hydroxybenzoic, coumaric, ferulic, salicylic acids; vanillin, coumarin, rutin, quercetin, catechin, epicatechin, luteolin, cyanidin chloride, tannins, procyanidin B2 | Free radical scavenging, antimicrobial, membrane stabilization | HPLC-DAD LABMA | Not specified |
| [77] |
| Bourar, Black Bousthammi, Bouzegagh, Iklane | Tamer | Polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins | Antioxidants | FRAP, DPPH, Folin–Ciocalteu, HPLC-UV-Vis LABMA | 101.06–478.37 mg GAE/100 g |
| [59] |
| Medjool | Tamer | Gallic acid, p-coumaric acid, caffeic acid, and syringic acid | Maximum antioxidant potential and increases longevity in C. elegans | Toxicity assessment and lifespan assay, survival assay under paraquat and H2O2 induced oxidative stress and PLC-VWD LABMA + IVT |
|
| [60] |
| Dhakki | Khalal, Rutab, Tamar | Polyphenols, tannins, carotenoids, vitamin A | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, radical scavenging | Folin–Ciocalteu assay, DPPH assay, spectrophotometry, HunterLab colorimetry LABMA |
| Optimal storage at 12 °C for 45 days enhances biochemical properties and sensory qualities; Khalal stage is ideal for harvesting. | [20] |
| Multiple Varieties (18 total) | Tamr | Gallic acid, syringic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, cinnamic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, catechin, epicatechin | Superoxide radical scavenging, FRAP, ABTS radical scavenging, α-amylase inhibitory activity | HPLC-UV, spectrophotometric assays, SDS-PAGE LABMA + IS | Maghool cultivar had highest catechin content: 358.48 ± 2.60 mg/100 g | Catechin, rutin, and cinnamic acid contribute to DNA protection and enzyme inhibition; XGBoost model predicts bioactivity with 92.57% accuracy. | [10] |
| Not specified | Tamar | Gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid, ferulic acid, coumaric acid | Antioxidant, hepatoprotective, reduced lipid peroxidation, decreased micronucleated cells | Folin–Ciocalteu, HPLC-UV-Vis, DPPH, ABTS, comet assay, MN test, histopathology LABMA + IVT |
| Date extract alleviated liver and kidney damage from oxidative stress; ineffective against fipronil-induced cytotoxicity. | [64] |
| Khodry | Tamr | 2-Furancarboxaldehyde, 9-hydroxynonanoic acid, 4H-pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihy droxy-6-methyl-, phenol, 2-methoxy-4-(1-propenyl)-, hexadecanoic acid, 9,12-octadecadienoic acid, 9-octadecanioc acid, ethyl iso-allocholate, hexadecanoic acid, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester, 1-heptatriacotanol and 3,5-dihydroxy-7,3′,4′-trimethoxy flavone. | Antioxidant, mitigated gentamicin-induced hepato-renal toxicity, reduced iNOS expression | Folin-Ciocalteu, colorimetric assay, DPPH, ABTS, biochemical assays, animal study LABMA |
| Date extract alleviates gentamicin-induced hepatorenal toxicity in a dose-dependent manner; exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects. | [19] |
| Barhi | Tamr | Gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, catechin, caffeic acid, syringic acid, ferulic acid, naringenin, daidzein | Inhibition of PERK-eIF2α pathway, reduced caspase-3 expression, modulated AKT/PTEN expression | Phytochemical screening, HPLC-UV-Vis LABMA |
| Barhi date extract shows protective effects against hepatocarcinogenesis; potential candidate for anti-tumor drug development. | [62] |
Study types: LABMA = laboratory biochemical and microbiological analysis; IVT = in vitro cell-based study; IVV = in vivo animal study; CLN = clinical/human trial; IS = in silico (computational docking or modeling).
Table 6.
Summary of date palm fruit derivatives and their applications, benefits, and nutritional value.
Table 6.
Summary of date palm fruit derivatives and their applications, benefits, and nutritional value.
| Date Fruit Derivative | Product | Form of Date Used | Purpose/Benefit | Key Findings/Nutritional Value | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Flesh | Whole wheat bread | Date flesh | Raisin substitute, sugar reduction, nutritional enrichment | 75% sugar reduction; 98% consumer acceptance; improved sensory quality and fiber content. | [161] |
| Idli (an Indian breakfast) | Date paste, syrup, chopped dates | Natural sweetener, antioxidant and vitamin enrichment | Increased total phenols and vitamin C; idli with chopped dates received the highest ratings in sweetness, aroma, and overall acceptability. | [162] | |
| Milkshake | Date flesh (5–15%) + jaggery (4–6%) | Nutritional beverage with natural sweetening agents | Best formulation (J1D2: 10% date flesh + 4% jaggery): 25.57% solids, 6.02% fat, 3.95% protein, 14.92% total sugar. | [163] | |
| Date milkshake (labor support) | Date milkshake | Energy source to support uterine contractions during labor | Significantly shorter first-stage labor duration: 4.1 ± 0.697 h (vs. 7 ± 1.904 h in control). | [164] | |
| Syrup | Yogurt (skim milk, buffalo milk, probiotic, camel milk) | 2–30% date syrup (including replacement of reconstitution water); sometimes combined with colostrum or probiotic cultures | Improve sweetness, antioxidant activity, probiotic viability, and sensory qualities | Enhanced sweetness, antioxidant activity, mineral, and folate levels; improved viscosity and lactobacilli counts; probiotic viability maintained; best sensory scores at 20–30%; decline in quality above 8% or excessive levels | [165,166] |
| Functional milk beverages (milk drink, colostrum mix) | 10% date syrup; date syrup combined with colostrum | Nutrient enrichment, functional drink formulation | Improved sensory acceptability, turbidity, protein, and immunoglobulin G content without sensory compromise. | [167] | |
| Processed cheese | 0–25% date syrup | Improve texture, taste, and nutritional content | Enhanced potassium, iron, carbohydrates, and texture; 20% addition achieved best sensory rating. | [168] | |
| Dairy dessert | 14% date syrup + 2% date powder | Functional and antioxidant-enriched dessert | Increased antioxidant potential and enhanced sensory appeal. | [169] | |
| Ice cream | Up to 60% date syrup (as sugar replacer) | Nutritional improvement and sugar reduction | Improved nutrition and slower melting rate; issues with overrun and microbial control at high levels. | [170] | |
| Soy-based yogurt | 5–15% date syrup + 1.5% stevia | Lactose-free, plant-based alternative with added functionality | Balanced sweetness, smooth texture, strong antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. | [171] | |
| Organic chocolate | Date syrup | Functional sweetener for clean-label chocolate | Improved nutritional value and consumer preference | [172] | |
| Sponge cake | 100% date syrup (replacing sugar) | Clean-label bakery formulation | Superior antioxidant activity; preferred taste despite darker color | [173] | |
| Gluten-free biscuits | 20–60% date syrup + 0–20% date seed powder | Functional formulation with fiber enrichment | Improved texture, fiber, antioxidant levels, and sensory scores | [174] | |
| Peanut butter | 6.25–25% date syrup | Improve nutritional and sensory properties | Higher phenolic content, better texture and taste at 12.5–18.75%; higher levels reduced spreadability and color | [95] | |
| Seeds | Bread, flatbreads | Ground seed powder, fermented powder | Improve fiber, antioxidants, shelf life, reduce staling | 0.5–20% improves fiber, loaf volume, antioxidant levels, sensory traits; slows spoilage and staling | [175] |
| Cookies and biscuits | Seed powder, blends with other flours/oils | Enhance fiber, texture, flavor, shelf life | 2.5–20% boosts fiber and shelf life; 7.5–20% preferred in sensory tests | [28] | |
| Cakes and muffins | Seed powder, hydrolysate | Boost nutritional profile, antioxidants, sensory quality | 2.5–10% increases antioxidants, minerals; up to 5% preferred sensory-wise | [176] | |
| Meat products | Seed powder, insoluble fiber, extracts | Fat replacement, antioxidant, tenderizing, shelf life | 1.5–5% improves antioxidant levels, sensory quality; up to 75% fat replacement maintains taste and moisture | [177] | |
| Dairy products | Seed powder | Enhance probiotic stability, antioxidant content | 1–5% maintains probiotic viability and sensory quality; 10% tolerated in cheese | [178] | |
| Chocolate and desserts | Seed powder (varied particle sizes), fibers | Texture, fiber, antioxidant boost, fat reduction | 5–30% improves fiber, taste, reduces calories; insoluble fiber affects texture | [179] | |
| Condiments | Seed powder, seed oil | Improve texture, flavor, antioxidant potential | 0.5–1% improves ketchup texture; seed oil enhances mayonnaise taste | [180] | |
| Date press cake (DPC) | Bakery products (cakes, biscuits, cookies) | Date press cake powder, particle sizes 167–500 µm | Nutritional enrichment, fiber and antioxidant enhancement, sensory improvement | Moderate inclusion (5–15%) improved fiber, antioxidants, and sensory acceptability; finer particles improved texture and antioxidant activity; >20% addition increased density and firmness | [181,182] |
| Drinkable yogurt | Date press cake powder | Functional dairy ingredient: improves texture, water-holding, sensory quality | 2–4% DPC enhanced viscosity, texture, water retention, and sensory acceptance; increased fiber and antioxidant content | [158,183] | |
| Gluten-free noodles | Date press cake powder | Improve fiber, minerals, cooking quality, and texture | 10% DPC increased fiber, mineral content (Ca, Mg, K, Fe), improved cooking yield, texture (elongation, cohesiveness), and sensory acceptability | [184] | |
| Soft carbonated bio-beverage | Nano-sized date press cake particles | Nutritional enrichment, probiotic support, sensory improvement | Optimal 18% total soluble solids + 200 mg nano-DPC improved sugars, minerals, pH, color, probiotic growth, and sensory attributes | [184] | |
| Date pomace | Bread rolls | High-fiber date fruit pomace | Increase fiber content, enhance nutritional value | 15% pomace improved fiber without compromising sensory quality; 20% addition led to undesirable texture and darker crumb/crust | [185] |
| Bread rolls | Desugared date fruit pomace | Improve antioxidant activity, reduce glucose release | Increased fiber and antioxidants; reduced in vitro glucose release; minor impact on glycemic index | [185] | |
| Yogurt | Date palm pomace powder | Improve texture, add fiber and antioxidants | 2–4% addition improved whey retention, texture, and sensory attributes; 6% caused negative color/taste changes | [186] | |
| Chocolate cake | Fiber from date syrup production | Functional flour replacer, shelf-life extension | 10% inclusion improved sensory properties, increased fiber and ash, reduced fat/protein; reduced microbial growth in refrigerated/frozen storage | [187] | |
| Vinegar | Vinegar | Whole fruit or by-products | Functional food, therapeutic, preservation | Rich in phenolics, flavonoids, organic acids; antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic effects; strong antimicrobial activity; improved metabolic markers in diabetics | [188] |
| Vinegar | Zahdi dates (low-cost variety) | Valorization of waste, nutritional intake | High fermentation efficiency (~90%), high acetic acid (~6.62%), rich in essential minerals (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn) | [189] | |
| Vinegar | Date juice | Food innovation, chronic disease prevention | Highlighted as functional fermented product with potential for gluconic acid beverage; nutritional and health benefits | [190] | |
| Vinegar (treated) | Date palm vinegar | Quality enhancement | PEF + US treatment increases amino acids, phenolics, flavonoids, volatiles; improves antioxidant and sensory properties | [191] | |
| Commercial vinegars | Date-based blends (date, garlic, pomegranate, turmeric) | Antimicrobial agent, functional food | High variability in phytochemical content; strong antibacterial activity against pathogens | [188] | |
| Homemade and commercial vinegars | Date fruit | Antioxidant properties | Homemade vinegar has higher phenolics, antioxidant activity, and metal chelating ability than commercial. | [192] | |
| Vinegar | Date fruit | Dietary supplement for diabetics | 20 mL daily improved HbA1c, blood sugar, cholesterol, liver enzymes, folate in type 2 diabetics | [193] | |
| Vinegar | Surplus/low-quality dates | Industrial-scale production improvement | Starter cultures reduced fermentation time from 40 to 4 days; stable quality; 4.67% acetic acid | [194] | |
| Vinegar and bioethanol | Date palm by-products | Valorization, antioxidant-rich product | Khalas-variety vinegar had higher phenolic and carotenoid content and stronger antioxidant activities than commercial vinegar | [195] | |
| Vinegar | Enzyme-hydrolyzed date juice | Dietary supplement, antioxidant | Contains 32 organic acids and 930 volatiles, phenolics, and flavonoids; strong antioxidant and ACE2 inhibition | [196] |
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Al-Habsi, N. Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Fruit: Strategic Crop for Food Security, Nutritional Benefits, Postharvest Quality, and Valorization into Emerging Functional Products. Sustainability 2025, 17, 7491. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167491
AMA Style
Al-Habsi N. Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Fruit: Strategic Crop for Food Security, Nutritional Benefits, Postharvest Quality, and Valorization into Emerging Functional Products. Sustainability. 2025; 17(16):7491. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167491
Chicago/Turabian StyleAl-Habsi, Nasser. 2025. "Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Fruit: Strategic Crop for Food Security, Nutritional Benefits, Postharvest Quality, and Valorization into Emerging Functional Products" Sustainability 17, no. 16: 7491. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167491
APA StyleAl-Habsi, N. (2025). Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Fruit: Strategic Crop for Food Security, Nutritional Benefits, Postharvest Quality, and Valorization into Emerging Functional Products. Sustainability, 17(16), 7491. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167491
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