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Review

A Review of Jurassic Paleoclimatic Changes and Tectonic Evolution in the Qaidam Block, Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

1
State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Department of Geology, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
2
School of Petroleum Engineering and Environment Engineering, Yan’an University, Yan’an 716000, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(16), 7337; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167337
Submission received: 1 July 2025 / Revised: 5 August 2025 / Accepted: 9 August 2025 / Published: 14 August 2025

Abstract

Understanding the mechanisms and speed of paleo-aridification in the Qaidam Block—driven by tectonic uplift and shifts in atmospheric circulation—provides critical long-term context for assessing modern climate variability and anthropogenic impacts on water resources and desertification. This knowledge is essential for informing sustainable development strategies. We reconstruct the post-Triassic–Jurassic extinction tectonic-climatic evolution of the Qaidam Block on the northern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau margin through an integrated analysis of sedimentary facies, palynological assemblages, and Chemical Index of Alteration values from Late Triassic to Jurassic strata. The Indo-Eurasian convergence drove the uplift of the East Kunlun Orogen and strike-slip movement along the Altyn Tagh Fault, establishing a basin-range system. During the initial Late Triassic to Early Jurassic period, warm-humid conditions supported gymnosperm/fern-dominated ecosystems and facilitated coal formation. A Middle Jurassic shift from extensional to compressional tectonics coincided with a climatic transition from warm-humid, through cold-arid, to hot-arid states. This aridification, evidenced by a Bathonian-stage surge in drought-tolerant Classopollis pollen and a sharp decline in Chemical Index of Alteration values, intensified in the Late Jurassic due to the Yanshanian orogeny and distal subduction effects. Resultant thrust-strike-slip faulting and southeastward depocenter migration, under persistent aridity and intensified atmospheric circulation, drove widespread development of aeolian dune systems (e.g., Hongshuigou Formation) and arid fluvial-lacustrine environments. The tectonic-climate-ecosystem framework reveals how Jurassic tectonic processes amplified feedback to accelerate aridification. This mechanism provides a critical geological analog for addressing the current sustainability challenges facing the Qaidam Basin.

1. Introduction

During the Earth system evolution, the Late Triassic to Jurassic period was a critical transition stage, including the closure of the Tethyan Ocean basins, breakup of Pangaea, and a global Triassic–Jurassic (T–J) mass extinction event that profoundly reconstructed tectonic and climatic patterns [1,2,3,4]. Resulting paleogeographic changes altered carbon, water, and weathering cycles, inducing extreme climate events, such as volcanic winters and carbon isotope anomalies [5,6]. During the boundary between Late Triassic and Jurassic (~201.3 Ma), mass extinction is widely linked to the rapid emplacement of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province flood basalts, which drove a sharp rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and the collapse of ecosystems [6,7,8,9,10,11].
The Qaidam Block (QB), located on the northeastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, serves as a crucial area for the closure of the paleo-Tethys Ocean basin, which provides a key window for revealing the dynamic processes of the East Tethys tectonic domain [12]. Current research primarily focuses on a single research perspective (such as extinction rates or volcanic activity records) or single regions (such as the North Atlantic magmatic province), and there is still a lack of systematic understanding of the spatiotemporal heterogeneity of the coupled response of multiple layers (lithosphere atmosphere hydrosphere biosphere) under tectonic driving [12,13,14,15,16,17]. Hence, the multi-layered replay of the tectonic evolution, climate change, and vegetation replacement in the QB after the T–J mass extinction event is of great significance for global evolution.
Multiple evidence suggested that the evolution of the QB drifted from the Gondwana landmass and converged with the Eurasian landmass. Sedimentary sources analysis and the detrital zircon age spectrum suggested that the QB was integrated with the northern margin of Gondwana during the Ordovician to Silurian, when it began to receive sources from the Indian Craton [3,16,18,19]. Then, the presence of structural deformation in the Niushou Mountain indicates that the convergence between the North China Block and Alxa Massif [20]. The Pan-African ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic record found in western Qaidam indicates, for the first time, that the QB is a Gondwanan terrane that split from this semi-supercontinent after the Pan-African orogeny [21]. Moreover, the Early Paleozoic paleomagnetic data also showed that the QB, Tarim Block, and North China Block had different paleolatitudes, indicating they may have been separated by oceans [22,23]. The kinematic history of the QB and its surrounding blocks directly affects the paleogeographic pattern and plays an important indicative role in reconstructing the climatic evolution of the QB. After the Jurassic, the QB finished the amalgamation with the North China Block, Alxa Massif and Tarim Block and began intracontinental compressive deformation [24]. Specifically, since the Mesozoic, the uplift records of the Qilian Orogenic Belt in the northern QB (223–205 Ma, 112–84.8 Ma, 63.8–19.3 Ma) [25,26] coincide with the collision/amalgamation timings of the Qiangtang, Lhasa, Himalaya, India, and other blocks/plates with the Eurasian Plate. These records are considered to document the remote tectonic response to the closure of the Tethyan Ocean basins and the growth process of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau [27]. Based on this tectonic evolution, the QB in the Jurassic experienced sedimentary center migration and vegetation evolution. The linkages still require further statistical analysis and interpretation [28,29].
This study comprehensively reconstructs the evolutionary process of tectonic activities and paleoclimatic recovery in the QB after the late T–J mass extinction period by compiling multiple research findings on tectonic analysis, sedimentary records, and paleoclimatic archives. We focus on revealing the regulatory and recovery processes of the paleoclimate in the QB against the background of global climatic changes following the T–J mass extinction, emphasizing the linkages between vegetation evolution and tectonic evolution, and aiming to establish an evolutionary model for the QB during the Jurassic period under the dual framework of tectonics and climate.

2. Geological Settings

Positioned as a key northern sector for studying the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau uplift, the QB is tectonically demarcated by the Altyn Tagh Fault to the west, separating it from the Tarim Block, and it is structurally connected to the North China Block and the Alxa Massif through the Qilian Orogenic belt [3,4] (Figure 1). The QB occupies a geographic extent of 90°–98°20′ E and 35°55′–39°10′ N. The QB preserves a Precambrian basement unconformably overlain by thick (up to 16 km) Mesozoic–Cenozoic sedimentary sequences [30]. Multiphase tectonic-magmatic events recorded in the EKOB reflect Proto- and Paleo-Tethyan closure processes and peripheral orogenesis [12,31]. Stratigraphic discontinuities in the southern basin comprise Ordovician–Silurian through Jurassic volcanic-sedimentary successions [4,32]. The depositional hiatus reflects Late Triassic compressional tectonics, manifested as fracture networks with calcite infill [32]. Late Triassic volcanic rocks in the southern QB record a hiatus temporally linked to Paleo-Tethys closure [15,33,34,35]. The Jurassic succession within the QB displays distinct evolutionary trends in depositional facies and lithology. Early Jurassic strata comprise fluvial-lacustrine deposits dominated by carbonaceous mudstones. Middle Jurassic units are characterized by widespread coal-bearing fluvial-deltaic facies with intercalated lacustrine oil shales. Late Jurassic sedimentation is marked by red-bed conglomerates and sandstones, exhibiting high-energy fluvial systems with limited lacustrine development. The detailed evolution of sedimentary facies and their associated lithological assemblages is systematically documented in Section 5.1.

3. Overview of the Kinematic History of the QB

3.1. Late Paleozoic

A comprehensive analysis of the tectonic kinematic evolution of QB provides critical constraints for paleoclimatic reconstruction. Detrital zircon provenance signatures from Early Paleozoic strata in the QB, Tarim Block, and adjacent terranes demonstrate a tectonic affinity with northern Gondwana, supported by dominant sediment contributions from the Indian Craton [3,18]. This is evidenced by their analogous detrital zircon age signatures [19]. Such collisional tectonics determined the early-stage paleogeographic configuration of QB, which subsequently constrained regional climate through modulation of both radiative balance and atmospheric circulation organization, ultimately prescribing evolutionary trajectories for later climate development.
The age of convergence between the QB and North China Block needs further discussion. With the subduction and closure of the South Qilian Ocean, the QB and Central Qilian block had converged at Olongbuluke Terrane in the Silurian to the Devonian period [38]. The convergence of Central Qilian Terrane and Alxa produced an ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic belt along the southern part of North Qilian in 460–420 Ma [3,39,40]. The early Paleozoic intense intracontinental folding deformation near Niushou Mountain in the south of the Alxa is speculated to be a remote effect of the closure of the paleo-ocean basin between QB and Alxa in the Late Ordovician to the Silurian period [20,41]. The QB, Central Qilian Terrane, and North China Block converged before 420 Ma [4,30,42]. There are also studies indicating that the connection collision between the Qaidam–Kunlun block and the North China Block probably occurred at 445–440 Ma [43].
The relative positions of East Asia in paleogeographic location reconstruction were still controversial. According to 360–340 Ma paleogeographic location reconstruction, the Tarim Block was in the southwest of the North China Block and QB [4,44]. However, the paleomagnetic results showed that the Tarim Block was at a higher latitude (>30°) than the North China Block and QB during this period [45]. The paleolatitude of the Tarim Block was at 37.3° ± 2.9° N in the Early Permian (~288 Ma) [46]. The mean paleomagnetic poles of the Tarim Block during the Middle Permian (~266 Ma) were 32.9° ± 3.0° N [22]. Therefore, the Tarim Block was floating at 30~36° N during the Permian. Paleomagnetic results of the North China Block included: 20.8° ± 4.6° N in ~274 Ma [47]; 36.9° ± 2.7° N in ~255 Ma [48]; and ~35.1° N in ~250 Ma [49]. It was considered reliable to define the Tarim Block separately from the QB, at least before the early Mesozoic when the North China Block amalgamated with the Southern Alex [50]. According to the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean, Tarim, Alex-Central Qilian-Qaidam, and North China Block with Eastern Europe and Siberia, the Tarim Block may have become part of Laurussia [3]. The published paleontological evidence indicates that the emerging Angara flora in Tarim spread to the Central Qilian Terrane during the Late Permian [51]. However, a large amount of paleomagnetic data have not taken into account the problem of magnetic inclination shallowing, resulting in relatively high results for paleolatitudes. There remains considerable controversy regarding the kinematic history of the Qaidam, North China, and Tarim blocks before the Mesozoic. Direct geological evidence for the timing of their aggregation is lacking, and paleomagnetic constraints also require more reliable data. Therefore, the accurate kinematic history of this stage still needs further exploration.
Despite the existing research achievements on the kinematic history of the QB, numerous unsolved puzzles remain, requiring more geological evidence to comprehensively and accurately reconstruct the kinematic history. Only by clearly understanding the movement of the QB and related geological events can a solid foundation be provided for subsequent climatic studies, and the mechanisms of climatic evolution in geological history be more accurately revealed.

3.2. Mesozoic

The closure process of the Animaqing-Kunlun Ocean, an important oceanic basin south of the QB, facilitated the linkage between the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Eurasian continent [12]. Existing records show that the QB and Olongbuluke Terrane began widespread uplift in the Middle Permian, and a back-arc foreland formed along the Zongwulong tectonic belt in the Late Triassic, which responded to the closure of the Animaqing-Kunlun Ocean [19]. After continuous subduction and consumption, the oceanic basin transformed into collisional orogeny. Currently, volcanic rocks and granitoids are similar to the igneous rocks in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau continental collision orogenic belt, being continental high-K calc-alkaline-shoshonitic or strongly peraluminous igneous rocks [15,52]. These intense volcanic activities altered the regional topography, laying the foundation for subsequent climatic changes. As a critical period for the closure of the Animaqing-Kunlun Ocean, the Late Triassic was characterized by intense tectonic deformation, magmatic activity, and metamorphism. Many rocks underwent folding, faulting, and metamorphism, forming a complex geological structure pattern [34,53]. This confirms the cause of the Late Triassic stratigraphic depositional hiatus in partial drilling results of the QB and the calcite cement in fractures [32].
The Animaqing-Kunlun Ocean, as a key Paleo-Tethyan oceanic realm south of the QB, facilitated the closure history linkage between the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and Eurasian continent [12]. Stratigraphic records indicate that the QB and Olongbuluke Terrane underwent regional uplift during the Middle Permian, followed by the formation of a back-arc foreland basin along the Zongwulong tectonic belt in the Late Triassic, which tectonically responded to the final closure of the Animaqing-Kunlun Ocean [19]. Following continuous subduction-accretion and oceanic lithosphere consumption, the oceanic realm evolved into a collisional orogen, evidenced by the emplacement of volcanic suites and granitoid plutons petrologically analogous to those in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau collision orogen. These volcanic rocks are characterized as continental high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic series and strongly peraluminous felsic igneous associations [15]. Such intense magmatic activities significantly reworked the regional geomorphology, providing the tectonic framework for subsequent climatic transitions. The Late Triassic represented a key tectonic stage for the Animaqing-Kunlun Ocean closure, witnessing intense tectonic deformation, magmatism, and metamorphism. Substantial crustal rocks underwent folding, faulting, and metamorphic overprinting, culminating in complex tectonic architectures [34,53]. This geological scenario corroborates the genesis of the Late Triassic stratal hiatus observed in borehole data from the QB and the calcite vein cementation in structural fractures [32] (Figure 2a).
The Early Jurassic strata of the QB initiated provenance reception from adjacent orogenic belts, predominantly including the Altyn Tagh Fault Zone, South Qilian Orogen, and Kunlun Orogen, denoting the completion of continental amalgamation north of the Central Orogen [28]. During the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic, the Qiangtang Block subducted northward beneath the southern Eurasian Continent [54,55]. Intense compressional tectonism along the continental margin triggered the formation and evolution of the QB, marking the onset of the intracontinental deformation of the QB since the Jurassic. In the Early Jurassic, a series of small-scale, isolated rift-related grabens developed in the western and northern basin sectors, with restricted sedimentary extent. The dispersed provenance and subsequent pronounced shifts in provenance domains reflected the tectonic activities and denudation of surrounding orogenic belts and continental blocks [56]. The Middle Jurassic witnessed the basin’s gradual evolution into a larger, more extensive, and unified depression, with the sedimentary depocenter localized in the Dameigou area. Sediments were primarily derived from the southern East Kunlun Orogen, northern Qilian Orogen, and minor provenance contributions from inter-block areas and the Quanji Block [56,57,58,59] (Figure 2b).
During the Late Jurassic period, the stratigraphic, sedimentary architecture, and provenance were closely similar to those of the Middle Jurassic, accompanied by a potential climatic transition from warm-humid to cool-arid conditions. The basin likely persisted in an extensional tectonic regime throughout the Late Jurassic, with the formation of the present-day QB constrained to the Cenozoic [28]. Controversies exist regarding the genesis of the collisional-extensional regime in the QB, including: post-collisional extension caused by northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean beneath Eurasia [59]; extensional processes in the QB triggered by northward subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean beneath Siberia and southward subduction of the Central Tethys Ocean beneath the Qiangtang Block [56]; and accretion of the Qiangtang and Lhasa Blocks with the southern Eurasian margin during the Late Triassic–Early Jurassic and Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous [28]. Regardless of the origin, these complex tectonic processes profoundly influenced the topography and climatic evolution of the QB, making its post-Mesozoic intracontinental deformation a complex process of tectonic-climate interaction.

4. Methodology

Based on a comprehensive investigation that integrates sedimentary facies sequences, sporopollen assemblages, chemical weathering indices, and tectonic settings in the QB, this study constructs a paleoenvironmental evolution model for the QB spanning the Late Triassic to Jurassic, encompassing tectonic, climatic, and paleovegetational conditions.
Tectonic analysis clarifies the tectono-sedimentary coupling process by examining basin types (rift/foreland basins), structural deformation styles, and unconformity characteristics [60]. It elucidates how tectonic uplift controls sediment supply, basin accommodation space, and topographic-climatic feedback mechanisms [61]. Sedimentary facies analysis, based on lithological characteristics, sedimentary structures, and paleontological assemblages, precisely identifies depositional environments (e.g., deep lacustrine, fluvial-deltaic, or alluvial fan facies) [62]. Their vertical evolution sequences record short-term environmental events, such as lake-level fluctuations and hydrodynamic changes, directly reflecting the spatial configuration of paleogeographic patterns.
Sporopollen spectra reconstruct surface vegetation community structure and ecosystem types by statistically analyzing the abundance of spores and pollen genera/species in sediments [63]. They sensitively respond to changes in precipitation seasonality, temperature fluctuations, and hydrological conditions, providing direct evidence for quantifying paleoclimatic parameters and ecological transitions [64].
Chemical weathering indices (e.g., CIA, CIW) quantify weathering intensity in the provenance area. High values reflect intense mineral decomposition under warm, humid climates, while low values indicate cold, arid conditions or physically dominated erosion, offering key constraints on paleoclimatic backgrounds. Chemical weathering is characterized by the depletion of feldspars (potassium, sodium, calcium elements) in rocks and the enrichment of clay minerals (iron and aluminum elements). The higher the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA), the stronger the chemical weathering of sediments [65].
CIA = [Al2O3/(Al2O3 + CaO∗ + Na2O + K2O)] × 100
CIA values of sediments between 50 and 65 indicate cold and arid climates, 65–85 indicate warm and humid climates, and 85–100 represent hot and humid climates [66]. The Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW) is similar to CIA, while it eliminates K2O from the Equation. This simplification does not account for aluminum associated with K-feldspar, leading to artificially high values for K-feldspar-rich rocks, which may be misleading [66,67]. The Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) shows consistency with CIA results [66].
PIA = 100 × (Al2O3 + CaO∗ + Na2O − K2O)(Al2O3 − K2O)

5. The Change in Paleoclimate After the T–J Mass Extension

5.1. Sedimentary Facies Evolution

Sedimentary facies evolution serves as a critical indicator of climatic changes. Extensive research exists on the Triassic to Jurassic sedimentary facies evolution within the Qaidam Basin. Within the established tectonic framework, closure of the Paleotethys Ocean south of the QB by the end of the Late Triassic terminated marine sedimentation in this region [12,68]. Consequently, analysis of Qaidam Basin sedimentary facies evolution should be bounded by the end of the Late Triassic. While established lithological sequences indicate a consistent sedimentary hiatus within the Triassic strata of the Qaidam Basin [69,70,71], reconstructions of Carboniferous burial history suggest these Triassic strata once possessed significant thickness [72,73], a conclusion supported by drilling results confirming the hiatus [32].
During the Late Triassic, extensive volcanic rocks developed along the southern boundary of the QB [15,74], with sedimentary strata confined mainly to the northern part, represented by the Upper Triassic Mole Group littoral-swamp facies clastic succession [24]. The Lower Jurassic in the northern Qaidam Basin, specifically the Lenghu and Xiangyang Coal Mine areas, comprises gray-black mudstone and carbonaceous mudstone [75,76]. In the western sector, Lower Jurassic strata transition from middle-lower gray-black shale and mudstone upwards into braided river delta facies [74,77]. Middle Jurassic strata in the western Qaidam Basin contain coal seams [78,79], with the Dameigou section exhibiting fluvial-deltaic deposits characterized by gray conglomerate, mudstone, and shale interbeds including coal [28]. The late Middle Jurassic Shimengou Formation records a shift from delta-floodplain peatland facies to shallow-lake mudstone and semi-deep lake oil shale facies [80,81]. Upper Jurassic deposits are represented by the Hongshuigou Formation, which consists of red conglomerate and sandstone-dominated continental strata displaying crossbedding [57,82].
Sedimentary facies progression reveals distinct climatic signals. The Late Triassic littoral-swamp facies of the Mole Group [24] and Lower Jurassic fluvial-lacustrine carbonaceous mudstones [76] record humid climatic conditions. In the western QB, the evolution from Lower Jurassic deep lacustrine facies to braided river delta facies [75,77] indicates persistently warm-humid, high-precipitation conditions, correlating with peripheral orogenic uplift (Figure 3). Notably, an abrupt shift to purplish-red clastic deposits at the transition between the Early and Middle Jurassic records a short-term arid or oxidizing event [75,77]. Subsequently, Middle Jurassic coal-bearing fluvial-deltaic facies [28,78,79] and the deepening lacustrine succession of the Shimengou Formation [80,81] signify renewed warm-humid conditions. Conversely, Upper Jurassic deposition of red-bed conglomerates and sandstones, exhibiting high-energy fluvial facies with limited lacustrine development [57,82], denotes semi-arid to arid conditions.
Facies associations and environmental interpretations demonstrate that Late Triassic littoral-swamp facies restricted to the northern Qaidam Basin reflect localized humid conditions amidst basin-wide volcanism [15,24,74]. Lower Jurassic fluvial-lacustrine to deltaic systems record a warm-humid paleoclimate with high topographic relief driven by peripheral compression [75,76,77]. The purplish-red clastic facies observed at the Early to Middle Jurassic transition marks a brief arid or oxidizing event [75,77]. Subsequently, Middle Jurassic coal-bearing fluvial-deltaic facies and the deepening lacustrine facies of the Shimengou Formation document a return to warm-humid conditions [28,78,79,80,81]. Conversely, Upper Jurassic red-bed fluvial systems with minimal lacustrine development denote the predominance of semi-arid to arid climatic conditions [57,82].
Thus, reconstructions of Triassic–Jurassic sedimentary evolution show that Late Triassic sedimentation, terminated by Paleotethys Ocean closure [12,68], was restricted to northern littoral-swamp systems under humid conditions during significant volcanic activity [15,24,74]. Early Jurassic deposition initiated with fluvial-lacustrine sedimentation under warm-humid climates [75,76,77], interrupted by a transient arid or oxidizing event at the transition to the Middle Jurassic [74,77]. Middle Jurassic strata provide evidence for the restoration of warm-humid conditions, recorded by coal-forming fluvial-deltaic systems [28,78,79] and lake expansion documented in the Shimengou Formation [80,81]. Late Jurassic sedimentation concluded with semi-arid to arid fluvial-alluvial deposition represented by the Hongshuigou Formation [57,82], completing the Mesozoic climatic progression from predominantly humid to arid conditions.

5.2. Sporopollen Assemblage and Vegetation Succession

Sporopollen assemblages directly reflect vegetation types, thus serving as key indicators for studying terrestrial vegetation succession [84,85,86,87]. The main characteristics and evolutionary trends of T–J sporopollen assemblages and vegetation succession can indirectly infer paleoclimatic fluctuations in the QB [29,32,88,89,90]. During the Early Triassic of the QB, gymnosperm pollen dominated, including typical bisaccate coniferous pollen (e.g., Paleoconiferus, Protoconiferus), minor monosulcate pollen such as Cycadopites and Chasmatosporites, and striate-bisaccate pollen (e.g., Taeniaesporites, Chordasporites). Fern spore concentrations were low, mainly ornamented trilete spores like Baculatisporites and Osmundacidites. Such sporopollen assemblages indicate a vegetation dominated by coniferous gymnosperms with sparse ferns, reflecting paleoclimatic conditions suitable for gymnosperm growth—likely warm-humid, yet accompanied by seasonal variations or limiting factors that constrained fern reproduction [32,89]. Pollen of incompletely differentiated genera (e.g., Protoconiferae, Pseudopicea, Pseudopinus, Piceites) characterizes the transition from the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic. The appearance of Callialasporites signals the vegetation entering the Jurassic in the QB, during which gymnosperm pollen remained dominant, while fern sporopollen increased relative to the Upper Triassic. The increase of fern spores implies a stable rise in temperature and humidity from the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic, fostering the gradual formation of fern-friendly paleoenvironments and initiating a phase of biological diversity expansion [32,88]. The high transportability of bisaccate pollen by fluvial and aeolian processes to distal aquatic sedimentary environments—with their proportion increasing with distance from shore—implies the presence of extensive water bodies, consistent with a warm-humid paleoenvironment with developed lake-swamp systems [88]. At the end of the Early Jurassic, coniferous forests declined, while Cheirolepidiaceae plants expanded, forming littoral Cheirolepidiaceae forests [29,91], indicating a climatic shift toward aridification likely linked to global greenhouse effect fluctuations.
During the Middle Jurassic, the Dameigou Formation in the QB recorded a dominance of fern sporopollen with a rapid decline of gymnosperm sporopollen [29,32] (Figure 4). Ferns (predominantly Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae) formed lowland fern forests, accompanied by a significant reduction in conifers and Cheirolepidiaceae, with sporadic cycad-ginkgo vegetation [91]. The Bathonian stage saw a transition to mixed forests of conifers, cycad-ginkgoes, ferns, and Cheirolepidiaceae, with conifers re-emerging as the dominant gymnosperms, ferns decreasing, and partial recovery of Cheirolepidiaceae [29,32,88,90]. Fern decline suggests reduced paleohumidity, indicating aridification trends in the Middle Jurassic. Palynological records of the Late Jurassic within the QB are scarce, only found in its north (Hongshancan-1 and Sucan-1 wells), including the Alxa, North Qilian-Hexi Corridor, Middle Qilian, and the north margin of QB. A Classopollis-dominated assemblage features the following: (1) Gymnosperm pollen absolutely dominant, mainly Classopollis; (2) Minor other gymnosperm pollen (Cycadopites, Quadraeculina, Pseudopinus, Podocarpidites); (3) Low content of fern spores (Cyathidites, Deltoidospora, Densoisporites); and (4) Minor Schizaeoisporites and Concavissimisporites. This assemblage belongs to the Oxfordian stage of the Late Jurassic. It is consistent with the widespread red clastic rocks and extremely impoverished flora in the region. The low spore-pollen differentiation degree and absolute dominance of Classopollis indicate a tropical-subtropical, hot, and arid paleoclimate environment in the study area during the Late Jurassic [92].

5.3. Chemical Weathering Indices

The Jurassic sedimentary record of the QB reveals a typical synergistic evolution of weathering, climate, and carbon cycle. Ref. [93] studied the Lower Jurassic sequence (Xiaomeigou Formation to Yinmagou Formation) in the Dameigou section. The results show that this sequence transitions from black shales interbedded with sandstones and thin coal seams (Xiaomeigou Formation) to conglomerate-silty mudstones (Huoshaoshan Formation), fining-upward cycles (Tianshuigou Formation), and sandstone-variegated mudstones (Yinmagou Formation). Geochemical analyses indicate Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values ranging from 66.0 to 98.0 (average 86.1), predominantly >85. These high values signify intense chemical weathering and reflect a warm-humid paleoclimatic setting. High CIA values correspond to clay mineral enrichment (e.g., kaolinite) in the source area, while low CIA values are associated with feldspar enrichment. Notably, CIA fluctuations exhibit synchrony with negative δ13Corg excursions and Hg/TOC peaks, providing evidence for the regulatory role of weathering on the carbon cycle [93].
Concurrently, ref. [10] reached similar conclusions from their study of Middle Jurassic mudstones/shales (Dameigou Formation, Lower Shimenegou Formation, Upper Shimenegou Formation) in the Yuqia mining area, northern Qaidam Basin. CIA values ranging from 74.67% to 90.44% (average 85.65%) likewise indicate a strong weathering environment. Utilizing clay mineral geochemical discriminators (high Ga/Rb + low K2O/Al2O3 → kaolinite dominance; low Ga/Rb + high K2O/Al2O3 → illite dominance), they established that kaolinite enrichment (Ga-rich) occurred under warm-humid conditions, while illite increased (K-rich) occurred under cool-dry conditions. This defines a mineralogical response mechanism to paleoclimate [10].
Similar research on the Middle Jurassic Shimenegou Formation in Well YYY1 (Yuqia area), conducted by [90], further corroborates these findings. The well fully penetrated the lower coal-bearing member (braided river-shallow lacustrine facies conglomerates, sandstones, carbonaceous mudstones, and coal seams) and the upper shale member (deep-semi-deep lacustrine facies mudstones, marlstones, and oil shales). X-ray diffraction analyses reveal that the lower part of the coal-bearing member is dominated by clay minerals (61–98%), and carbonaceous mudstones contain 63–68% clay minerals. The shale member comprises black massive oil shale with 42–68% clay minerals and laminated oil shale averaging 42% clay minerals. The widespread distribution of kaolinite-type clay minerals, combined with the high Ga/Rb indicator from [10], is consistent with an intense chemical weathering background. Significantly, the laminated oil shale within the shale member is rich in coccolith fossils and aragonite (carbonate minerals account for 34%), providing direct evidence for biogenic deposition under warm-humid climatic conditions [90].
In addition, an evolutionary shift was revealed by research on the Middle Jurassic strata of the Dameigou section by [83]. Elemental geochemical indicators demonstrate that chemical weathering intensity significantly weakened from the late Middle Jurassic to the Late Jurassic, reflecting a climatic shift towards aridification. This resulted in limited dissolution of surficial minerals. This conclusion may be genetically linked to the late-stage enrichment of carbonate minerals (e.g., calcite, aragonite) observed within the Shimenegou Formation shale member, implying an adjustment in lake basin hydrochemical conditions concurrent with climatic change [83].
A comparison of CIW and PIA calculation curves for the Jurassic strata in the Dameigou section shows that intense weathering under a hot and humid climate in the early and middle Early Jurassic gradually weakened and then re-intensified in the middle Middle Jurassic, followed by a stage of decreasing weathering intensity, temperature, and humidity [83]. Variations in the inertinite (fusinite and semifusinite) content of Toarcian-aged coals in the Early Jurassic of the QB suggest multiple paleo-wildfire events, implying arid-anoxic conditions at the end of the Early Jurassic [79]. The moderate-to-high chemical weathering degree of fine clastic rocks from the middle-lower Jurassic in the Lenghu area of northern QB indicates a warm and humid climatic background in the northern QB during the Early–Middle Jurassic [76]. Therefore, the Early–Middle Jurassic in the QB was generally warm and humid, with short-term arid-anoxic events [77]. A comparison of chemical weathering indices between the Dameigou Formation and Shimengou Formation in the middle Jurassic of northern QB shows that the lower Dameigou Formation experienced stronger weathering than the Shimengou Formation, suggesting a climatic transition from early warm-humid to middle cold-arid and late hot-arid conditions in the Middle Jurassic [10] (Figure 5).
Aeolian sediments are direct or indirect products of dry–wet climatic cycles, controlled by relative continuous subsidence and changes in the paleo-water table. They record special environments with arid climates, sparse vegetation, and persistent aeolian activity [94]. Globally, the combined effects of Late Jurassic arid climates and wind led to widespread deposition of Late Jurassic aeolian sands and fluvial-arid lacustrine sediment associations on multiple continents [26,95].
In summary, from the perspective of weathering, existing studies on the degree of weathering in the Jurassic of the QB are relatively abundant, identifying two peak periods: the Early Jurassic and the Middle Jurassic, both representing intervals of intense weathering.

6. Tectonic-Climate Coupling Mechanisms

6.1. Chemical Weathering Indices Late Triassic–Early Jurassic: Formation of Basin-Mountain System Driven by Plate Collision and Establishment of Humid Climatic Vegetation System

On a global scale, the formation of the CAMP during the T–J transition caused dramatic global climate changes, leading to mass extinctions. Against the background of global extreme climate, the restoration of the evolutionary history of the QB requires more local geological evidence. The formation and evolution of the QB were dominated by the convergence between the Indian and Eurasian plates. During the Late Triassic, the northward movement of the Lhasa Block, Himalayan Block, and Indian carton intensified the deformation of the QB. The northward migration of the Qiangtang Blocks and its collision with the QB promoted the uplift of the East Kunlun Orogen, triggering large-scale magmatic activities in the southern QB, with the volcanic rocks of the Elashan Formation developing along the Kunlun Orogen [15,96,97]. This collision-driven tectonic event led to the termination of marine sedimentation in the southern QB and initiated the formation of a basin-mountain system, with peripheral mountain uplift shaping sedimentary and climatic patterns [75,77]. Volcanic rock formations were extensively developed in the QB during the Late Triassic, while Late Triassic sedimentary formations were largely absent within the basin proper. The Upper Triassic Mole Group on the northern margin of the QB is composed of littoral-swamp facies clastic sediments [24].
In terms of sedimentary responses, the Early Jurassic strata in the QB transitioned to fluvial-lacustrine systems, including gray-black mudstone, carbonaceous mudstone, and deep lacustrine facies in the west [75,76,77]. These facies indicate the establishment of a humid climatic regime, supported by chemical weathering evidence: Lower Jurassic strata in the Dameigou section (Xiaomeigou to Yinmagou Formations) exhibit extremely high Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values (66.0–98.0, average 86.1), predominantly exceeding 85 [83]. Such intense chemical weathering, coupled with kaolinite enrichment in source areas, reflects a warm-humid climate with high precipitation—consistent with the hydrological dynamics required for braided river delta development and lake expansion [75,77]. Consequently, the QB was primarily characterized by a warm and humid environment during the Early Jurassic (Figure 6a). Vegetation dominated by gymnosperms (e.g., Paleoconiferus, Protoconiferus) in the early Late Triassic, with abundant bisaccate conifer pollen. In the Early Jurassic, fern spores (e.g., Cyathidites, Deltoidspora) and drought-tolerant Classopollis increased in palynological assemblages [32,89]. Lithologically, the Early Jurassic sequences changed to include purple-red clastic rocks [24,75,76,77,83].
Notably, this humid period was punctuated by short-term perturbations. A transient arid/anoxic event at the Early–Middle Jurassic transition is recorded by abrupt shifts to purplish red clastics [75,77,98], while inertinite enrichment in Early Jurassic coals suggests paleo-wildfire events linked to arid-anoxic conditions towards the end of the Early Jurassic [79]. These events likely reflect minor adjustments in the global greenhouse effect or local tectonic activity, while they did not disrupt the overall establishment of the humid climatic vegetation system during this phase. Short-term drought and hypoxia events may have occurred within this predominantly humid regime.

6.2. Middle Jurassic: Vegetation Adaptation Under Tectonic Stress Transition and Climatic Fluctuations

During the Early–Middle Jurassic, the QB experienced extensional stress, forming intracontinental rift basins, with the northern QB developing faulted lake basin sediments dominated by semi-deep to deep lacustrine dark mudstones [99]. Simultaneously, the uplift of the eastern Kunlun orogenic belt in the south of the QB indirectly led to a northwest migration of the sedimentary center [28]. Evidence for persistent humid conditions during the early-middle Middle Jurassic (pre-Bathonian) includes coal seams within Middle Jurassic strata in the western QB [78,79], and the Dameigou section exhibiting fluvial-deltaic gray conglomerate-mudstone-shale interbeds with coal [28], indicating conditions favorable for peat accumulation. The Late Middle Jurassic Shimengou Formation further transitioned from delta-floodplain peatland to shallow-lake mudstone and semi-deep lake oil shale [80,81], reflecting lake expansion under sustained precipitation.
Palynological and geochemical data from the Dameigou Formation (Aalenian-Bajocian) support this humid climate: fern spores accounted for 60–70% (predominantly Polypodiaceae), algal microfossils were abundant in oil shales, and CIA values ranged from 75 to 88 [10,29,81]. This assemblage reflects a hot and humid climate with abundant annual precipitation. Vegetation during this early-middle Middle Jurassic humid phase adapted accordingly: warm and humid conditions fostered the proliferation of ferns (dominated by Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae), forming lowland fern forests. Gymnosperms, such as conifers and Cheirolepidiaceae, declined sharply due to high humidity, while cycadophytes-ginkgophytes maintained a presence [29,32]. However, a significant climatic shift toward aridification occurred during the Bathonian. This is recorded by a sudden increase in the proportion of the drought-tolerant pollen Classopollis within palynological assemblages and a sharp drop in the CIA [90]. Consequently, the vegetation transitioned: it evolved into a mixed forest of conifers, cycadophytes-ginkgophytes, ferns, and Cheirolepidiaceae. Conifers, adapted to drought tolerance, emerged as the dominant group. Ferns decreased due to their sensitivity to water availability, while Cheirolepidiaceae, as drought-tolerant taxa, increased in abundance. This shift reflects clear ecological adaptation to regional aridification [29,32,88,90] (Figure 6b).

6.3. Late Jurassic: Large-Scale Aridification Driven by Multi-Stage Tectonic Events

During the Late Jurassic, the QB was driven by multiple phases of tectonic movements (such as the post-collisional extension caused by the northward subduction of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean beneath Eurasia, the remote effects of the northward subduction of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean beneath the Siberian continent, and the southward subduction of the neo-Tethys Ocean beneath the Qiangtang Blocks, or the docking process of the Qiangtang and Lhasa Blocks with the southern margin of Eurasia) [28,56]. This complex tectonic setting resulted in a sedimentary system dominated by fluvial and alluvial fan deposits, lacking a stable lacustrine environment.
Lithofacies show that conglomerates and sandstones are developed in the red continental strata of the Hongshuigou Formation, with strong hydrodynamic sedimentary structures, such as cross-bedding, indicating fluvial, coastal lake, and floodplain environments [57,82]. Biological systems collapsed under these arid conditions. Late Jurassic palynological records in the QB are scarce, with available data from northern wells (Hongshancan-1, Sucan-1) revealing assemblages dominated by Classopollis—pollen of Cheirolepidiaceae, a family adapted to arid environments [29,99] (Figure 6c). Fern spores are rare, and gymnosperm diversity is low, reflecting an impoverished flora unable to thrive in dry conditions. The absence of coal seams and organic-rich mudstones further indicates reduced primary productivity, consistent with water stress and limited organic matter preservation (Figure 6d). However, the occurrence of eolian sand deposits in the region [94] and the decrease in weathering intensity shown by chemical weathering indices [83] together confirm that the climate had gradually shifted from warm and humid in the Early–Middle Jurassic to large-scale aridification, generally presenting semi-arid to arid environmental characteristics [77,100].
Globally, Late Jurassic aridification was widespread, as evidenced by aeolian sands and fluvial-arid lacustrine associations deposited across multiple continents [26,95]. In the QB, this trend was intensified through local tectonics, which disrupted the previous equilibrium between mountain uplift and moisture transport. Multi-stage tectonic activity likely triggered episodic pulses of aridification, each progressively reinforcing the loss of lake systems, vegetation cover, and chemical weathering intensity. Ultimately, the sedimentary transition to red-bed-dominated, low-organic sedimentation by the end of the Jurassic marked the completion of this long-term climatic trajectory from humid to arid. This paleoenvironmental framework set the stage for the Cenozoic environmental evolution of the region.

7. Summary

This study reconstructs the tectonic and climatic evolution of the QB on the north-eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau following the T–J mass extinction. Integrated analyses reveal that the convergence between the QB and Qiangtang/Songpan-Ganzi Block drove uplift of the East Kunlun Orogen and strike-slip movement along the Altyn Tagh Fault, establishing a basin-mountain system. Initially, elevated global atmospheric CO2 combined with regional tectonics to produce a warm-humid Late Triassic to Early Jurassic climate, supporting gymnosperm/fern-dominated ecosystems and coal formation. A significant shift occurred during the Middle Jurassic: tectonic regimes transitioned from extension to compression, while the climate evolved progressively from warm-humid, through a cold-arid phase, to a hot-arid state. This aridification, particularly pronounced in the Bathonian stage (marked by a surge in Classopollis pollen and a sharp decline in Chemical Index of Alteration—CIA values), intensified further in the Late Jurassic due to the Yanshanian orogeny and distal subduction influences. Late Jurassic compression induced thrust-strike-slip faulting and southeastward migration of basin depocenters, leading to the development of extensive aeolian dune fields (e.g., Hongshuigou Formation) and arid lacustrine systems under persistent aridity and intensified atmospheric circulation. Understanding these profound paleoclimatic shifts, particularly the mechanisms and pace of aridification driven by tectonic uplift and global/regional circulation changes, provides critical long-term context for assessing modern climate variability and anthropogenic impacts on water resources and desertification processes in the QB, informing strategies for sustainable development. This study establishes a cascading “tectonic forcing–climatic modulation-ecosystem response” framework for understanding Mesozoic tectonic-climate-vegetation coupling along this critical margin in the north of Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Future studies should focus on high-resolution chronostratigraphy, quantitative paleoprecipitation/paleotemperature proxies, and coupled tectonic-climate modeling to refine the paleoclimatic changes and tectonic evolution of the QB.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.C. and Y.Z.; methodology, A.X.; software, Z.C.; validation, J.Z., H.W. and D.L.; formal analysis, X.C.; investigation, N.J.; data curation, R.C.; writing—original draft preparation, R.C.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z., J.Z. and H.W.; visualization, R.C.; supervision, Y.Z., X.C. and H.W.; project administration, Y.Z.; funding acquisition, Y.Z., N.J. and X.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant numbers [42372251, 42074075, 42274097, and 42304092]. The APC was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number [42372251].

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

Our thanks are extended to the chief editor and the four anonymous reviewers for their constructive reviews, which have greatly improved our manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors acknowledge that there are no conflicts of interest recorded.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
T–JTriassic–Jurassic
CAMPCentral Atlantic Magmatic Province
QBQaidam Block
CIAChemical Index of Alteration

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Figure 1. (a) Tectonic outline of the China mainland (modified by [16,36]); (b) Simplified geological map of the Northern Tibetan Plateau showing the tectonic subdivision, major tectonic boundaries, and prominent outcrops in this study (modified by [16,37]).
Figure 1. (a) Tectonic outline of the China mainland (modified by [16,36]); (b) Simplified geological map of the Northern Tibetan Plateau showing the tectonic subdivision, major tectonic boundaries, and prominent outcrops in this study (modified by [16,37]).
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Figure 2. Paleogeographic reconstructions for the time interval at (a) ~230 and (b) ~180 Ma. (modified by [45]). The blue-marked plates represent the QB.
Figure 2. Paleogeographic reconstructions for the time interval at (a) ~230 and (b) ~180 Ma. (modified by [45]). The blue-marked plates represent the QB.
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Figure 3. Sedimentary section through the Lower–Upper Jurassic measured in the Dameigou area, northern QB (modified by [83]). The right-hand column displays the lithic composition data (modified by [28]).
Figure 3. Sedimentary section through the Lower–Upper Jurassic measured in the Dameigou area, northern QB (modified by [83]). The right-hand column displays the lithic composition data (modified by [28]).
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Figure 4. A suggested reconstruction of the Early–Middle Jurassic vegetation in the QB (modified by [29]).
Figure 4. A suggested reconstruction of the Early–Middle Jurassic vegetation in the QB (modified by [29]).
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Figure 5. Collection and analysis of Jurassic CIA data in the QB [10,83,90,93].
Figure 5. Collection and analysis of Jurassic CIA data in the QB [10,83,90,93].
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Figure 6. Paleogeography reconstruction of the northwestern QB in the Jurassic period (modified by [56]). (a) Early Jurassic; (b) Middle Jurassic; (c) Late Jurassic; (d) the blue arrow represents the migration of sedimentary centers, which also shows the evolution of vegetation.
Figure 6. Paleogeography reconstruction of the northwestern QB in the Jurassic period (modified by [56]). (a) Early Jurassic; (b) Middle Jurassic; (c) Late Jurassic; (d) the blue arrow represents the migration of sedimentary centers, which also shows the evolution of vegetation.
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Chai, R.; Zhou, Y.; Xiong, A.; Chen, Z.; Liu, D.; Jiang, N.; Cheng, X.; Zhang, J.; Wu, H. A Review of Jurassic Paleoclimatic Changes and Tectonic Evolution in the Qaidam Block, Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Sustainability 2025, 17, 7337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167337

AMA Style

Chai R, Zhou Y, Xiong A, Chen Z, Liu D, Jiang N, Cheng X, Zhang J, Wu H. A Review of Jurassic Paleoclimatic Changes and Tectonic Evolution in the Qaidam Block, Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Sustainability. 2025; 17(16):7337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167337

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chai, Ruiyang, Yanan Zhou, Anliang Xiong, Zhenwei Chen, Dongwei Liu, Nan Jiang, Xin Cheng, Jingong Zhang, and Hanning Wu. 2025. "A Review of Jurassic Paleoclimatic Changes and Tectonic Evolution in the Qaidam Block, Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau" Sustainability 17, no. 16: 7337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167337

APA Style

Chai, R., Zhou, Y., Xiong, A., Chen, Z., Liu, D., Jiang, N., Cheng, X., Zhang, J., & Wu, H. (2025). A Review of Jurassic Paleoclimatic Changes and Tectonic Evolution in the Qaidam Block, Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Sustainability, 17(16), 7337. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17167337

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