Thermography and Lighting Systems Methodology to Promote Sustainability and Energy Efficiency Awareness

Abstract

This work presents a system that integrates infrared thermography with two specially designed devices to enhance learning and promote sustainability awareness among 14-year-old secondary school students in Spain. An experimental and a control group were included in an experimental research design. While the control group attended conventional problem-solving classes, the experimental group participated in practical exercises utilizing thermographic cameras and two custom-built devices. Pretests and post-tests were administered to evaluate students’ theoretical and practical understanding of infrared radiation, physics, sustainability, and energy efficiency. A gender-based stratified analysis was conducted to investigate the possible impact of gender on learning outcomes and to obtain information for encouraging female participation in STEM professions to guarantee objective results. The results revealed statistically significant improvements in post-test scores compared to pretest results, demonstrating enhanced learning outcomes. The experimental group outperformed the control group, confirming the effectiveness of the innovative proposed methodology for learning complex scientific concepts. Additionally, students in the experimental group displayed high levels of curiosity, intrinsic motivation, and satisfaction, as observed through participant observation and a perception survey. While the survey indicated favorable responses regarding satisfaction, self-confidence, and learning, scalability received mixed opinions, potentially due to limited student familiarity with thermography’s broader applications. Overall, these findings underscore the potential of thermography as a powerful educational tool to improve scientific literacy and sustainability awareness. Future research should expand on this approach, exploring applications emphasizing critical thinking and problem-solving skills while leveraging thermographic technology to promote interdisciplinary learning.

1. Introduction

Infrared thermographic cameras, while functionally similar to digital cameras in capturing images, rely on fundamentally different physical principles. Digital cameras detect and record images using visible light (wavelengths between 0.4–0.7 µm), which corresponds to the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye. In contrast, thermographic cameras detect infrared (IR) radiation, which operates in the 8–15 µm range (Figure 1), well beyond the range of human vision. Although not all objects emit radiation in the visible spectrum, every object above absolute zero emits infrared radiation. This IR radiation can be absorbed, reflected, or transmitted depending on the physical properties of the object.

Thermographic cameras detect the intensity of the infrared radiation and apply principles such as Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, among other physical laws, to estimate the surface temperature of the objects captured in the thermographic image. Each pixel in the thermal image represents a temperature or an IR radiation intensity value, resulting in a detailed “temperature map” that provides critical thermal information about the scene.

The accelerating effects of climate change, energy inefficiency, and environmental degradation demand urgent educational strategies that can empower the next generation with the knowledge and tools to act. Equipping students with the skills to understand and mitigate environmental impacts is not only a pedagogical necessity but also a societal imperative. This study addresses this global need by integrating infrared thermography, a powerful yet underutilized technology, into secondary education as a means to promote sustainability awareness and engagement in STEAM (science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics) disciplines.

1.1. Educational Potential of Infrared Thermography

Infrared thermography has proven invaluable across a wide range of fields, such as engineering, medicine, materials science, building, industry, art, etc. [1]. Various modalities of thermography have been developed, extending the application of this technology into these and other domains [2,3].

Thermography also holds significant potential for teaching and learning in relation to concepts involving radiation and heat [4]. Despite its educational potential, thermography remains underutilized as a teaching tool, with limited research examining its use from a pedagogical perspective. As noted in several studies [5,6], the historically high cost of thermographic cameras has posed a significant barrier to their adoption in academic institutions. However, recent technological advancements have led to reduced costs, allowing thermographic cameras to be used not only in universities but also in high schools and even primary education settings. Low-cost alternatives are now available, further broadening access to this technology for educational purposes [5].

Several studies have explored the application of thermography in various educational contexts, including health and medical sciences [7,8], chemistry [6,9], building sciences [10], industrial technology [11], and biology [12]. In higher education, 3D visualization techniques have been employed to support health science learning [7]. Thermography has even been integrated into augmented reality-based learning methodologies [13]. Additionally, thermography has been applied to detect emotional states in educational contexts [14].

The role of thermography as a pedagogical tool, particularly as a supplement to theoretical, classroom-only instruction, has been studied. Studies have shown that it enhances learning by combining conceptual content with hands-on, practical experiences. Everyday-life examples have been used to illustrate the effective real-world applications of physical laws [15] and challenge common misconceptions about radiative heat transfer [16]. Pendrill [17] demonstrated the educational potential of thermography in dynamic systems by using a handheld infrared camera to track the heating and cooling of magnetic brakes. In the field of chemistry, ref. [18] employed thermal cameras to observe phase-change materials in real time, correlating thermal signatures with energy storage processes. Similarly, ref. [19] reported that students who used infrared cameras developed a deeper and more intuitive understanding of thermodynamics. Even remote-access science laboratories have incorporated this technology. Ref. [20] showed that, through the use of digital twins, thermal cameras can stream video and sensor data to the cloud, enabling learners worldwide to visualize, analyze, and discuss thermal phenomena in chemistry experiments.

The feasibility of using low-cost thermal cameras in medical and educational environments has also been validated [8], and their integration into physics teaching has been highly praised [9].

1.2. Sustainability and Infrared Thermography

In the broader context of climate change and sustainability, infrared thermography plays a critical role. With the increasingly urgent need to address climate change, thermography is being used to monitor environmental and energy systems more effectively. For instance, in energy efficiency assessments, where several applications have been explored [21], thermography helps to detect thermal losses in buildings, leading to improved insulation strategies that reduce both energy consumption and carbon emissions. It can also be used to assess urban green spaces [22]. In a complementary way, the use of infrared thermography for preventive maintenance and defect detection can significantly improve industrial and logistical processes by avoiding reprocessing, excessive material waste, logistical inefficiencies, additional energy usage, and other forms of environmental degradation [23]. Infrared thermography is a valuable tool for evaluating existing buildings to identify sources of energy loss. This method provides critical data that can be used to estimate and improve energy efficiency [24], and regional policies, such as those established by the European Union (EU), that play a crucial role in promoting energy efficiency in buildings. These policies often provide financial support and strategic incentives to stimulate investments in energy-saving technologies [25].

This technology also plays a significant role in evaluating the urban heat island effect, a phenomenon where cities become significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas due to human activity. This research helps urban planners mitigate heat island effects by promoting the use of vegetation and heat-reflective building materials to reduce heat absorption in city environments, thus lowering the overall energy consumption needed for cooling [26]. Thermography allows for the analysis of temperature variations in urban settings, supporting strategies to mitigate this effect. Furthermore, thermography is employed in the study of vegetation and ecosystem health, which serve as sensitive indicators of climate change. By monitoring surface temperatures of plants and soil, researchers can assess the impact of heat stress, water scarcity, and other climate-related factors [27]. In addition, thermography can be used in climate-change-related tasks such as glaciology to track the effects of climate change on ice masses, particularly glaciers. Monitoring changes in the glacier surface’s temperature provides valuable data on melting rates and the overall stability of ice sheets [28]. Finally, another important application of thermography is wildfire prevention and response. In [29], infrared thermography was used for wildfire detection and analysis in forested areas. Thermographic cameras mounted on drones provided real-time thermal data on fire intensity, allowing for quicker response times and potentially reducing the destruction caused by wildfires, which have become more severe due to climate change.

Consequently, thermography contributes to broader human development efforts, particularly the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). More specifically, thermography has been identified as a key technology in supporting SDG-7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) and SDG-11 (Sustainable Cities and Communities) by accelerating the identification of CO₂ mitigation strategies [30]. As part of the remote sensing resources within geomatics, thermography also advances SDG-13 (Climate Action) [31]. Other SDGs have recognized areas where thermography can contribute to fulfilling the UN 2030 Agenda [32]. However, the present work aims to identify the role of thermography in advancing SDG-4 (Quality Education) and SDG-5 (Gender Equality), emphasizing its potential to enhance equitable access to scientific learning and technological empowerment.

1.3. The Role of Infrared Thermography in Gender Equity in STEAM

The gender gap in STEAM disciplines remains a significant challenge, particularly in secondary education, where early interventions could help mitigate disparities that persist in higher education and professional careers. Studies indicate that sociocultural stereotypes, lack of encouragement, and limited exposure to engaging STEAM experiences significantly discourage female students from pursuing careers in these fields [33,34]. This underrepresentation of women in STEAM-related careers not only reflects inequities in education but also limits the diversity of perspectives essential for addressing sustainability challenges.

Innovative educational tools, such as thermography, provide a unique opportunity to bridge this gap. Thermography introduces visually engaging, hands-on activities that make complex scientific concepts, like heat transfer and energy efficiency, both tangible and relatable. By integrating such tools into the curriculum, educators can promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills while creating an inclusive environment that counteracts gender stereotypes. Research shows that introducing STEAM-oriented interventions early in education not only boosts interest and confidence among female students but also positively influences their career trajectories [34].

Moreover, linking these educational interventions with sustainability-focused themes aligns directly with global efforts to achieve the United Nations’ SDGs, particularly SDG-5. Real-world applications, such as analyzing energy efficiency in buildings or assessing environmental heat patterns, help foster a sense of relevance and personal agency. This dual focus on sustainability and inclusiveness is particularly critical in addressing broader societal challenges such as rural depopulation, where STEAM graduates can contribute significantly to socioeconomic growth and innovation [35].

By leveraging tools such as thermography, secondary education can play a pivotal role in reducing gender disparities in STEAM while simultaneously equipping all students with the skills necessary to contribute to sustainable development. This approach not only prepares students for meaningful careers but also contributes to the cultivation of a diverse and innovative workforce capable of tackling global challenges.

These applications demonstrate the powerful intersection of infrared thermography with inclusiveness and efforts to mitigate climate change and promote sustainability. Therefore, the objective of this work is to develop a new procedure to enhance the competencies related to sustainability and climate change among high school students, considering gender. Since there are previous studies that detect, in a prospective and statistical way, the potentialities of thermography in education [36], a new device will be ad hoc designed to teach the main principles of thermography and to raise awareness among students about the importance of energy saving in lighting systems.

1.4. Research Questions

This study investigates the educational potential of integrating thermography into the Physics and Chemistry curriculum for second-year students in Compulsory Secondary Education. Specifically, it aims to assess the extent to which thermography enhances students’ acquisition of competencies related to thermodynamics. The research also explores how the use of thermographic tools influences students’ awareness and sensitivity toward sustainability and energy efficiency. In addition, the study evaluates students’ perceptions of thermography in terms of its impact on their motivation, problem-solving skills, and engagement with new technologies. Finally, it examines whether gender plays a significant role in mediating the educational outcomes associated with the use of thermography in the classroom.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

For this research, a multisensor light bulb evaluation (MLBE) device was ad hoc designed (Figure 2). It has been granted industrial property protection [37]. This device is a system designed to quantitatively and qualitatively compare traditional lighting systems using thermography, serving both educational and productive purposes (e.g., calibration, luminaire efficiency evaluation, etc.).

The design has two main objectives: on the one hand, to raise awareness of sustainability and energy efficiency, showing and teaching the impact of the different types of bulbs and their associated energy consumption; on the other hand, to provide technological training and explain physical concepts related to energy parameters.

The device comprises the following components:

• Three bulbs with the same light output but different technologies: an LED bulb, a fluorescent tube bulb, and an incandescent bulb. The latter two bulbs are not energy-efficient. All three bulbs are connected by a parallel circuit, which means that they are connected to the same 220 V electrical voltage;
• A support system that enables the bulbs to be oriented optimally during the thermographic capture phase. Each bulb is individually isolated and equipped with an internal thermometer placed near the bulb to evaluate the temperature increase. In addition, the system has an ammeter in each of the bulb circuits that measures the electrical intensity and power of each bulb. These data are collected in real time;
• A radio frequency data transmission system that allows the real-time export of data to either a mobile application or a computer.

The lighting system is powered by connections from three different switches so that they can be activated independently. Additionally, next to each bulb, a thermocouple is integrated into the system to independently measure the heat emitted by each bulb. All collected data are sent to a control unit that records the information continuously based on time (real time) and allows data monitoring and uploading to a server or mobile device (Figure 2).

Currently, no educational devices are capable of providing an objective and multisensory comparison (electricity, lighting, and thermography) between several lighting sources at the same time. Existing solutions are limited to electrical data, which limits students’ comprehensive understanding of physical phenomena.

The other system used for this research was adapted from the proof of concept entitled ITACA [38]. A controller, a power supply, and two Peltier cells form the core components of the platform’s design (Figure 3). The Peltier cells are equipped with contact temperature sensors to record the actual temperature of their surface and display it on the screen, thereby providing a physical reference of the temperature to compare with the thermographic data. The temperature of the hob is regulated using a potentiometer located at the bottom, achieving thermal contrasts of up to 20 °C relative to the ambient temperature. As the Peltier cell generates substantial heat on its rear side, it was necessary to include two fans in the platform to facilitate heat dissipation and prevent excessive heating of the system that would impair the reading of the thermographic image. Various geometries and dissipation systems were evaluated before selecting the most suitable solution.

An experimental design was applied to evaluate both the performance of the teaching–learning activity and the students’ perception of it. Initially, the teaching methodology based on thermography was introduced, which was based on three different activities involving thermographic cameras.

Two thermal imaging cameras were used (

Table 1. Thermographic cameras used for the experiment.

	Resolution	FoV	Accuracy	Sensitivity
Flir E6	320 × 240 *	45° × 34°	±2%/2 °C	<0.06 °C
Flir C3	80 × 60	41° × 31°	±2%/2 °C	<0.1 °C

* Multispectral dynamic imaging (MSX) adds definition to the visible spectrum of IR images by detecting the edges of objects and incorporating this detail into thermography, making it easier to interpret an image. MSX adds the definition of the visible spectrum to IR images by detecting the edges of objects and incorporating this detail into thermography.

), both of which were handheld devices but with different resolutions: the Flir E6 and the Flir C3. Providing students with two different cameras served a dual purpose: raising awareness of the importance of resolution in infrared imaging and demonstrating the differences between infrared and RGB images (since both cameras were also equipped with RGB sensors).

2.2. Methodology

The applied methodology was based on an experimental educational design, employing the same questionnaire for both the pretest and post-test. These assessments included both a weighted score and a Likert-10 scale. This study involved an experimental group and a control group. In this way, the main variables affecting students’ performance were controlled in order to draw robust conclusions about the research questions raised (Figure 4).

First, the pretest (

Table 2. Questions from the questionnaire that have been linked to each objective.

Cod	Question	Objective
A1	Which type of bulb has the highest energy efficiency?	Previous knowledge of sustainability
A2	Which type of bulb converts more of its energy into heat?	Previous knowledge of sustainability Previous knowledge of physics
A3	Consumption of an incandescent bulb compared to an LED bulb.	Previous knowledge of sustainability Previous knowledge of physics
A4	Relationship between the heat emitted and the type of bulb for the same power. If an incandescent bulb and an LED bulb consume 60 watts and 10 watts, respectively, and each is used for 5 h a day over a year, how much energy in kWh will each consume, and how much more efficient is the LED bulb in terms of energy consumption?	Previous knowledge of sustainability Previous knowledge of physics Troubleshooting
A5	A thermal imaging camera experiment was conducted to measure the heat emitted by different types of bulbs. If an incandescent, an LED, and a halogen bulb produce the same amount of light, which one would show the highest temperatures in the thermal image?	Previous knowledge of physics Knowledge of new technologies
	What is the primary function of a Peltier cell?	Previous knowledge of physics
	Thermography is used to	Knowledge of new technologies

) was administered to all students to control for variables related to previous knowledge of thermography and energy efficiency. The knowledge-based questions were evaluated using a 10-point scale as a multiple-choice test; each correct answer was worth 2 points, with four possible answers per question.

After completing the pretest, all students received some introductory theoretical lessons in physics, specifically focusing on heat transfer by radiation. These lessons did not include any definitions or explanations of thermography. This instruction was identical for both the experimental and control groups.

For the experimental activity, students were divided into two groups.

• Experimental group: students in this group engaged with the innovative methodology based on thermography and the designed devices.
• Control group: students in this group received traditional instruction, based on conventional problems and case studies.

Subsequently, a post-test was administered to all students to evaluate the knowledge acquired and to assess the effectiveness of the activity. This questionnaire (

Table 3. Questions in the perception questionnaire that have been linked with each objective.

Question		ITEM
C1	I enjoy the activity	Satisfaction
C2	I would like to do more activities of this type	Satisfaction
C3	I felt comfortable doing the activity	Self-confidence
C4	The activity has made me see how important energy efficiency is in lighting	Learning
C5	I found the activity interesting to learn about energy efficiency	Sustainability awareness
C6	I found the activity interesting to learn how the bulbs work	Sustainability awareness
C7	I found the activity useful to put into practice what I learned in the subjects of physics and chemistry	Utility
C8	I think thermography can be used in other courses	Scalability

) was specifically designed to evaluate four subjects:

• Knowledge of sustainability;
• Knowledge of physics;
• Troubleshooting;
• Knowledge of new technologies.

Additionally, in order to understand students’ perceptions of the activity, a perception survey was also conducted (Table 3). The survey consisted of eight questions designed to assess, using a Likert-10 scale, different items such as satisfaction with the activity, awareness of sustainability self-confidence, perception of personal learning, utility, and scalability of the approach.

3. Results

Once the methodology was applied, data were processed using RStudio, specifically version R4.4.2 [39]. The sample consisted of twenty-four students (twelve female/twelve male) in the control group and seventeen students (ten female/seven male) in the experimental group. All participants were in their second year of Compulsory Secondary Education.

Firstly, a t-test for mean comparison was conducted to ensure that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups (experimental and control); the result of the analysis demonstrated this point (T-statistic = −0.92; p-value = 0.363).

No specific bias was detected in the formation of the groups. The methodology described in the previous section was applied in both groups. The pretest and post-test were administered, along with a perception survey. During the activity, a professor conducted the activity and took observational notes on both the development of the activity and the attitude of the students.

3.1. Pretest and Post-Test: Gaussian and Robust Analysis

Initially, a descriptive statistical analysis was conducted to summarize the data. Measures of central tendency (e.g., mean and median) and variability (e.g., standard deviation and interquartile range) were calculated to provide an overview of the distribution of the data across the variables of interest, such as group, gender, and test type. These statistics offer insights into general patterns and potential differences in the dataset prior to conducting more advanced inferential tests (

Table 4. Descriptive analysis of the results of the questionnaire.

Group	Gender	Questionnaire	Score
			Mean	Std.	Count
Control	All Genders	Post-test	4.33	1.37	24
Control *	All Genders	Pretest	3.44	1.47	25
Control	Female	Post-test	4.67	1.61	12
Control	Female	Pretest	3.17	0.94	12
Control	Male	Post-test	4.00	1.04	12
Control	Male	Pretest	3.69	1.84	13
Experimental	All Genders	Post-test	6.65	1.06	17
Experimental *	All Genders	Pretest	3.81	1.25	21
Experimental	Female	Post-test	6.80	0.92	10
Experimental	Female	Pretest	4.11	0.93	9
Experimental	Male	Post-test	6.43	1.27	7
Experimental	Male	Pretest	3.58	1.44	12

* Some students participated in the pretest, but they did not complete the post-test.

).

Additionally, violin and box plots (Figure 5) were obtained to draw the first conclusions about the results. As the reader can see, a significant difference in scores between the experimental and control groups is reported. The distribution of student scores is illustrated in the violin plots (Figure 5, top panel). Overall, the post-test results (across both genders) exhibit a more skewed distribution compared to the pretest. In the pretest phase, when students had little to no prior knowledge of thermography, the distribution of scores was more homogeneous and approximately normal.

Following the intervention, student performance improved; however, the variability in outcomes also increased. This increased skewness in the post-test distribution suggests that although all students began with comparable baseline knowledge, some assimilated the new concepts more effectively than others. This divergence in learning outcomes accounts for the post-test bias.

Notably, this distributional bias appears slightly more pronounced in the post-test results of male students compared to their female counterparts. Nonetheless, the difference is marginal and does not support any strong or statistically meaningful conclusions regarding gender-based performance differences in this context.

After completing the descriptive analysis, a one-way or two-way ANOVA (analysis of variance) was applied to assess whether there were statistically significant differences in the outcome variable (e.g., post-test scores) based on the independent variables: gender (codified as male/female) and group (codified as experimental/control).

The ANOVA tests for the main effects of factors such as group and gender, as well as their interaction effects (e.g., whether the effect of the intervention differs between males and females). Additionally, the ANOVA examines whether there are significant differences in scores between the pretest and post-test conditions.

• Main effects: evaluate the independent effect of each factor (e.g., group, gender, and test) on the outcome.
• Interaction effects: determine whether the impact of one factor (e.g., group) changes depending on the level of another factor (e.g., gender or test).

Please note that a significant F-value in the ANOVA (

Table 5. Questions in the questionnaire that have been linked to each objective.

Source	Df	Sum Sq.	F-Value	Pr (>F)	Eta-Squared (η2)
Group	1	24.824	14.19	0.000 **	0.120
Gender	1	2.667	1.52	0.220	0.020
Test	1	13.500	7.72	0.007 *	0.240
Group:Gender	1	0.213	0.12	0.728	0.007
Group:Test	1	3.742	2.14	0.147	0.070
Gender:Test	1	4.348	2.49	0.118	0.008
Group:Gender:Test	1	2.380	1.36	0.247	0.009
Residuals	79	138.22

* Implies p in [0.001–0.01], ** implies p < 0.0001.

) indicates that the group means are not all equal and that at least one group differs significantly from the others.

Given that the assumption of normality was not met, as determined by the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (p > 0.05 for scores grouped by group, gender, and test), a non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test was also employed, in lieu of ANOVA (

Table 6. Results of the Kruskal–Wallis test.

	Chi-Squared	Df	p
Group	8.950	1	0.003 *
Gender	1.495	1	0.222
Test	19.56	1	0.000 *

* Implies p < 0.05.

). The Kruskal–Wallis test does not assume a normal distribution; instead, it ranks the data and compares the medians of the groups. This test was used to compare the results obtained from the ANOVA by ensuring that the conclusions remain valid even when the assumption of normality could be relaxed. In this way, the Kruskal–Wallis test is particularly suitable for comparing the distributions of more than two independent groups when the data are skewed or contain outliers. A significant result would indicate that the median outcome differs across the groups.

This multi-step approach ensures a comprehensive analysis by starting with descriptive insights, assessing group differences using ANOVA, and then validating those findings with the Kruskal–Wallis test to account for any potential violations of normality assumptions.

To conduct an ANOVA using the dataset, we can analyze how the dependent variable (score) varies across the different levels of the categorical variables (gender, group, and test) and their interactions.

To evaluate the practical significance of the effects observed in the ANOVA, eta-squared (η²) effect sizes were calculated. The results showed that the test (pretest vs. post-test) had a large effect (η² = 0.24), indicating a substantial difference in student performance after the intervention. The group (control vs. experimental) had a moderate effect (η² = 0.12), suggesting that the intervention itself contributed meaningfully to the improvement in scores. The group × test interaction also showed a moderate effect (η² = 0.07), which implies that the experimental group experienced greater gains from the pretest to the post-test when compared to the control group. In contrast, the effects of gender and its interactions were small (η² < 0.05), indicating that gender did not meaningfully influence the outcomes in this study.

The effect of group (control vs. experimental) is statistically significant (p = 0.000, F = 14.19). This means that the intervention (experimental group) had a significant impact on scores compared to the control group, while the effect of gender (p = 0.220, F = 1.52) is not significant, indicating there is no strong evidence that male and female participants performed differently overall.

The effect of the test is highly significant (p = 0.007, F = 13.500), reflecting a substantial difference between the pretest and post-test scores. This suggests that students demonstrated significant improvements after the intervention, regardless of group or gender.

On the other hand, the interaction between group and gender is not significant (p = 0.728, F = 0.12), indicating that the difference between the control and experimental groups does not depend on gender; both males and females experienced similar effects from the intervention.

The interaction between the group and the test is not highly significant (p = 0.147, F = 2.14), indicating that the effect of the intervention (control group vs. experimental group) is not significantly different between the pretest and the post-test. This suggests that the intervention had a different impact on the scores before and after the test, which might mean the experimental group improved more after the test compared to the control group, as can be seen in the results of the mean shown in Table 4.

The interaction between gender and test (p = 0.118, F = 2.49) is not significant, indicating that the change from pretest to post-test does not differ significantly between males and females.

Finally, the three-way interaction (group × gender × test) (p = 0.247, F = 1.360) is not significant. This suggests that the combined effect of group, gender, and test type does not differ in a statistically meaningful way.

3.2. Results of the Perception Survey

As shown in Figure 6, all responses indicate consistently high and positive results. Student perceptions of satisfaction (items C1 and C2) are very high, with very low variability, indicating a consensus among students who felt comfortable performing the activity, probably due to the appropriate design of the teaching methodology and/or the clarity of the instructions provided. Specifically, the results of self-confidence were high; however, the variability was slightly higher than C1 and C2. This may reflect the fact that self-confidence is more closely tied to individual personality traits, which can differ significantly from student to student.

Question C4 shows adequate results with a similar median value, although the variability is high. This suggests that students’ viewpoints on these aspects are heterogeneous, perhaps due to the individual student’s previous context, such as a prior interest in the subject or pre-existing competences.

Regarding sustainability awareness (items C5 and C6), the same pattern is observed: the results were positive, but variability remained high. The results of the question that measures the utility of the activity regarding learning the principles of the course (C7) were conclusive, with a high median and low variability. This can be related to the results obtained for C1 and C2 (since utility could be related to satisfaction).

Finally, the response with the highest variability pertains to the scalability of the applied methodology (item C8). This could be attributed to students’ limited familiarity with thermography and their consequent difficulty in imagining its broader applications beyond the current context.

4. Conclusions

A methodology that integrates infrared thermography with specific electronic devices was proposed to enhance both learning outcomes and awareness of sustainability and energy efficiency among 14-year-old students enrolled in the second year of secondary education in Spain.

To ensure the validity and reliability of the results, an experimental research design was implemented to apply the methodology in a real classroom setting. Two groups were formed: an experimental group and a control group. The innovative methodology was applied to the experimental group, involving a practical session based on two custom-designed systems and the use of two thermal cameras in a hands-on session. In contrast, the control group was taught using a traditional problem-solving approach. To eliminate potential input biases and assess the students’ initial knowledge levels, two assessments (a pretest and a post-test) were administered. These assessments covered both theoretical and practical content related to infrared radiation, physics concepts, sustainability, and energy efficiency in lighting systems. Additionally, a gender-based stratification analysis was conducted to explore the influence of gender on students’ performance and to gather valuable insights to promote the role of women in STEM fields [33,34].

Data were collected and analyzed using both parametric and non-parametric statistical methods to identify significant differences between groups. A key finding was the statistically significant improvement between pretest and post-test scores, providing evidence that the activities fostered students’ learning. Specifically, statistically significant differences were found between the experimental and control groups, with the experimental group achieving notably higher scores. This result aligns with other studies of didactic–pedagogical interventions employing thermographic cameras. For example, reported that instruction adapted for infrared cameras enabled students to make novel and relevant observations, and documented positive assessments of thermal camera experimentation by students, despite their limited prior physics knowledge. These findings provide scientific validation of the positive impact that the proposed methodology has on learning outcomes related to physics, infrared radiation, and sustainability awareness. They directly address the first two research questions posed in Section 1.4: To what extent does thermography enhance students’ acquisition of competencies related to thermodynamics? How does the use of thermographic tools influence students’ awareness and sensitivity toward sustainability and energy efficiency?

Furthermore, the results of the gender-based stratification analysis indicate that the methodology is equally effective across genders, which represents a meaningful step toward inclusivity that reinforces thermography as a tangible, accessible, and beneficial teaching resource in STEM education. Importantly, this outcome contributes to preventing the widening of existing gender disparities and provides a direct answer to the research question: Does gender play a significant role in mediating the educational outcomes associated with thermography in the classroom?

Participant observation by the teacher in the classroom revealed students’ positive attitudes, engagement, and curiosity about understanding the principles and functioning of infrared radiation and thermal cameras. Students asked questions and even experimented autonomously with the cameras, demonstrating intrinsic motivation and overall satisfaction with the activity. For instance, students asked if it was really like a camera. They played with capturing thermal images of their classmates’ faces, were surprised by the residual heat imprint a hand left on the table, wondered why different objects exhibited varying temperatures, and asked whether the camera could detect fevers. They were also very surprised by the Peltier cell’s operation, observing that some components heated while others cooled. These qualitative observations, combined with survey results and overall performance, suggest that thermography is an effective tool for fostering students’ problem-solving skills and interest in new technologies. These findings corroborate previous studies, ref. [40] highlight the potential of thermograms and increased motivation among third-year primary-school students, ref. [6] demonstrate thermography’s capacity to engage learners with challenging heat transfer concepts, and ref. [11] report high satisfaction indices following thermal camera experiments. These outcomes directly address the third research question: How do students perceive thermography in terms of its impact on their motivation, problem-solving skills, and engagement with new technologies?

Additionally, a student perception survey was administered to students after the activity to evaluate the following dimensions: satisfaction, self-confidence, learning, sustainability awareness, and scalability. The survey comprised eight questions addressing these dimensions. Overall, the results were favorable across all dimensions, with median scores exceeding 9 out of 10, particularly for satisfaction-related items. However, when evaluating scalability, although the overall result was positive, a high degree of variability was observed. This suggests a wide range of opinions among students regarding the broader applicability of the methodology. This variability may be attributed to students’ limited scientific background given their age, which could hinder their understanding of infrared thermography’s potential applications in other subjects, given the curriculum’s strong emphasis on science and technology subjects such as physics, chemistry, and mathematics (only), and its limited inclusion of other disciplines. Nonetheless, there is promising potential for future exploration of thermography as a tool to improve skills and competencies related to courses in social science and humanities [41].

In conclusion, the use of thermography in the classroom fosters the development of educational competencies and skills related to problem-solving, learning in physics, and, notably, sustainability and energy efficiency. These findings suggest that thermography can serve an uncharted purpose: raising awareness of sustainability and energy efficiency. As such, it has the potential to become a significant tool for advancing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and promoting sustainability education in secondary school curricula. Future studies could explore new initiatives aimed at developing problem-solving and critical thinking skills through the use of thermography and the designed devices. These initiatives may be implemented in laboratory-based scientific activities or outdoor practical activities, taking advantage of thermography’s versatile application and its decreasing cost in recent years. Additionally, students’ perceptions of scalability can be further analyzed to explore possible future potential applications of active thermography in secondary education.