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Article

Ricinus communis L. Leaf Extracts as a Sustainable Alternative for Weed Management

by
Aline Mazoy Lopes
1,
Lucas Kila Ribeiro
2,
Maurício Ricardo de Melo Cogo
2,
Lucas Mironuk Frescura
3,
Marcelo Barcellos da Rosa
3,
Alex Schulz
4,
Flávio Dias Mayer
4,
Ederson Rossi Abaide
4,
Marcus Vinícius Tres
1 and
Giovani Leone Zabot
1,*
1
Laboratory of Agroindustrial Processes Engineering (LAPE), Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), 3013, Taufik Germano Rd, Universitário II DC, Cachoeira do Sul 96503-205, Brazil
2
Laboratory of Phytotechnics (LFITO), Farroupilha Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology (IFFar), RS-377, km 27, Alegrete 97555-000, Brazil
3
Laboratory of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Analysis (LAQUIF), Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil
4
Laboratory of Biomass and Biofuels (L2B), Federal University of Santa Maria, Santa Maria 97105-900, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 6942; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156942
Submission received: 29 June 2025 / Revised: 25 July 2025 / Accepted: 29 July 2025 / Published: 30 July 2025
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Abstract

Weeds pose a significant challenge to agricultural productivity, requiring control strategies that are both effective and environmentally sustainable. Therefore, this study evaluated the inhibitory potential of aqueous extracts from Ricinus communis L. leaves to manage the weeds Oryza sativa L. (weedy rice) and Cyperus ferax. Extracts were obtained through pressurized liquid extraction using water as the solvent. Bioassays were conducted during pre- and post-emergence stages by foliar spraying 15 and 30 days after sowing (DAS). The effect of extraction time (1–30 min) on inhibitory efficacy was also assessed. Chemical profiles of the extracts were characterized using high-performance liquid chromatography. The extracts significantly inhibited seed germination, with suppression rates reaching 92.7%. Plant growth was also diminished, particularly with earlier treatments (at 15 DAS), resulting in reductions of up to 32% and 53% in shoot length, and 69% and 73% in total dry mass for O. sativa L. and C. ferax, respectively. Mortality rates of O. sativa L. and C. ferax reached 64% and 58%, respectively. Phenolic compounds were identified in the extracts, and higher concentrations were observed at shorter extraction times. These findings underscore the potential of R. communis L. leaf extracts as an ecologically sustainable alternative for weed management, providing an effective and natural approach that may reduce reliance on synthetic herbicides and mitigate their environmental impact.

1. Introduction

Agriculture is recognized as one of the oldest economic activities, essential for human survival and a major contributor to national economies. Among the challenges faced by agriculture, weeds are one of the most detrimental factors to crop production. Invasive plant species cause problems in agricultural productivity [1]. Competition with weeds can reduce rice grain yield by 19 to 39%, as well as corn and soybean yields by approximately 50% [2]. Oryza sativa L. (weedy rice) and Cyperus ferax are weeds that significantly reduce crop productivity and quality, such as cultivated rice (Oryza sativa). Depending on the amount of infestation, O. sativa L. (weedy rice) can cause yield losses ranging from 50–60% under moderate infestation to 70–80% under heavy infestation in cultivated rice crops [3]. Weeds of the genus Cyperus, such as Cyperus ferax, are among the most aggressive in irrigated rice fields of southern Brazil [4].
Since the 1940s, the main method of weed control has been through chemical herbicides. However, long-term herbicide use presents negative impacts on the environment and human health, while simultaneously creating a global issue of herbicide resistance [5]. Several bioherbicides and natural herbicides have been studied as environmentally friendly tools that should be incorporated into sustainable and integrated weed-management strategies [6]. In the search for sustainable alternatives to the intensive use of chemical herbicides, allelopathy has emerged as a promising strategy for weed control.
Allelopathy refers to the release of bioactive compounds by plants that influence the growth and development of other plant species. Plant extracts have been used in plant protection measures, including the control of insect pests and weeds, and to increase crop growth and yield [7,8]. The extracts are obtained from plant parts, like leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, bark, and roots. Poonpaiboonpipat et al. [9] reported that the crude extract of Chromolaena odorata (L.) has post-emergence herbicidal activity, inhibiting the growth of weeds such as Echinochloa crus-galli and Amaranthus viridis. Weed management is a crucial aspect of sustainable agriculture [10,11].
The plant Ricinus communis L., known for producing secondary metabolites with allelopathic potential, emerges as a candidate for the development of natural bioherbicides. R. communis L. is considered native to Africa, where wild populations can still be found [12]. It is a perennial oilseed shrub belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family and the Acalyphoideae subfamily [13]. A study indicated that compounds from R. communis L. reduced seed germination of weeds such as Sinapis arvensis, Lolium multiflorum, and Parthenium hysterophorus. Phytochemical analysis demonstrated a correlation between the phytotoxicity and its antioxidant potential due to its main constituents: rutin, quercetin, catechin, and gallic acid [14].
Despite advances in using plant extracts for the formulation of bioherbicides, there is still a lack of studies evaluating the allelopathic effect of compounds from R. communis L. Questions exist about the efficacy of bioactive compounds extracted from R. communis L. against germination and growth of weeds Oryza sativa L. (weedy rice) and Cyperus ferax. In this context, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of the aqueous extract of R. communis L. on seed germination and initial seedling growth of O. sativa L. and C. ferax, aiming to contribute to the identification of viable and environmentally safe alternatives for the management of these weed species.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Collection of Plant Material and Extract Preparation

The plant material used for extraction consisted of dried leaves of Ricinus communis L. (adult plants). The leaves were collected in the morning in the rural area of Manoel Viana, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. After collection, the material was taken to the Phytotechnics Laboratory at the Farroupilha Federal Institute (Alegrete, Brazil). The collected leaves were cleaned and subsequently dried in an oven (Lucadema, LUCA-80/528, São José do Rio Preto, Brazil) for 72 h at a temperature of 45 °C. The dried leaves were ground using an industrial blender (Spolu, SPL-050W, São Paulo, Brazil) to obtain smaller particles (Figure 1).
The extraction was performed using the Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE) method. The extraction procedure followed the methodology described by Confortin et al. [7] using a PLE equipment (RSA, RTR 2022-S/N° 9676-1, Paulínia, Brazil). Water was used as the solvent with a biomass-to-solvent ratio (mass/volume) of 1:10. The extraction parameters were set as follows: 10 g of plant material, a flow rate of 10 mL/min, an extraction temperature of 60 °C, and a pressure of 10 MPa. Once the extraction unit reached the target temperature (60 °C), collection of the aqueous extract began. The extract was collected every minute from the first to the tenth minute. After the tenth minute, collections were carried out every 5 min (15, 20, 25, and 30 min), totaling a collection period of 30 min. The aqueous extract was obtained in triplicate, with the same extraction parameters.

2.2. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analysis

Three extraction time points were selected for chromatographic analysis by HPLC to identify chemical compounds found in the aqueous extracts of R. communis L.: 1 min, 15 min, and 30 min. Some phenolic compounds of interest in this analysis were rutin, gallic acid, caffeic acid, and quercitrin. They were selected based on previous studies indicating the presence of these secondary metabolites in the leaves of R. communis L. [15,16,17].
Chromatographic analyses were performed on a Shimadzu Prominence LC-20AT HPLC system (Shimadzu, LC-20AT, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a UV–VIS SPD-20A detector and a CTO-20A column oven. The system was controlled using LabSolutions software, version 5.86. The methodology applied for chromatographic analysis was adapted from Zadra et al. [18].
Before injection, all samples were filtered through 0.22 µm syringe filters, and a 20 µL aliquot was injected. The chromatographic column, measuring 250 mm by 4.6 mm, was packed with C-18 material (5 µm particle diameter, Shimadzu), and a pre-column with similar composition was also used. The mobile phase consisted of a phosphoric acid solution (0.1% v/v) acting as solvent A and methanol as solvent B. The gradient elution conditions were as follows: The initial rate of 85% A was observed for the first 10 min, followed by a rate of 5% A from 15 to 25 min and a rate of 85% A from 25 to 35 min. The mobile phase flow rate was set at 1 mL min−1, and the column oven was maintained at 40 °C. Detection was carried out at 280 and 360 nm. A quantitative analysis was performed, comparing the area and retention times of each standard with the area and retention times of the peaks of compounds found in the R. communis L. extracts.

2.3. Applications of the Plant Extract in Pre- and Post-Germination Assays

2.3.1. Pre-Germination Tests

Inhibitory effects of the aqueous extract of R. communis L. were evaluated on the weeds O. sativa L. and C. ferax using pre- and post-germination assays. The Rio Grande do Sul Rice Institute (IRGA) donated the seeds used in the experiments, and they showed an average germination rate of 60% under controlled conditions (without extract application). Pre-germination assays with O. sativa L. and C. ferax seeds were based on the Rules for Seed Analysis (RAS) protocol. Germination tests were conducted in Gerbox® boxes with two sheets of Germitest® filter paper, moistened either with the R. communis extract (at the selected extraction time) or with distilled water (Figure 2). The volume of extract applied corresponded to 2.5 times the mass of the filter paper. Twenty-five seeds of each species (O. sativa L. and C. ferax) were placed in each box, and all treatments were performed in triplicate. The boxes were incubated in a Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) chamber (Lucadema, LUCA-161/02, São José do Rio Preto, Brazil) at 25 °C with a 12-h photoperiod for 21 days. Seedling emergence counts were taken on days 7, 14, and 21 after the test started.

2.3.2. Post-Emergence Tests

Post-emergence assays were carried out in a greenhouse using plants at two growth stages (Figure 3). For each extraction treatment, fifteen 30-day-old plants of O. sativa L. and fifteen 30-day-old plants of C. ferax were used, in triplicate (totaling 45 plants per treatment). The same procedure was repeated with 15-day-old seedlings (15 DAS) to assess effects at an earlier developmental stage. The volume of extract applied was calculated based on a field spray rate of 100 L/ha, scaled to the tray area, resulting in 2.5 mL of extract per tray. Extract was applied once by foliar spraying with a handheld atomizer; no reapplication was performed. After treatment, trays were returned to the greenhouse and maintained for 21 days. At the end of the experiment, root length, shoot length, fresh mass, and dry mass of both O. sativa L. and C. ferax were measured.
The percentage of live plants was calculated as the ratio of the number of live plants after the experimental time and the initial number of plants, multiplied by 100, according to Equation (1) [19].
Live plants (%) = (Number of live plants/15) × 100

2.4. Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis

The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design (CRD), arranged in a 2 × 14 × 2 factorial scheme with three replicates for both pre- and post-germination assays. The experimental data were processed using Sisvar software version 5.8. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed, and treatment means were compared by the Scott–Knott test at a 5% significance level.

3. Results

3.1. Pre-Germination Tests

The results of germination of O. sativa L. and C. ferax seeds under different treatments are presented in Table 1.
In the control group, O. sativa L. seeds had a germination rate of 79.7%, while C. ferax seeds reached 62%, serving as a reference for evaluating the treatments. The application of R. communis L. aqueous extract to O. sativa L. seeds reduced germination compared to the control, regardless of extraction time. The lowest germination percentages were achieved for extracts obtained at 1 min and 2 min, with 18.7% and 21.0%, respectively. Extracts obtained between 3 min and 10 min also yielded low germination rates, remaining below 50%. Although the extracts obtained at 15 min, 20 min, 25 min, and 30 min still reduced germination relative to the control, they were less effective than those obtained at shorter extraction times. A similar pattern was observed for C. ferax seeds, where all treatments reduced germination compared to the control (Table 1). Extracts obtained between 1 min and 10 min were potent, causing germination below 20%, whereas the control caused 62% germination.

3.2. Post-Emergence Tests

The results of post-germination tests on O. sativa L. and C. ferax plants at 15 and 30 DAS are presented in Figure 4. Plants treated with compounds from R. communis L. obtained between 1 and 8 min showed shorter shoot lengths than the control at 15 DAS, indicating an inhibitory effect. The average shoot length of O. sativa L. in the control was 20.0 cm, while in the treatments with extracts obtained at different extraction times they were 15.12 cm (1 min), 13.56 cm (2 min), 14.91 cm (3 min), 16.89 cm (4 min), 17.47 cm (5 min), 17.06 cm (6 min), 17.04 cm (7 min) and 18.13 cm (8 min), evidencing a significant reduction in growth compared to the control. From extracts obtained at 8 min onward, the averages of shoot length approached those of the control with no statistical differences. For O. sativa L. at 30 DAS, assays with extracts obtained in extraction times of 1, 4, 8, 15, and 25 min showed significant differences compared to the control.
The smallest length of C. ferax plants at 15 DAS was obtained with the application of the extract obtained in 2 min, with an average shoot length of approximately 3.1 cm, while the control showed 6.58 cm. The smallest averages occurred at the initial times, for plants at 15 DAS (1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 min) and 30 DAS (1 to 6 min). In the shoot part of C. ferax plants at 30 DAS, the average length of the treated plants varied between extraction times, but the values did not exceed the standard established by the control, which was 21 cm.
Regarding the root length of O. sativa L. plants at 15 DAS (Figure 5), the plants treated with the extract exhibited longer roots than the control. The highest averages were observed in the treatments with 1 and 2 min of extraction, measuring 6.93 cm and 7.83 cm, respectively. O. sativa L. plants at 30 DAS (Figure 5), treated with extracts obtained at 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 10 min, also showed statistical differences compared to the control, indicating that the extract may have promoted root system development.
For C. ferax plants at 15 DAS (Figure 5), all treatments reduced the average root length compared to the control, with particular emphasis on the 2-min treatment, which showed the lowest average (1.46 cm) compared to 3.69 cm for the control. This inhibition pattern was also observed in C. ferax plants at 30 DAS, with the shortest root lengths recorded in the 3- and 4-min samples (4.39 cm and 4.27 cm, respectively).
Regarding fresh mass, O. sativa L. plants at 15 DAS (Figure 6) showed lower averages in the treatments with extract compared to the control (3.2 g). In the early treatments (1 to 10 min), the averages were below 1.93 g, while from 15 min onward, the averages exceeded 2 g. In O. sativa L. plants at 30 DAS (Figure 6), all samples showed lower fresh mass compared to the control, with notable reductions observed in the extracts from 1, 4, and 6 min. In C. ferax plants at 15 DAS, the lowest fresh mass averages occurred in the extracts obtained at 1, 2, 3, and 5 min. For plants at 30 DAS (Figure 6), the lowest masses were observed in the treatments of 2, 3, and 7 min.
The dry masses of O. sativa L. at 15 DAS (Figure 7) were also lower than those of the control (0.32 g), with the lowest averages in the treatments of 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 9 min. At 30 DAS (Figure 7), the treatments of 1 to 20 min showed significant differences, while the treatments of 25 and 30 min were similar to the control. For C. ferax (Figure 7), the lowest dry mass at 15 DAS was in the 1-min treatment. The treatments of 2 to 9 min differed from the control, but not from each other.
The treatments of 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 min resulted in higher mortality of O. sativa L. at 15 DAS compared to the control (Figure 8). At 30 DAS, the samples of 1, 2, 3, and 8 min also showed differences. For C. ferax at 15 DAS, the treatments of 1 to 10 min reduced the number of live plants compared to the control, a pattern that was repeated in the C. ferax plants at 30 DAS.
The profile of the aqueous extract of R. communis L. was obtained at extraction times of 1 min, 15 min, and 30 min (Table 2). In order of concentration, caffeic acid, rutin, quercitrin, gallic acid, and kaempferol were found in the samples, with a decrease over the extraction time.

4. Discussion

In general, the best results in germination inhibition for both O. sativa L. and C. ferax occurred with extracts obtained between 1 and 10 min. This suggests that shorter extraction times favor the recovery of bioactive compounds present in the plant, while longer extraction times may lead to the dilution of these compounds in the solvent, decreasing their effectiveness. The effectiveness of extracts obtained with short extraction times may be related to the preservation of heat-sensitive and highly soluble phenolic compounds, which can undergo degradation or oxidation when subjected to prolonged extraction times. Elsewhere, it is indicated that shorter extraction times favor the recovery of bioactive metabolites in their most active form, maintaining their chemical and functional integrity [20]. Also, the extraction phenomenon starts to be dominated by convection rather than diffusion [21]. Comparing the germination averages of the two weed species, it was observed that the aqueous extract of R. communis L. was more effective in inhibiting the germination of C. ferax seeds. Differences in seed germination patterns result from effects on membrane permeability, DNA transcription and translation, secondary messenger functioning, oxygen sequestration respiration (phenolics), enzyme-receptor binding, or a combination of these factors [22].
In the same trend, aqueous extracts from dried leaves of R. communis L. reduced the germination of bioindicator seeds of Lactuca sativa and Cucumis sativus [23]. Similarly, an inhibitory effect of aqueous extracts from R. communis L. leaves was reported on the germination of Lens culinaris, with only 16.5% germination [24]. High concentrations of aqueous extracts from R. communis L. significantly reduced the germination of Bidens bipinnata L., reaching up to 90% inhibition [25]. These studies confirm the inhibitory potential of R. communis L. aqueous extract, which was also verified in this work, where the fresh aqueous extract was used at different extraction times, inhibiting seed germination for O. sativa L. and C. ferax.
The results presented in Figure 5 are consistent with Parreno et al. [26], who observed inhibitory effects of R. communis L. aqueous extracts against the root growth of Zea mays and Solanum lycopersicum. In the same trend, the findings presented in Figure 6 are consistent with the work reported by Othman et al. [27], in which fresh extracts of eucalyptus leaves and pomegranate bark inhibited the seedling growth of weeds and reduced both fresh and dry weights.
In this work, at 30 DAS, most treatments differed from the control, except for the 30-min sample. The results indicate the inhibitory potential of R. communis L. extract, especially in young plants. Similar results were reported by El-Gawad et al. [28], who addressed studies of plant allelopathy in Bidens pilosa and demonstrated that there was an impact on root and stem growth and dry mass. This is directly linked to a lower rate of cell division and the corresponding alteration in cell structure, as well as a reduced ability to compete under field conditions [28]. The study on Ipomoea purpurea revealed that extracts from plants such as rosemary and guaco significantly reduced root growth and dry weight, highlighting the effectiveness of dry mass in allelopathic interactions [29].
Elsewhere, the crude extract of Cynara cardunculus induced oxidative stress in treated plants, disturbing physiological and biochemical functions, with compounds such as naringenin and myricitrin showing high phytotoxicity [30]. E. camaldulensis and C. barbatus reduced the germination and growth of Eragrostis plana, achieving up to 97% germination inhibition, a 52% reduction in shoot length, and a 46% reduction in root length for germinated seeds [8].
Analysis of the percentage of live plants after application of Ricinus communis L. extract at different extraction times revealed inhibitory effects, influenced by the extraction and phenological stage of the target weeds. Although statistical differences between treatments are relevant, it is also crucial to interpret their biological significance. For example, although extracts obtained between 20 and 30 min promoted a statistically significant reduction in the mortality of C. ferax at 30 DAS compared to the control, the percentage of live plants remained above 80%, suggesting that the level of control achieved may be biologically insufficient under field conditions. Otherwise, extracts obtained between 1 and 10 min led to more significant mortalities, with rates of up to 40% of live plants, especially in younger plants (15 DAS), evidencing a higher potential for effective biological control at early growth stages.
Similar patterns were observed for O. sativa L., which also showed higher sensitivity to the extract when applied at early phenological stages and with shorter extraction times. These findings suggest that the aqueous extract of R. communis L. obtained at short extraction times is more efficient when applied at early stages of the weed, reinforcing the importance of considering the combination of extraction time and phenological stage to obtain effective biological control. Elsewhere, it is reported that controlling weeds at their early stages of development is generally more efficient [8,10,22], as it prevents the establishment of dense infestations, ultimately contributing to increased crop productivity and reduced harvesting costs.
Although this work confirmed the inhibitory effects of the aqueous extract of R. communis L. under controlled conditions, further research is needed to make its application as a bioherbicide in agricultural environments viable. Duarte et al. [31] reported that aqueous extracts of Acacia dealbata and Oxalis pes-caprae achieved up to 88% inhibition of weed germination. However, this effect was significantly reduced in field environments. This report illustrates the importance of developing formulations that maintain efficacy under natural conditions. Key challenges include determining optimal concentrations that ensure biological efficacy without compromising selectivity, especially in crop environments, as well as scaling up the extraction process to achieve standardized and large-scale production.
Formulating plant extracts into stable and field-ready products involves technological approaches that improve both shelf life and performance. Techniques such as emulsification, granulation, and the addition of stabilizing agents are commonly employed to increase product stability. Furthermore, field trials are essential to assess extract efficacy under different environmental conditions, as well as to generate data on persistence, absorption, mobility, and non-target impacts. The persistence of plant extracts varies widely. Some compounds maintain inhibitory activity for several weeks, while others may require integration with low doses of synthetic herbicides to ensure long-term control [22,31].
Significant progress in research involving microorganisms as weed biocontrol agents, especially fungi and bacteria, is evident. However, studies focusing on plant extracts for this purpose remain relatively limited. Recent literature highlights the effectiveness of microbial metabolites in suppressing invasive plant species due to their specificity and efficiency [11,22]. However, plant-derived allelochemicals, such as those present in R. communis L. extracts [32], also show strong inhibitory potential and represent a viable, sustainable, and cost-effective alternative for weed management. Their exploitation as bioherbicides offers a targeted and environmentally friendly approach for use in integrated weed-management systems [33,34,35]. The expansion of this line of research contributes to the diversification of bioherbicidal tools and supports integrated biological control strategies within the framework of sustainable agriculture.
The adoption of inhibitory plant extracts as bioherbicides, such as R. communis L., offers clear environmental benefits over conventional synthetic herbicides. Biological weed management presents several advantages: high selectivity, specificity to target species, biodegradability, and reduced risk of harm to the main crop, the environment, and human health [36]. Recent studies reinforce the role of plant extracts as integral components of sustainable agriculture. For instance, the extract of Wedelia trilobata has been shown to effectively control Cyperus rotundus, significantly reducing biomass, leaf area, and chlorophyll content of treated plants, thus demonstrating its utility in ecologically balanced production systems [10]. The use of extracts with allelopathic activity, such as that of R. communis, represents a promising and safer alternative for weed management, especially when integrated into sustainable and organic cropping systems.
Furthermore, the feasibility of plant-based bioherbicides is evidenced by the availability of commercial products based on plant extracts. Registered and marketed bioherbicides such as WeedLock and NaturCur illustrate the practical applicability of this strategy [37]. WeedLock, developed using Solanum habrochaites extract, has been registered in Malaysia since 2017 and is effective against several weed species. NaturCur, formulated with black walnut (Juglans nigra) extract, has been commercialized in the United States since 2009 for the control of weeds such as horseweed (Conyza spp.), purslane (Portulaca oleracea), and tall morning glory (Ipomoea purpurea). These examples confirm that, with proper formulation, adequate concentrations, and the use of effective adjuvants, plant extracts can become efficient, safe, and economically viable alternatives to traditional herbicides.
In comparison with commercial plant-derived herbicides, such as Beloukha®, which is based on sunflower-derived pelargonic acid, the extract of R. communis L. presents notable advantages, including the presence of naturally occurring bioactive compounds with herbicidal potential and the widespread availability of the plant in several countries. Nonetheless, critical limitations persist, particularly regarding the standardization of active compound concentrations, the long-term stability of the extract, and the development of formulations suitable for field application. These issues must be resolved before the extract can be considered viable for large-scale industrial use. Therefore, ongoing studies in this field are recommended.
When analyzing the chromatographic profile of the extracts, gallic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, quercitrin, and kaempferol were detected, with caffeic acid as the major compound. As the extraction time increased, the concentration of the chemical compounds decreased. The highest intensity peaks, indicative of higher concentrations, were recorded in the extract obtained at 1 min of extraction, while the lowest concentrations were observed in the extract obtained at 30 min. These results indicate that increasing the extraction time promotes a reduction in the levels of chemical compounds in the aqueous extracts of R. communis L., resulting in less concentrated extracts.
The scientific literature presents several studies that confirm the presence of secondary metabolites, such as phenolic compounds, in the extracts of R. communis L. Mittal et al. [38] reported the presence of bioflavonoids and phenolic compounds in the methanolic and aqueous extracts of R. communis L. Similarly, Abomughaid et al. [32] identified ricinin, gallic acid, quercitrin, and kaempferol in the extracts of the species. Nogueira et al. [39] studied the hydroalcoholic extract of the leaves of R. communis and also detected flavonoids such as quercitrin, rutin, kaempferol, and caffeic acid. Furthermore, the presence of rutin and quercetin was confirmed in the leaves of R. communis in studies carried out by Chen et al. [40] and Lima et al. [41].
Allelochemicals determine the progress of plant growth and development by altering the state of cytoplasmic membranes and, consequently, affect the course of biochemical and physiological processes in different parts of cells [42]. The mechanism of allelopathy associated with phenolic compounds includes interfering with hormonafl activity, membrane permeability, photosynthesis, respiration, and synthesis of organic compounds in susceptible plants [43]. A study carried out by Li et al. [44] evaluated the allelopathic effect of the aqueous extract of Delonix regia on the growth of Lactuca sativa and Brassica chinensis, identifying compounds such as chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, and caffeic acid, among others. The combination of these compounds inhibited plant development, with the effect intensified as the concentration increased.
The compounds caffeic acid and gallic acid, identified by HPLC in this work, have already demonstrated relevant allelopathic activity in previous studies. Caffeic acid, for example, causes oxidative stress and reduces biomass in plants such as Setaria viridis and Portulaca oleracea, through the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation [45]. Furthermore, caffeic acid inhibited germination and root growth in Lepidium sativum seeds in a concentration-dependent manner, acting as a potential bioherbicide [46,47]. These characteristics indicate the possibility that this compound contributes significantly to the effects observed in the castor bean extract.
The flavonoids kaempferol, quercitrin, and rutin, also identified by HPLC, enhance the bioactive effect of the extract. A study conducted by Franco et al. [48] demonstrated significant allelopathic activity of Copaifera langsdorffii leaf extracts on Sorghum bicolor, evidenced by the reduction in germination rate, delayed root emergence, and inhibition of seedling root growth. The composition of the extract mainly includes quercitrin, kaempferol, and phenolic derivatives of gallic acid. These compounds have been associated with the inhibitory effects observed on the development of S. bicolor. Quercitrin demonstrated strong inhibition of the growth of Phelipanche ramosa rootlets and Lactuca sativa rootlets, significantly reducing root length in treated plants [49]. The combination of these compounds identified in this work not only supports the results but also confirms the potential for the development of an effective and ecologically viable bioherbicide through the extract of R. communis L.

5. Conclusions

The results demonstrated that the extract of R. communis L. has inhibitory potential on young plants of O. sativa L. and C. ferax. The application of the extract obtained by the pressurized liquid extraction technique, especially from samples with extraction times between 1 and 10 min, reduced the shoot length, fresh and dry mass, and increased seedling mortality. In C. ferax, root growth was consistently suppressed. Chromatographic profiling revealed the presence of phenolic compounds, including gallic acid, caffeic acid, rutin, quercetin, and kaempferol, with higher concentrations detected in extracts obtained from shorter extraction periods. These metabolites are known for their bioactive properties and may have contributed to the observed phytotoxic effects. Although the extract’s selectivity toward economically important crops was not assessed in this work, it is suggested that future research should investigate the safety of its application under field conditions and evaluate potential phytotoxic effects on non-target plant species. Overall, the results reinforce the potential use of R. communis aqueous extract as a sustainable alternative for weed management.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M.L. and G.L.Z.; methodology, A.M.L. and E.R.A.; formal analysis, A.M.L.; investigation, A.M.L., L.K.R., M.R.d.M.C., L.M.F. and A.S.; resources, G.L.Z. and M.V.T.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M.L., L.K.R., M.R.d.M.C., L.M.F., F.D.M., M.B.d.R., A.S., E.R.A., M.V.T. and G.L.Z.; writing—review and editing, A.M.L., M.B.d.R., E.R.A., M.V.T. and G.L.Z.; visualization, A.M.L., M.B.d.R., E.R.A., M.V.T. and G.L.Z.; supervision, G.L.Z.; project administration, G.L.Z.; funding acquisition, G.L.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES; 001), National Council of Technological and Scientific Development (CNPq; 404308/2023-6 and 308067/2021-5), and Research Support Foundation of the State of Rio Grande do Sul (FAPERGS; 24/2551-0001977-4).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data will be available on request.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank UFSM and IFFar for the physical structure and equipment used in this study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

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Figure 1. Illustration of preparation of extracts, identification of compounds, extract application, and inhibitory activity.
Figure 1. Illustration of preparation of extracts, identification of compounds, extract application, and inhibitory activity.
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Figure 2. Pre-emergence test on seeds of O. sativa L. and C. ferax.
Figure 2. Pre-emergence test on seeds of O. sativa L. and C. ferax.
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Figure 3. Post-emergence test on plants O. sativa L. and C. ferax.
Figure 3. Post-emergence test on plants O. sativa L. and C. ferax.
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Figure 4. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the shoot length of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Example of a control plant (A) and an example of a plant treated with 1-min extract (B) of C. ferax at 15 DAS. Example of a control plant (C) and an example of a plant treated with 1-min extract (D) of O. sativa L. at 15 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
Figure 4. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the shoot length of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Example of a control plant (A) and an example of a plant treated with 1-min extract (B) of C. ferax at 15 DAS. Example of a control plant (C) and an example of a plant treated with 1-min extract (D) of O. sativa L. at 15 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
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Figure 5. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the root length of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
Figure 5. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the root length of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
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Figure 6. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the fresh mass of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
Figure 6. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the fresh mass of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
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Figure 7. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the dry mass of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
Figure 7. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the dry mass of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS. Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
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Figure 8. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the percentage of live plants of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS; Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
Figure 8. Effect of R. communis L. aqueous extract at 21 days after application on the percentage of live plants of O. sativa L. and C. ferax at 15 and 30 DAS; Different lowercase letters on each graphic indicate a significant difference through the Scott–Knott test at 95% confidence level.
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Table 1. Germination (%) of O. sativa L. and C. ferax seeds after application of R. communis L.
Table 1. Germination (%) of O. sativa L. and C. ferax seeds after application of R. communis L.
Extraction Time (Minutes)Germination of O. sativa L. (%) *Germination of C. ferax (%) *
118.7 ± 1.9 a9.0 ± 0.0 a
221.0 ± 1.6 a7.3 ± 1.7 a
331.3 ± 0.5 b8.0 ± 0.0 a
435.7 ± 4.3 c9.3 ± 2.1 a
540.0 ± 4.1 c8.3 ± 0.9 a
649.7 ± 3.8 d10.3 ± 2.5 a
750.3 ± 1.7 d9.7 ± 1.9 a
846.7 ± 4.5 d9.7 ± 1.7 a
948.3 ± 5.0 d9.7 ± 0.9 a
1046.3 ± 4.0 d9.3 ± 2.1 a
1554.7 ± 3.1 e19.0 ± 2.2 b
2052.0 ± 3.6 e23.3 ± 1.7 c
2554.0 ± 3.6 e23.0 ± 2.2 c
3058.0 ± 2.2 e26.3 ± 2.5 c
Control79.7 ± 0.9 f62.0 ± 1.4 d
Coefficient of variation (%)7.013.2
* Means followed by different letters differ statistically from each other according to the Scott–Knott test at the 5% probability level.
Table 2. Total percentage of each compound identified in the aqueous extract of R. communis L.
Table 2. Total percentage of each compound identified in the aqueous extract of R. communis L.
CompoundComposition in the Extract (%)
Extract from 1 minExtract from 15 minExtract from 30 min
Gallic acid9.86.53.3
Caffeic acid24.223.914.1
Rutin15.713.25.6
Quercitrin13.412.64.2
Kaempferol2.22.11.7
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MDPI and ACS Style

Lopes, A.M.; Ribeiro, L.K.; Cogo, M.R.d.M.; Frescura, L.M.; da Rosa, M.B.; Schulz, A.; Mayer, F.D.; Abaide, E.R.; Tres, M.V.; Zabot, G.L. Ricinus communis L. Leaf Extracts as a Sustainable Alternative for Weed Management. Sustainability 2025, 17, 6942. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156942

AMA Style

Lopes AM, Ribeiro LK, Cogo MRdM, Frescura LM, da Rosa MB, Schulz A, Mayer FD, Abaide ER, Tres MV, Zabot GL. Ricinus communis L. Leaf Extracts as a Sustainable Alternative for Weed Management. Sustainability. 2025; 17(15):6942. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156942

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lopes, Aline Mazoy, Lucas Kila Ribeiro, Maurício Ricardo de Melo Cogo, Lucas Mironuk Frescura, Marcelo Barcellos da Rosa, Alex Schulz, Flávio Dias Mayer, Ederson Rossi Abaide, Marcus Vinícius Tres, and Giovani Leone Zabot. 2025. "Ricinus communis L. Leaf Extracts as a Sustainable Alternative for Weed Management" Sustainability 17, no. 15: 6942. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156942

APA Style

Lopes, A. M., Ribeiro, L. K., Cogo, M. R. d. M., Frescura, L. M., da Rosa, M. B., Schulz, A., Mayer, F. D., Abaide, E. R., Tres, M. V., & Zabot, G. L. (2025). Ricinus communis L. Leaf Extracts as a Sustainable Alternative for Weed Management. Sustainability, 17(15), 6942. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17156942

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