Advancing Sustainable Housing in Latin America: A Critical Review of Energy Efficiency, Indoor Environmental Quality, and Policy

Abstract

While interest in indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in Latin American housing has been growing over the past decade, the COVID-19 pandemic has further highlighted its critical importance due to increased residential occupancy time, exposure to indoor pollutants, and their implications for health. Recognising the climatic, cultural, infrastructural, and socio-economic diversity of the region, this study presents a bibliometric review of research and policy advances with the aim of examining progress towards effective pathways for sustainable housing, focusing on the integrated vision of energy efficiency, IEQ, and regulations as the key thematic axes. This review, conducted using the Scopus database, synthesises findings, methodological practices, and policy developments from 2013 to 2023. Based on the qualitative thematic analysis of studies included in the narrative synthesis, the results reveal that energy efficiency and indoor environmental quality frameworks in the region are still insufficient and fragmented, hindering improvements in residential energy efficiency and thermal comfort, particularly in low-income housing. This study underscores the urgent need for updated public policies with the explicit incorporation of IEQ and health indicators, stronger enforcement of energy efficiency and building regulations, and the improved dissemination of IEQ benefits to promote sustainable governance. Further research on evaluating the long-term impacts of implemented policies and interventions in public health is also essential to address ongoing social, political, and environmental challenges in the region.

1. Introduction

Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) is a growing concern in housing research, particularly in the context of public health, social inequality, and energy transitions [1]. Human health is a recurring research topic from different perspectives because of its impending influence on the quality of life of 8 billion people. At the urban scale, residents may experience negative health impacts related to high levels of outdoor pollution [2]. However, smaller-scale spaces, such as households, have dynamic needs that require periodic revisions due to the impact of climate change on their energy systems and thus indoor environmental conditions. Users’ exposure to low temperatures can reduce immunity to respiratory infections and increase blood pressure, whereas high temperatures can lead to heat strokes and thermal fatigue [3].

The 33 countries that constitute Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) are home to nearly 40 million indigenous people who are vulnerable to climate change and environmental pollution [4]. In Argentina, Colombia, and Peru, extreme poverty has increased by 7%, followed by Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and Paraguay, with an increase between 3% and 5%, and finally Mexico, Bolivia, and the Dominican Republic experienced a rise of 2% [5]. Economic vulnerability leads to other inequalities, such as energy poverty and poor health. Indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in housing affects the health and productivity of socially and economically vulnerable dwellers to a greater extent because of the lower economic capacity to acquire mechanical conditioning systems, such as air conditioning and fans [6]. Areas vulnerable to the effects of heat occur in 70% of metropolitan regions, where the environment and infrastructure pose a significant health challenge [7].

The interaction between occupants and indoor environments has become a key topic due to its impact on health and overall well-being. While much attention has been given to outdoor pollution, indoor air quality has received comparatively less focus, even though people spend more than 80% of their time indoors—especially in residential settings. This imbalance becomes more critical when considering socially and economically vulnerable populations, where housing conditions are often inadequate, and the ability to improve them through mechanical systems is limited.

The residential sector represents over 70% of urban land use, and in LAC [8], informal settlements, indigenous communities, and low-income households face disproportionate exposure to indoor pollutants due to poor ventilation, the use of solid fuels, and limited infrastructure. Indoor air pollutants such as particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), formaldehyde, carbon monoxide, and ozone pose significant health risks. Suspended particles, by size, can be divided into dust (>30 μm); thoracic PM10 (inhaled by mouth and nose, between 2.5 and 10 μm); fine (PM_2.5, ≤2.5 μm), from which they could penetrate the lungs; and ultrafine (UFPs, ≤0.1 μm) [9]. Inhalable particles represent a health threat because of their ability to penetrate and have adverse effects in the thoracic area of the respiratory system [10]. In indoor environments, suspended particles could be more harmful to human health because of their permanence and exposure time compared with outdoor environments, where variables such as wind speed could favour the dispersion of pollutants. The outdoor pollutants that prevail the longest in indoor spaces are suspended particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and volatile organic compounds, which, together with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and ozone, are the most studied pollutants.

The interaction of users with indoor spaces generates a microbial chemistry that impacts the health and well-being of the inhabitants, whereas the control and optimisation of indoor conditions could benefit their quality of life [11] and vary according to the occupancy levels and characteristics of the location. IEQ goes beyond generating aural, visual, thermal, or olfactory comfort conditions; it involves interaction with psychological aspects, outdoor environment characteristics, and user perception. Thus, maintaining IEQ requires an integrated knowledge and understanding of systems and technologies, such as HVAC [12] in each social and cultural context. It is known that the use of certain architectural elements [13,14,15] can influence IEQ. Studies indicate that, as air pollution increases progressively, the responsive capacity of energy systems decreases due to rain, fog, and smog [15].

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, residential occupancy time has grown with the so-called “home office”; which has increased health risks due to a longer exposure to indoor pollutants in confined spaces. Reducing exposure to these pollutants to improve IEQ can be achieved through engineering controls, such as proper ventilation or air filtration [16]. As a result, the use of mechanical ventilation saw an increase of 128%. However, these options are not widely available, particularly for low-income and socio-economically marginalised populations that can hardly afford purchasing cleaner fuels for cooking or space heating in countries, such as Ecuador [17] and Chile [18].

1.1. Problem Statement

In the LAC region, health risks due to poor IEQ are amplified by behavioural, climatic, and architectural factors, as well as by political instability and the lack of effective monitoring, regulation, and enforcement of energy efficiency and environmental protection policies. Despite increasing academic and policy interest in energy-efficient and healthy housing, a comprehensive synthesis of research, policies, and legal frameworks addressing IEQ in LAC remains scarce. The literature is limited in connecting energy efficiency and health to environmental justice and sustainable governance. One of the least studied variables concerning energy systems is user behaviour, highlighting the challenge of improving the conditions of millions of users exposed to indoor pollutants, which is particularly relevant when indoor air pollution from cooking and/or space heating using solid fuels claimed 4.3 million lives in 2012 in LAC [19].

Despite the fact that research reviews have focused on synthesising findings on energy policies around housing, a literature gap prevails in monitoring and reporting pollution concentrations in dwellings and their regulation in LAC, particularly on how risk factors or exposure levels are or should be addressed in legal frameworks, especially in extreme climates or households experiencing economic and social vulnerability. This gap in the literature guided the aim of this study, which reviews and analyses the existing knowledge of socially and economically vulnerable housing in LAC under the integrated vision of energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and regulation as the key thematic axes for a sustainable governance.

1.2. Aim and Objectives of the Review

The aim of this paper is to review the main research and policy developments as well as trends in the transition to equitable and just strategies towards effective pathways for sustainable governance for housing in LAC. To this end, the following objectives were posed: (1) to explore the extent that research and energy policies consider energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and health in LAC; (2) to examine how current energy and housing regulatory frameworks in LAC address indoor environmental pollution and human health affecting the residential sector; and (3) to examine how current energy policies contributed to increasing sustainable governance in LAC.

In the following sections, the methodology used to review studies in LAC and their analysis is described in Section 2. Results of the analysis conducted in the key thematic axes are presented in Section 3. Discussion of findings and conclusions of this review are presented in Section 4 and Section 5, respectively.

2. Materials and Methods

This review systematically analyses the literature on energy efficiency, IEQ, and regulatory frameworks for housing in Latin America. The methodology is informed by precedent studies focused on energy poverty and sustainable housing transitions in the region [20,21,22], and it seeks to identify research gaps and policy opportunities for sustainable governance.

2.1. Conceptual Framework

IEQ refers to a set of environmental conditions inside buildings that affect the health, comfort, and productivity of occupants. Traditionally, IEQ is assessed using four dimensions: thermal comfort, indoor air quality, visual comfort, and acoustic environment [23]. In this study, however, the focus is on thermal and air quality dimensions, as these are the most documented in the context of residential vulnerability in Latin America and have the most direct correlation with environmental and energy policies.

The exclusion of visual and acoustic comfort from this review is justified by the lack of systematic empirical studies addressing these dimensions in the region, particularly in housing with poor construction standards and limited access to public services [24,25]. Instead, this study emphasises the integration of thermal conditions, indoor pollutants, building envelope properties, and socio-behavioural factors, which are shown to have stronger relevance in health-related outcomes and energy vulnerability.

2.2. Database Selection and Language Considerations

The primary database used for the literature review was Scopus, due to its extensive coverage of peer-reviewed publications relevant to energy, environmental, and social sciences in Latin America. Scopus was selected over Web of Science (WoS) and other databases based on its broader inclusion of journals from the Global South, particularly those publishing interdisciplinary research in Spanish- or Portuguese-speaking countries.

While both Scopus and WoS are recognised international repositories, Scopus was found to have a higher number of indexed studies related to the chosen thematic axes and provided advanced tools for bibliometric analysis such as export compatibility with VOSviewer version 1.6.20 [26].

All searches were conducted in English, as this is the dominant language in global scientific publishing and in the Scopus database. However, this presents a limitation in the representation of local knowledge and context-sensitive studies. The use of English likely excludes a significant portion of the grey literature and valuable academic work published in Spanish or Portuguese, thus reinforcing the need for future reviews to incorporate local databases or mixed-language strategies to better reflect the diversity of the Latin American scientific community.

2.3. Search Strategy and Keyword Justification

The selection of search terms and Boolean strings was guided by a preliminary exploratory search to identify the most recurrent keywords used in studies addressing housing, energy, and environmental issues in Latin America. The final search strings were refined iteratively, balancing specificity with comprehensiveness (to include studies across disciplines). A keyword search was conducted on the Scopus platform based on three thematic axes: (1) energy efficiency in housing, (2) indoor environmental quality, and (3) regulations (for energy efficiency in dwellings).

For instance, the string (residential sector OR social hous* OR hous* OR dwelling OR residential building) was used to capture diverse terminology for housing, while (energy systems OR energy consumption OR energy savings OR passive systems OR energy efficiency) was included to address both technological and behavioural dimensions of energy use.

The inclusion of specific country names (e.g., Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina) alongside regional terms (e.g., Latin America, South America) was necessary to filter studies geographically, recognising that not all research explicitly references “Latin America” as a whole. The search delimited the number of Latin American countries according to their research on the areas of interest. For this reason, some Latin American countries do not appear in the results.

Each of the three thematic axes had a customised Boolean string (as presented in

Table 1. Search codes by thematic axis.

Thematic Axis	Search Codes	Results	Excluded	Included
Energy efficiency in housing	(residential sector or social hous* or hous* or dwelling or residential building) and (Latin America or South America or Southamerica or Mexico or Brazil or Argentina or Peru or Colombia or Venezuela or Chile or Paraguay or Ecuador or Guatemala or Cuba) and (energy systems or energy consumption or energy savings or passive systems or energy efficiency) and (comfort or thermal comfort)	217	95	101
Indoor environmental quality	(indoor environmental quality or indoor air quality or human health or environmental pollution or pollutants) and (Latin America or South America or Southamerica or Mexico or Brazil or Argentina or Peru or Colombia or Venezuela or Chile or Paraguay or Ecuador or Guatemala or Cuba) and (residential sector or social hous* or hous* or dwelling or residential building)	435	161	127
Regulations	(public policies or energy policies or environmental policies) and (Latin America or South America or Southamerica or Mexico or Brazil or Argentina or Peru or Colombia or Venezuela or Chile or Paraguay or Ecuador or Guatemala or Cuba) and (residential sector or social hous* or hous* or dwelling or residential building) and (energy systems or energy consumption or energy savings or energy efficiency)	1148	552	501

), designed to reflect the multidimensionality of the topics.

2.4. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To ensure relevance and consistency, the following filters were applied:

• Timeframe: Each thematic axis yielded results over two decades old, so the first exclusion criterion was to consider only documents published between 2013 and 2023 to ensure contemporary relevance and reflect post-COVID influence in housing energy use and policy.
• Duplicates and redundancy: Repeated publications, non-accessible full texts, and studies with insufficient methodological detail were removed.
• Document type: Only peer-reviewed journal articles within the thematic axes were included. Conference proceedings, book chapters, and the grey literature were excluded.
• Relevance to themes: Studies had to explicitly focus on residential housing in Latin America and address at least one of the thematic axes (energy efficiency, IEQ, or regulation). No typological classification of housing was applied, as residential regulations in LAC typically apply broadly to the housing sector, regardless of typology.

As a result, Table 1 and Figure 1 illustrate the documents that were retrieved and included in the systematic analysis of this review.

2.5. Analytical Approach

The free and open software VOSviewer was employed to visualise the frequency and co-occurrence of key terms across the retrieved publications. This approach helped identify dominant research clusters, national trends, and key contributors within each thematic axis. VOSviewer produces bibliometric networks that reveal structural relationships among entities such as authors, countries, and keywords, offering a data-driven visualisation of how topics and collaborations are interlinked. Thematic clusters in VOSviewer are generated automatically based on keyword co-occurrence. Each colour in the visualisation represents a distinct group of closely related terms that frequently appear together, enabling the identification of major research areas and patterns within the dataset.

Second, a qualitative thematic analysis was performed to assess emerging patterns across the thematic axes, policy implications, and methodological approaches in the selected studies. Articles were coded according to thematic sub-categories (thermal comfort, design and materiality, social perceptions, regulatory impacts), allowing for a deeper understanding of how current studies address human and environmental health in housing.

This integrative approach, combining visual and content-based analysis, is consistent with recent systematic reviews in sustainability and public health domains [27,28,29] and supports a more holistic synthesis of evidence.

3. Results

The results of this review are organised around three thematic axes: energy efficiency in housing, IEQ, and regulatory frameworks. These axes were chosen to reflect not only the scope of the literature but also the interdependence between technical, social, and policy-related factors affecting sustainable housing in LAC. Contrary to a purely normative review, this study seeks to synthesise regional efforts and gaps through a multidimensional lens, examining how regulations and standards interact with research on thermal comfort, indoor pollution, and housing vulnerability. To contextualise the evolution of academic interest in sustainable housing in Latin America, Figure 2 and Figure 3 present a bibliometric overview of the publication trends across the 2013–2023 decade.

Figure 2 illustrates the annual distribution of peer-reviewed studies addressing energy efficiency, IEQ, and regulatory frameworks. The data reveals a steady increase in research output, with a notable acceleration from 2020 onwards. This inflexion point coincides with the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, suggesting a heightened awareness of the role of indoor environments in public health and well-being. The post-2020 surge in publications reflects a shift in research priorities, likely driven by the need to reassess housing conditions under prolonged indoor occupancy and increased exposure to indoor pollutants.

Figure 3 complements this temporal analysis by comparing the thematic focus of the literature before and after 2020. While energy efficiency remained a consistent area of interest, the proportion of studies centred on IEQ and regulatory frameworks increased significantly in the post-pandemic period. This shift underscores a growing recognition of the importance of integrated approaches that combine technical performance, environmental health, and policy enforcement. The data supports the argument that the pandemic catalysed a broader and more interdisciplinary exploration of sustainable housing, aligning with the core objectives of this review.

3.1. Research-Related Sustainable Governance in Latin American Housing

Research on sustainable governance focused on the residential context, i.e., energy efficiency, IEQ, and regulations in LAC. Regarding energy efficiency in housing, most of the research is centred in Chile, Brazil, and Mexico, and to a lesser extent in Ecuador, Colombia, and Argentina (Figure 4a). This figure also illustrates that countries such as Spain, the United Kingdom (UK), the United States (US), and Italy also conduct studies in this thematic axis. Most of the research is funded by public institutions and focuses on national problems targeting the most vulnerable population.

Figure 4b presents the main authors by the number of publications, who focus their research on energy efficiency in housing in LAC. The most significant contributions are made in basic engineering, energy, and environmental sciences in topics such as heating, ventilation, air conditioning (HVAC), insulation, and building systems, but limited attention has been given to mixed or hybrid ventilation strategies combining mechanical and natural systems. There are fewer studies from the humanities and social sciences focused on users and their social perception using surveys and interviews.

Studies focused on IEQ in housing are more prevalent in Mexico, Chile, and Brazil compared to other Latin American countries. Research in countries outside this region is led by the US, followed by Canada and other European countries (UK and Spain) (Figure 5a). Figure 5b presents the authors conducting research in this thematic axis.

As for energy-efficient housing legislation in LAC, most of the studies have been conducted in Brazil, Chile, and Mexico, with some research also conducted in other countries such as France, the UK, Spain, and the US (Figure 6a). Figure 6b presents the leading authors in this thematic area.

3.2. Energy Efficiency in Housing in Latin America

The different climate conditions in LAC pose a challenge for maintaining physical and mental health in this region, where less than 2% of GDP is invested in sustainable housing research [30]. This paper refers to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification to describe the relevant climate zones (

Table 2. Köppen–Geiger climate classification for relevant climatic zones in Latin America mentioned in this review. Adapted from the study of [31].

Type	Description	Criterion
A	Equatorial climates (Tmin ≥ +18 °C)
Af	Equatorial rainforest fully humid	Pmin ≥ 60 mm
Am	Equatorial monsoon	Pann ≥ 25 mm (100–Pmin)
As	Equatoriral savannah with dry summer	Pmin ≥ 60 mm in summer
Aw	Equatoriral savannah with dry winter	Pmin ≥ 60 mm in winter
B	Arid climate (Pann < 10 Pth)
BS	Steppe climate	Pann > 5 Pth
BSk	Cold steppe	Pann > 5 Pth, Tann < +18 °C
BW	Desert climate	Pann ≤ 5 Pth
BWh	Hot desert	Tann ≥ +18 °C
C	Warm temperate climates (−3 °C < Tmin < +18 °C)
Cs	Warm temperate climate with dry summer	Psmin < Pwmin, Pwmax > 3 Psmin and Psmin < 40 mm
Csb	Warm termperate climate with dry and warm (but not hot) summer	Cs precipitation and at least 4 months Tmon ≥ +10 °C
Cw	Warm temperature climate with dry winter	Pwmin < Psmin and Psmax > 10 Pwmin

T_ann: Annual mean near-surface temperature. T_max and T_min: Monthly mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months, respectively. P_ann: Accumulated annual precipitation, P_min: Precipitation in the driest month. P_smin, P_smax, P_wmin, and P_wmax: Lowest and highest monthly precipitation values for the summer and winter half-years. P_th: Dryness threshold in mm for arid climates.

) [31].

Figure 7 presents the keywords that appeared most frequently in Latin American housing energy efficiency studies. Among these studies, the keyword “air conditioning” (A/C) was predominant due to the increased use of active systems. For example, in Northern Mexico, residential electricity consumption associated with A/C accounted for 53% of the regional total [32]. In Chile, the pattern is similar, with 53% used for heating (individual heaters and central heating) and A/C [33], representing a problem of international interest.

In recent years, the most representative authors have sought solutions to improve energy efficiency or performance in vulnerable dwellings, thermal comfort, and maintain a healthy indoor environment [28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37], envelope treatment [38,39,40], ventilation control, thermal comfort [41,42], and social perception were the central premises. This review of studies on energy efficiency in housing in LAC focused on three areas (thermal comfort, socio-political factors, and design factors) as shown in Figure 5. Variables such as location, building systems, age of the building, and socioeconomic level of the users are examined in the next sections.

3.2.1. Building Systems and Design Factors for Thermal Comfort

Passive systems, such as night ventilation, shading levels, reflective materials, and insulation, in the envelope are used to reduce energy consumption and improve thermal comfort. These strategies achieved an average temperature reduction of 3 °C and a 377% decrease in the cooling task compared with the base case [36]. It is common to use passive systems such as the Trombe wall, used in Chile, with a Csb climate to reduce the heating and cooling demand [43]. In Colombia, López-Escamilla et al. [41] used a numerical method to study the importance of natural ventilation and shading and the need for thermal insulation in an Af climate. Bonaccorso et al. [44] applied an experimental and numerical study in Brazil, Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela to recommend passive strategies for reducing indoor overheating in low-income housing. In contrast, Fillipin and Flores–Larsen [45] conducted studies on social housing in Argentina using a numerical and experimental method with a Cfa climate. They analysed thermal behaviour in compact housing and found that the typologies studied would not reach thermal comfort conditions without air conditioning during the summer.

Another approach to reduce energy consumption in housing was envelope treatment. Molina et al. [46] determined a model to predict uncertainty in ventilation pollution concentrations in dwellings in Chile. In Mexico, Reyes-Barajas et al. [40] focused on thermal insulation and ventilated façade, while Marincic et al. [35] determined with an experimental method applied to a BWh climate that building envelope systems influenced indoor and outdoor conditions. Therefore, the choice of materials, especially in non-air-conditioned spaces, represents a key element in reducing thermal discomfort.

The influence of architectural design in housing energy efficiency was studied by various authors. In Mexico, Romero-Pérez et al. [37] provided architectural design recommendations related to window shading and managing thermal mass aided with fan or natural ventilation to reduce energy use and improve thermal comfort in cold and warm seasons in a BSk climate. In the same country, Arvizu–Piña et al. [47] recommended to implement life cycle analysis tools at early design stages using alternative building materials and bioclimatic design strategies related to orientation, building shape, and location.

With an Af climate in Ecuador, Guillén-Mena et al. [48] emphasised the importance of building orientation and solar gains and household energy demand as well as the need to develop energy performance assessment models adapted to regional characteristics. In Brazil, Cóstola et al. [34] integrated socioeconomic factors and user behaviour as essential design elements and found that window control and clothing influenced users’ thermal perception. Using a numerical method in Mexico, Medrano-Gomez et al. [42] found that the southeast orientation of dwellings resulted in lower energy consumption and improved thermal comfort. Similarly, López-Escamilla et al. [41] emphasised orientation and shape of the building as essential elements for controlling solar radiation.

In a study of energy poverty in Chile, Pérez–Fargallo et al. [49] analysed housing typologies alongside design features (façade, roof, and floors) in a Cfb climate. They found that a reduction in excessive energy consumption and heating systems could reduce energy poverty in low-income housing in Chile. Overall, these studies point out that strategies such as passive systems, the improvement of building envelopes, bioclimatic design, and design features can not only reduce the energy demand for heating and cooling across different climates in the LAC region but also improve the thermal comfort of their occupants.

3.2.2. Social Factors and Energy Policies

From the social and policy perspective, Thomson et al. [20] identified large energy poverty levels in LAC related to energy resources in rural areas and energy expenditure in urban areas, which limit possibilities of energy efficiency improvements and thermal comfort. These authors emphasised the need for innovative research and policy reviews in LAC to support access to affordable energy services for all. Silvero et al. [21] conducted a review of buildings energy efficiency programmes in four South American countries: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay. The analysed countries shared the objectives of cleaner energy and reducing energy dependence through energy efficiency and recognised the importance of addressing these issues in their energy policies. Therefore, they called upon the need to improve strategies and policies as well as increase research in other LAC countries.

Mata et al. [27] conducted a worldwide review related to non-technological and behavioural options to reduce carbon emissions in buildings, such as the management and operation of active and passive energy systems, the flexibility and sufficiency of energy demand and comfort requirements, and sharing spaces and appliances among other measures. The authors concurred that most of the knowledge is concentrated in higher-income countries of North America and Europe while highlighting the need for more primary studies in line with global population growth in Africa and the Middle East, LAC, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia due to evidence gaps in these regions. Santamouris et al. [22] proposed short- and long-term investments to reduce maintenance costs and a healthy indoor environment. This strategy directly benefits users and could be a guideline for effective energy policies. The main area of opportunity lies in increasing research and analysis to address these issues and develop viable solutions. In recent years, user behaviour and perception have been incorporated into energy efficiency analyses in housing at the international level, but it is necessary to incorporate all these factors in Latin American energy efficiency studies, integrate multi-objective optimisation, and expand collaborations that enrich global networks towards common goals.

This review of studies in this thematic axis shows that social housing represents a challenge because of the poor quality of its construction materials, physical characteristics that generally only comply with minimum regulatory measures, the lack of regulations that encourage sustainable practices and limited access to basic services such as electricity, water, and environmental quality [50]. In LAC countries, the challenges to improve housing conditions are summarised in Figure 8. Factors such as access to quality housing and cleaner technologies have been limited, particularly for marginalised populations, pointing out the need for improving environmental and social justice [51]. Therefore, developing integral policies that promote improving thermal comfort and use of efficient equipment are required.

3.3. IEQ in Latin America

In the Global Risks Report 2023 [52], experts estimated that we are not prepared for the climatic and environmental risks of the next decade, much less for the rest of the 21st century. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the concept of syndemia, i.e., the interaction of various diseases (diabetes, obesity, respiratory problems) and social factors (poverty, the lack of access to healthy spaces) has increased the health risk of vulnerable users. Borghi-Silva et al. [53] found that user habits (related to diet, daily activities, among others) were associated with a higher number of deaths from COVID–19 in LAC, especially in low-income communities. Poor air quality and socio-economic conditions further increase the health risks of vulnerable and elderly groups with existing respiratory problems [16].

Figure 9 shows the most frequently keywords found related to environmental quality in the analysed articles. The frequency of keywords such as suspended particles, carbon dioxide, arsenic, and heavy metals stands out in the examined articles. It is worth noting the presence of other keywords, such as users’ diet, age, or activities such as cooking. In LAC, the limited use of certified energy-efficient cooking appliances and traditional cooking practices with fuelwood and charcoal generated losses of USD 21 billion in health and USD 6 billion in climate impacts. To modernise cooking energy use in Latin American countries, an investment of USD 53 billion is required over the next 10 years [54].

The reviewed articles in this thematic axis focused particularly on the assessment of indoor air pollutants, potential solutions to improve air quality, cooking, and heating impacts on health, and energy and climate policies, as shown in Figure 9. These studies highlight the importance of addressing indoor quality health issues in different geographical and cultural contexts.

3.3.1. IEQ Assessments

Becerra et al. [55] showed that the use of overnight heating systems increased CO₂ levels in low-income housing in Chile. In Argentina, Florencia et al. [56] measured polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons adsorbed to particulate matter in indoor air, and they found higher concentrations indoors than outdoors. Tene et al. [57] conducted an experimental study to measure the level of radon exposure in communities in Ecuador. They found that the most used building materials (concrete and clay brick) released significant rates of radon in indoor air. McEwen et al. [58] found high levels of lead and arsenic exposure in adobe housing in Bolivia. In some Latin American countries, health problems, such as Chagas disease transmitted by insects indoors, could be prevented through public health seeking to control mortality rates. Laskari et al. [59] determined an index of IEQ in residential buildings. Although there are estimates of the percentage of deaths attributable to indoor air pollution in each Latin American country [60], no further studies of pollutants, such as radon, were found for all LAC countries. Therefore, there is a need to have more up-to-date estimates on the correlation of indoor pollution levels with population health in this region.

3.3.2. Systems to Improve Indoor Air Quality

Cerón-Palma et al. [61] analysed the use of combined technology with passive systems (energy-efficient appliances and green spaces) to reduce indoor pollution in Mexico. In Argentina, Flores-Larsen et al. [36] evaluated passive cooling measures to increase the heat resistance of dwellings and how the surrounding environment influenced respiratory problems. They found that sudden changes in meteorological conditions, such as air temperature and humidity, increased the number of hospitalisations for respiratory and cardiac issues in dwellings during extreme heat. Velázquez Robles et al. [62] analysed envelope layers, water sources, and building systems to control pollution conditions inside social housing in Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Indonesia. Flamant et al. [63] also analysed envelope layers, environmental impacts of building materials, and carbon levels in four locations with different climatic conditions in Chile. Their study showed a decrease in heating demand by 91% in Punta Arenas and, thus, in carbon emissions using a numerical method compared with traditional buildings. In addition, the high-energy-efficiency scenario also improved IEQ and thermal comfort.

It is recognised that ventilation or air filtration systems can improve IEQ in households [16], but access to these systems is limited due to socioeconomic conditions, particularly in contexts where housing lacks adequate infrastructure. In many urban and rural areas of Latin America, low-income households face structural limitations such as precarious building materials, poor housing construction, overcrowding, and inadequate ventilation, which increase exposure to indoor pollutants and reduce thermal comfort [18]. Additionally, the high cost of efficient technologies and the lack of adequate subsidies or governmental programmes restrict improvement possibilities, perpetuating environmental inequality and disproportionately affecting vulnerable and marginalised groups.

3.3.3. Cooking and Heating Practices Impacts on Health

Becerra et al. [55] analysed IEQ related to Chilean residents’ location and socioeconomic status and found that using firewood and paraffin is a significant contaminant in low-income households. They concluded that the quality of life in Chilean households can be improved with policies encouraging energy efficiency in housing and promoting cleaner and safer cooking and heating systems. One of the most significant health risks detected is using charcoal for indoor cooking, especially among LAC women. For this reason, most public policies are oriented towards the technological improvement of cookstoves. In Honduras, Clark et al. [64] found that the use of improved cookers can significantly reduce the exposure levels to indoor pollutants. They emphasised the importance of conducting assessments of cooker quality and users’ habits and traditions to determine indoor air quality. Thomson et al. [20] studied energy poverty in LAC. They pointed out the relevance of developing studies in the region due to the evidence gap and the need to understand this problem through the lens of disadvantaged populations’ quality of life and health.

Martinez-Soto et al. [18] and Rojas et al. [65] examined air pollution and energy-related GHG emissions in households in South-Central Chilean cities during COVID-19, respectively. In the analysed cities, large segments of the low and middle-income population use wood biomass as their main energy source for cooking and space heating, related not only to fuel affordability but also to cultural practices. Although some governmental programmes, such as “Change your heat” [65] were introduced in 2020, authors state that reducing energy poverty and increasing accessibility to cleaner energy sources should be a policy priority to decrease indoor air pollution in households.

The relationship between energy poverty and health in the region has been identified as a critical axis requiring greater attention. The lack of access to suitable heating or cooling systems or even cleaner energy sources, combined with prolonged exposure to pollutants from biomass cooking, intensifies health risks, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases [16,18] (Figure 10). This interaction between economic vulnerability and poor environmental conditions underscores the necessity of integrating equity and social justice criteria into public policies on energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality and healthy housing.

Cerón-Palma et al. [61] indicated that incentives for users are needed, as well as more research to identify barriers and solutions at a larger scale. Analysing and assessing IEQ in Latin American countries requires periodically reviewing the following:

• Heating and cooling systems.
• Food cooking systems.
• Substituting and validating cleaner practices.

3.4. Housing and Efficiency Legislation in Latin America

Cherni et al. [66] stated that national policies are necessary to achieve sustainable livelihoods, particularly in remote and rural locations. They emphasised the importance of studies integrating sustainable technologies into livelihoods that can address the technical, financial, and political challenges to their adoption and long-term sustainability. Currently, LAC focuses on policies to combat poverty and address social problems, which takes resources away from indoor pollution control [67] or the development of indices to help policy stakeholders make decisions to reduce energy poverty [68].

Alonso et al. [69] and Fuinhas et al. [28] suggest that public health impacts from air pollution could be reduced through successful strategies for economic growth and energy transition. The authors argue that renewable energy and energy policies could potentially reduce air pollution in LAC. Fernández-Guzman et al. [70] conducted a review of climate change mitigation in South American countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela). They documented that strategies focused on fossil fuel reduction and renewable technology could reduce emissions, while they also highlighted that research and monitoring are insufficient in South American countries. The increased demand for resources in the public and private sectors has reduced the speed and scale of efforts to improve environmental quality. This fact points out to insufficient financial contribution and political willingness towards mitigation and adaptation in countries increasingly affected by climate change impacts.

The studies on housing legislation in LAC showed keywords that relate concepts such as energy efficiency, environmental quality, and energy policies. Variables associated with socio-economics, poverty, and renewable systems were observed (Figure 11).

3.4.1. Environmental Quality and Energy Efficiency Regulations in Latin America

Regulations focused on energy efficiency, IEQ, and health in dwellings have been explored through different standards such as the NAAQS/EPA of the United States [71], the GB/T18883-2002 of China [72], or the World Health Organisation [73]. In Spain, the Technical Building Code [74] and the Regulation on Thermal Installations in Buildings [75] contain energy-saving recommendations (concerning building envelope, thermal properties of building systems, and design concepts), healthiness, ventilation criteria and flow rates, noise levels, and radon protection, which have been recently incorporated. The main objective is to establish quantitative limits for indoor pollutants.

Table 3. International regulatory limits for indoor environmental comfort.

Pollutant	Standard	Limits
PM2.5	NAAQS/EPA [71]	35 μg/m3 per 24 h
PM10	GB/T18883-2002 [76]	0.15 mg/m3
	NAAQS/EPA [71]	150 μg/m3 per 24 h
SO2	GB/T18883-2002 [76]	<0.5 mg/m3
	NAAQS/EPA [71]	0.14 ppm per 24 h
	WHO [73]	0.012 (1 year)
NO2	GB/T18883-2002 [76]	0.24 mg/m3
	NAAQS/EPA [71]	0.05 ppm per year
	WHO [73]	0.02 ppm (1 year)
CO	GB/T18883-2002 [76]	<10 mg/m3
	NAAQS/EPA [71]	9 ppm per year
	Canada/WHO [73]	25 ppm per 1 h
Pb	NAAQS/EPA [71]	15 µg/m3 (3 months)
	WHO [73]	0.5 µg/m3 (1 year)
O3	NAAQS/EPA [71]	0.12 ppm per hour
	WHO [73]	0.064 ppm
Formaldehyde	WHO [73]	0.081 ppm per 0.5 h

presents some of the most widely used international standards in recent decades, which have been used as references for developing energy efficiency policies in LAC. While Table 3 focuses on indoor air pollutants due to the existence of internationally established thresholds, it is important to note that similar quantitative standards for other indoor environmental factors such as thermal comfort and visual or acoustic quality are rarely defined in the legal frameworks of LAC countries. As a result, this review prioritised indoor air quality as the most representative indicator of regulatory progress in the region. The limited inclusion of these other variables highlights a regulatory gap that underscores the relevance of regionally focused reviews such as the present study, which aims to bring attention to these policy and research deficiencies.

Table 4 summarises Latin American countries’ representative energy efficiency and environmental quality regulations. Most of the regulations focus on energy efficiency in buildings and, to a limited extent, ventilation rates or improving indoor air quality. Only recently, new proposals about IEQ and health risks are emerging following the COVID-19 pandemic [77], such as the standard under review PROY-NOM-172-SEMARNAT-2023 in Mexico [78].

In Mexico, public policies have been developed for more than 30 years to increase energy efficiency in social housing [77,78,79,80,81,82,83]. In Peru, the Technical Code for Sustainable Construction in Peru seeks to progressively transform new social housing and urban areas towards a sustainable development framework. The EM110 Technical Standard was the first standard in Peru to improve energy-efficient lighting and thermal comfort conditions through architectural design [84]. In Argentina, the IRAM standards for energy efficiency in buildings are mandatory only in Buenos Aires and optional in the rest of the country [85,86,87,88]. Law 19587/72 Decree 351/79 recommends ventilation levels according to occupancy level, volume, and type of activity. Finally, energy labelling is used in this country to encourage efficient energy use at the residential level.

Chile has implemented requirements for thermal insulation in slabs since 2012, and the Sustainable Housing Certification was established in 2019 as a voluntary measure to qualify dwellings according to their energy efficiency. In 2020, the Energy Efficiency Law was drafted, which is mandatory. The technical norm NTM-11 established requirements related to airtightness, ventilation for air quality, and condensation, among other variables; at the same time, it established requirements associated with new dwellings with subsidies for thermal conditioning. The Chilean standards NCh3308 and NCh3309 establish design criteria with ventilation systems covering passive measures with active methods. In addition, this country has energy labelling for public buildings, which is in the process of becoming mandatory [89,90].

For more than 30 years in Brazil, the government has promoted efficient energy consumption and the manufacturing of efficient equipment through a labelling programme that establishes requirements of specific energy consumption for appliances and equipment. Santana et al. explain that Law 10.295 set a programme for the progressive evolution of these energy efficiency levels to guarantee the improvement of energy efficiency of appliances and equipment over time [91]. Colombia also has a regulatory framework for energy efficiency ranging from labelling to initiatives for energy cities, promoting renewable sources and sustainable mobility [92].

Efforts have been made by LAC countries for more than three decades to improve energy efficiency and environmental quality. However, their respective legal frameworks can be considered biased due to the lack of investment in research, coupled with insecurity and corruption that permeate all social, political, and environmental strata hindering the appropriate monitoring and enforcement of existing regulations. In the legal frameworks of Latin American countries, regulation gaps do not require developers to provide hygrothermal comfort if they do not meet the minimum requirements established. In general, most LAC countries divide their regions into thermal climatic zones to establish levels of savings with progressive results. However, there are areas of opportunity in legislation on specific issues, such as controlling ventilation beyond safety, to comply with the climatic zones.

At the global level, González-Sancha et al. [93] conducted a comparative analysis of ventilation rates in houses in Europe (2010–2022) following the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors pointed out the need to modify current regulations to increase ventilation rates in interior areas with the highest risk of contagion based on the recommendations of international organisations such as the WHO. In LAC, there is not enough research into this type of regulation examining effective measures to alleviate the effects of future pandemics.

Table 4. Energy efficiency and environmental policies in Latin America.

Country	Policy	Aim [Source]
Mexico	NOM-024-ENER-2012	Double glazing [79]
Mexico	NMX-C-460-ONNCCE-2019 1	Thermal insulation [94]
Mexico	NMX-U-125-SCFI-2016	Reflective finish envelope [81]
Mexico	NOM-018-ENER-2011	Thermal-insulating materials [82]
Mexico	NOM-008-ENER-2011	Energy efficiency envelope for non-residential buildings [83]
Mexico	NOM-020-ENER-2011	Energy efficiency building envelope for residential use [77]
Mexico	PROY-NOM-172-SEMARNAT-2023 2	Indoor air quality and health risks [78]
Peru	EM.110	Thermal envelope [84]
Peru	Technical Code for Sustainable Construction 1	Sustainable building [95]
Argentina	IRAM standard 11549	Thermal insulation of building [87]
Argentina	IRAM standard 11605	Thermal insulation of buildings—living conditions at home [86]
Argentina	IRAM standard 11900	Energy efficiency label of heating for buildings [85]
Chile	NCh3308:2013	Ventilation—acceptable indoor air quality [90]
Chile	NCh3309:2014	Ventilation and acceptable indoor air quality in low-rise residential buildings [89]
Brazil	Lei 10.295	Conservation and rational use of energy [96]
Colombia	Ley 1955 2019 1	Guidelines for energy efficiency [92]

¹ Mandatory Standard; ² Under review.

Table 4. Energy efficiency and environmental policies in Latin America.

Country	Policy	Aim [Source]
Mexico	NOM-024-ENER-2012	Double glazing [79]
Mexico	NMX-C-460-ONNCCE-2019 1	Thermal insulation [94]
Mexico	NMX-U-125-SCFI-2016	Reflective finish envelope [81]
Mexico	NOM-018-ENER-2011	Thermal-insulating materials [82]
Mexico	NOM-008-ENER-2011	Energy efficiency envelope for non-residential buildings [83]
Mexico	NOM-020-ENER-2011	Energy efficiency building envelope for residential use [77]
Mexico	PROY-NOM-172-SEMARNAT-2023 2	Indoor air quality and health risks [78]
Peru	EM.110	Thermal envelope [84]
Peru	Technical Code for Sustainable Construction 1	Sustainable building [95]
Argentina	IRAM standard 11549	Thermal insulation of building [87]
Argentina	IRAM standard 11605	Thermal insulation of buildings—living conditions at home [86]
Argentina	IRAM standard 11900	Energy efficiency label of heating for buildings [85]
Chile	NCh3308:2013	Ventilation—acceptable indoor air quality [90]
Chile	NCh3309:2014	Ventilation and acceptable indoor air quality in low-rise residential buildings [89]
Brazil	Lei 10.295	Conservation and rational use of energy [96]
Colombia	Ley 1955 2019 1	Guidelines for energy efficiency [92]

¹ Mandatory Standard; ² Under review.

3.4.2. Environmental Sustainability Assessment and Tools

LAC countries have developed housing legislation aimed at energy and environmental performance assessment and certification [48], and recently in response to emerging public health issues. Charoenkit et al. [29] found that existing environmental sustainability evaluation tools for houses in lower-income countries had significant limitations regarding the coverage of greenhouse gas emission reduction, assessment methods, financial considerations in the building’s life cycle costs, and community participation in the planning process.

Despite these limitations, efforts have been made in LAC to improve energy regulations focused on improving and integrating indoor environmental quality in housing and sustainable practices. In Mexico, the National Commission for the Efficient Use of Energy launched online calculation tools available for the general public in 2017 to facilitate the understanding and application of energy efficiency regulations in housing [97]. By facilitating compliance with regulations, these tools can indirectly incentivise the implementation of sustainable practices, supported with community-led initiatives and advocacy groups.

Christopher et al. [98] evaluated the potential of energy systems, including compressed air storage and renewable energy, to improve energy efficiency and reduce CO₂ emissions. They found a need to develop simulation tools focused on reducing environmental pollutants. They highlighted that research networking, environmental education, industry-academia collaboration, and regulation development are crucial in promoting renewable energy. Kear et al. [99] focused on linking extreme heat vulnerability, energy equity, and mobile and prefabricated housing thermal security through public policy. Their study found high rates of thermal insecurity in warm climates and recommended expanding knowledge on energy policies to decrease social inequality. Tori et al. [100] analysed public policies for net-zero energy buildings in Chile and other countries. They recommended incorporating net-zero energy buildings (NZEBs), including dwellings, in Chilean public policies as an effective measure to reduce emissions due to the success of other countries in implementing these policies. They recommended evaluating the impact of actual policies in different countries and adapting them to Chile’s conditions and needs.

As highlighted in previous sections, there is a need for more research to strengthen the design and development of policies that include more extensive climate mitigation and disaster resilience, further assessment methods, and lifecycle cost financial aspects in these assessment tools. More research is also needed to assess the effectiveness of the proposed improvements in evaluating new social housing projects.

3.4.3. Equitable Access to Clean Energy

Blanco et al. [60] found that public policies are gradually focusing on reducing the use of charcoal and firewood for cooking to ensure equitable access to clean energy sources in LAC. Macias et al. [101] studied different proposals and mathematical models to reduce Mexico’s energy poverty due to regulatory arrangements affecting electricity tariffs. The authors highlighted the need to develop more accurate and efficient mathematical models involving governments, businesses, non-governmental organisations, and civil society to determine energy consumption.

Segovia-Hernández et al. [102] addressed sustainability challenges in LAC with a literature review of the region’s environmental impacts. They pointed out the need for improved energy efficiency, cleaner and sustainable technologies, and the importance of fostering research education and training in the region. Bashir et al. [103] provided evidence of the significance of the transition to renewable sources of electricity generation as a recommendation to improve environmental quality through public policies in OECD countries such as Mexico and Chile. Among the areas of opportunity, the authors highlighted the need to broaden knowledge of the energy transition, environmental quality, and aspects of sustainable development such as energy poverty and public health.

Figure 12 summarises the main challenges and barriers identified regarding housing regulations in LAC. No methods or solutions guarantee energy and environmental equality at a global level; each region responds to particular needs due to cultural, social, and political differences. The thematic axis of public policies must be approached from different scales: the local social scale, where easy-to-use calculation tools are made available to the general public; the regional or national scale, with the development, revision of existing policies, or even the proposal of other policies that respond to new requirements.

4. Discussion

Given the complex socio-economic and environmental realities of Latin America and the Caribbean, this discussion reflects on how current research and policy efforts align with the pursuit of sustainable and equitable housing in the region with particular emphasis on energy efficiency, indoor environmental quality, and human health risks.

The literature and reviewed policies reveal several key and interrelated pathways towards sustainable housing governance. Understanding the critical pathways in the Latin American context involves recognising not only the cultural, climatic, and infrastructural diversity across the region but also the structural influence of socioeconomic inequality on IEQ. This review illustrates an increasing number of studies focusing on strategies and policies for reducing energy demand and improving thermal comfort to maintain physical and mental health through enhancing energy efficiency in housing and for reducing health risks through decreasing length and levels of exposure to indoor pollutants, as summarised in

Table 5. Main strategies examined in the key thematic axes (in bold) and related studies in Latin American countries.

Key Thematic Axis	Strategies
Energy efficiency in housing	Building systems and design factors for thermal comfort Air conditioning: Mexico, Chile [32,33] Passive strategies: Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina [36,41,43,44,45] Envelope treatment: Mexico [35,40] Alternative building materials: Mexico [42,47] Design features and bioclimatic design: Mexico, Chile [37,41,49] Building orientation: Ecuador, Mexico [41,42,48] Occupant perception and behaviour: Brazil [34]
Indoor environmental quality	IEQ assessments to monitor indoor pollutants CO2 levels: Chile [55] Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Argentina [56] Radon: Ecuador [57] Lead and arsenic: Bolivia [58] Systems to improve IEQ Passive systems: Argentina, Mexico [36,61] Envelope layers and building systems: Mexico, Chile [62,63] Policies for cleaner technologies and energy sources Cleaner and safer cooking and heating systems: Chile [55,65] Improved cookers: Honduras [64] Accessibility and affordability of cleaner energy sources: Chile, Ecuador [17,65]
Energy efficiency and indoor air quality regulations	Housing energy efficiency standards Building envelope: Mexico, Peru [77,80,84] Thermal insulation: Mexico, Argentina, Chile [80,86,87] Thermal insulating materials: Mexico [82] Double glazing: Mexico [79] Heating: Argentina [85,86] Energy conservation and energy efficiency: Brazil, Colombia [92,96] Indoor air quality standards Ventilation—acceptable indoor air quality: Chile [89,90] Indoor air quality and health risks: Mexico [78] Sustainable buildings Sustainable housing certification: Chile [81,82] Technical code for sustainable construction: Peru [95]

.

However, limited financial resources often restrict access to adequate building materials, proper ventilation, cleaner energy sources, and energy-efficient systems, especially in low-income communities. Studies show that income inequality and energy poverty exacerbate exposure to indoor pollutants and thermal discomfort, intensifying health risks and disparities across socioeconomic groups [93,94]. Efforts to achieve sustainable governance through energy policies on housing suffer from an equality gap related to access to decent housing, energy equity, and quality of life, especially in vulnerable sectors [104].

Addressing this interplay requires an integrative policy framework that prioritises equitable access to healthy housing environments, which depends on energy security and the integration of practises and technologies that contribute to social equity [105,106]. This may include not only revising minimum energy efficiency and housing standards but also promoting targeted incentives with inclusive planning processes as well as context-sensitive interventions. Without acknowledging and actively addressing these inequalities, efforts to improve IEQ and energy efficiency may fail to reach the populations most affected by environmental vulnerabilities.

4.1. Towards Context-Sensitive Policy Adaptation

LAC countries seek a legal framework to achieve energy equality and improve environmental quality when facing climate change impacts. Where the lack of essential services such as electricity, water, and security absorbs more resources, public policies for the provision of these services in a clean and affordable manner appear less visible and less effective. Although no methods or solutions guarantee energy equality and sustainable governance, the legal frameworks around these issues should be committed to considering new perspectives, such as regional, cultural, and social contexts.

The analysis of legislative frameworks in LAC shows how international influences have shaped policies in the region. However, due to the climatic, cultural, and infrastructural diversity across LAC countries, it is essential that regulatory frameworks avoid the uncritical adoption of global standards [107] and are carefully tailored to the socio-cultural fabric of each country and community. A strong emphasis on a deep understanding of regional experiences is key to identifying truly effective and sustainable solutions over time. For instance, Spain’s Technical Building Code (CTE) [74] stands out for its advanced requirements concerning thermal envelope performance, ventilation, and the control of indoor pollutants, thereby influencing regulations in countries such as Chile and Mexico [108]. This example highlights the importance of having high standards as a point of comparison, although each country must adapt them to its own realities. In the Chilean context, for example, thermal regulations have progressed but still fall short of the stricter requirements observed in Europe [107,108]. However, it is important to recognise their recent efforts to integrate occupancy assessment models in their regulations [109].

An additional case that warrants attention is India’s Improved Cookstove Programme, which has been instrumental in reducing energy poverty and mitigating health risks associated with the use of solid fuels in low-income households. This model serves as an inspiring example, though it should be approached with caution. The implementation of similar policies in a context such as LAC requires not merely policy transposition but a deep adaptation to local socio-cultural and economic contexts [110,111]. Programmatic energy interventions that incorporate an adaptive approach, as seen in residential building energy retrofitting, can provide valuable lessons [112].

The role of comparative models in this review, therefore, is not to offer prescriptive proposals but rather to indicate potential policy pathways that can be contextualised within LAC. This underscores the need for a holistic framework that considers both the adoption of standards proven effective elsewhere and a sensitivity to the region’s specificities [113].

4.2. Persistent Barriers and Evidence Gaps

Despite an increasing number of studies and policies, some systemic barriers remain unresolved. One of the main challenges observed in this study was the limited research funding by governments in lower-income countries. In addition, there is limited dissemination of scientific findings of LAC studies to increase collective knowledge about energy efficiency strategies and policies and indoor environmental quality in the region. Financial limitations are compounded by a lack of information and exposure of foreign countries to regional issues that are not fully understood from a local perspective.

In addition to limited funding and institutional fragmentation, deeper structural inequalities must be considered. Among them, there is a need for a homogenised standardisation of thermal comfort and indoor environmental pollution monitoring at the regional and local level as well as more inclusive participation of local communities in data collection and policy evaluation. These studies can be further enriched with comparative analyses targeting primarily economically and socially vulnerable housing.

The legislative framework processes in LAC require an acceleration of the revision of public policies in energy efficiency of housing, enforcement of effective measures and dissemination and education of the benefits to human and environmental health of living in spaces with adequate IEQ. Future collaborative work through research networks could strengthen theoretical frameworks and enrich new perspectives to address challenges such as climate change and growing energy inequality.

5. Conclusions

This review examined research and policy developments in the three key thematic axes of energy efficiency, IEQ, and housing regulations in LAC, with a particular focus on socially and economically vulnerable populations. Through a systematic analysis of the peer-reviewed literature and policy frameworks published between 2013 and 2023, this study identified key research trends, policy gaps, and regional disparities that hinder the advancement of sustainable housing governance in the region.

The findings reveal three major challenges:

• Deficiencies in residential energy efficiency: Despite the implementation of effective building systems and housing design features for thermal comfort across different climates in the region, vulnerable households still have limited access to efficient technologies and passive design solutions, increasing their dependence on costly mechanical systems and exacerbating energy poverty. While countries such as Mexico, Chile, and Brazil have made progress in the implementation of energy efficiency strategies and the development of regulations, regional inequalities and gaps in implementation and enforcement remain widespread.
• Critical exposure to indoor pollutants: Residents are frequently exposed to harmful levels of indoor air pollutants, including particulate matter, radon, and carbon monoxide, particularly in the absence of proper ventilation or air filtration systems. The persistence of traditional cooking and heating methods and insufficient ventilation in low-income settings significantly increases the health burden on already vulnerable communities. In terms of legislation, a limited inclusion of indoor air quality and health risks in buildings and energy efficiency regulations across the region was observed, which could reduce the health risks to residents from exposure to indoor pollutants.
• Fragmented and insufficient regulatory frameworks: Although some LAC countries have adopted policies and voluntary standards, many lack comprehensive, enforceable regulations that address IEQ alongside energy efficiency. Crucial aspects—such as occupancy rates, user perception, behavioural factors, and environmental justice—are often absent from current frameworks. While regulations on these aspects may exist in some countries at the national or regional level, awareness of these regulations by housing developers and residents is often limited, and monitoring and enforcement of these regulations are not sufficient.

To move toward sustainable and equitable housing governance, it is essential that public policies aim to provide financial and regulatory incentives to promote energy-efficient and healthy housing solutions, particularly to support the access and affordability of cleaner energy sources and technologies, such as passive systems and clean cookstoves. National and local regulations need to be updated to explicitly incorporate IEQ and environmental health indicators.

To address ongoing social, political, and environmental challenges in the region to improve IEQ, further research should focus on evaluating the long-term effects of implemented policies and interventions on the quality of life and public health, particularly in low-income communities. For more reliable and comparable assessments of IEQ and energy efficiency, it is recommended to establish standardised monitoring protocols across LAC as well as develop and validate context-specific assessment tools that reflect local needs, climate conditions, and cultural practices. A more multidisciplinary approach should also be considered to examine not only technical performance but also users’ perceptions and social behaviour through mixed-method studies combining quantitative assessments (e.g., thermal and indoor pollution real-time data) with qualitative insights (e.g., interviews or surveys).

Amid intensifying climate challenges and growing health disparities, it is urgent to consolidate locally adapted, evidence-based housing policies across LAC. Equity in energy and environmental access must become a cornerstone of sustainable development efforts. Promoting resilient, inclusive, and healthy built environments requires collaborative action among researchers, policymakers, and communities. Strengthening the scientific and regulatory foundations through targeted, multidisciplinary research will be key to guiding impactful and context-sensitive solutions. As such, this review underscores the critical need to position future research as a driver of sustainable housing governance in the region.