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Systematic Review

Insight into Global Bio-Based Plastics Development: A Bibliometric Analysis-Aided Assessment of the Past Decades’ Research Exploit

by
Nonso E. Nnolim
* and
Uchechukwu U. Nwodo
Patho-Biocatalysis Group (PBG), Department of Biotechnology and Biological Sciences, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(13), 5955; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135955
Submission received: 16 May 2025 / Revised: 25 June 2025 / Accepted: 26 June 2025 / Published: 28 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cleaner Production, Responsible Consumption, Circular Economy, and Sustainable Development)
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Abstract

The global biobased plastics market is on an upward trajectory due to the quest for a clean/sustainable environment and the growing concerns over climate change. This study used a meta-analysis approach to investigate the global trend in the research evolution and development of bio-based plastics research from 1990 to 2023. The publication records of 2742 articles were retrieved from the Web of Science data collection using the following key terms: “bioplastic* or biodegradable plastic* or biobased plastic* or biodegradable polyester* or biobased polyester* or biodegradable polyethylene* or biobased polyethylene*”. The analysis showed that scientific productivity generally increased across the spectrum of the survey timelines, with the highest publication of 331 articles recorded in 2023. The articles were published in 863 sources by 10,408 authors, with an annual growth rate of 13.55%. China demonstrated the highest number of publications recorded, with 404 articles within the survey period, followed by the United States, with 303 articles. The international collaboration was recorded at 20.86%, while the average citation per article was 27.99. The swift advancement in biodegradable plastic research, as indicated by relevant metrics, highlights the current research trends and underscores the importance of bio-based plastics in promoting a sustainable environment and a circular economy.

1. Introduction

Over the past decades, human activities in various life endeavors have maintained a constant upward growth trajectory due to the increasing global population. Consequently, plastics use has skyrocketed, driving a concomitant increase in their production due to their affordability. The global production of fossil-based plastics has remarkably increased from 270 million metric tons in 2010 to 390 million metric tons in 2021. It has been predicted to keep rising in the following decades, with an estimated 590 million metric tons by 2050 [1]. Mass production began in the 1940s and has skyrocketed worldwide since then, with the plastic market value pegged at 593 billion U.S. dollars in 2021 [2]. This swift rise in plastic production has been attributed to the global shift from reusable to disposable plastic products [3]. Another driving force behind the surge in plastic production came from the excessive demand from industries, including but not limited to food, packaging, and beverages. Therefore, most other materials, such as wood, metal, and glass, that were utilized for various purposes are being displaced by plastics. The plastic industry has primarily involved linear processes targeted at converting raw materials into products of high importance. Though plastic production has significantly contributed to global economic growth and has benefited modern life, only a minimal amount of plastic waste (9%) has been adequately managed [4]. Packaging has been identified as contributing huge numbers of tons of solid waste globally, with the shortest working life of plastics emanating from the sector [5]. Most plastic waste is discarded in landfills, incinerated, or littered in the natural environment [3,6]. Aquatic ecosystems store significant plastic waste from the terrestrial milieu [7]. Hence, scientists are critically examining plastic waste’s transport dynamics, fate, and impact on the quality of water bodies and aquatic life. The evolution of plastic pollution has resulted in a spectrum of fragments categorized as microplastics (<5 mm), mesoplastics (0.5–5 cm), macroplastics (5–50 cm), and megaplastics (>50 cm) [4]. Among these various sizes of plastic fragments, environmental accumulation of microplastics is considered the most hazardous; it could trigger a cascade of health risks that may potentially harm all forms of life, if exposed [8]. Therefore, a pathway to mitigating environmental microplastic pollution should interest all the players (including producers, consumers, and environmentalists) along the plastic value chain. The key recommendations geared towards tackling plastic pollution include (a) a shift from a linear economy to a circular model that promotes reuse and recycling, (b) the use of substitute materials in packaging (where possible), (c) properly developing solid waste treatment facilities, (d) developing an effective plastics removal strategy from both the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and (e) upscaling the production and distribution of bio-based plastics.
The global bio-based plastics market is on an upward trajectory due to the quest for a clean/sustainable environment and the growing concerns over climate change [9]. Various technological innovations currently underway are geared towards developing robust bioplastic materials based on polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), cellulose esters, polybutylene succinate (PBS), starch, and polyamides with competitive properties [10,11]. In addition to that, technological modification of fossil-based plastics to optimize the production of novel and competitive materials with enhanced degradation while retaining the application-specific performance augurs well for a circular plastic economy [12,13]. Consequently, a novel polyester material synthesized from 1,18-octadecanedicarboxylic acid and ethylene glycol displayed robust mechanical properties, biodegraded under standard industrial composting conditions, and completely hydrolyzed through enzymatic actions [14]. These new developments suggest the significance of technological advancements in revolutionizing the plastics market in the near future.
Though bio-based plastics have been deemed sustainable alternatives, they represent only about 1% of the global production volume of plastics [15]. The staggering pace of bioplastic growth was recorded at 2.11 million metric tons in 2020, and the production capacity is expected to increase in the coming years as bio-based plastics become more diverse and sophisticated [16]. Therefore, it is crucial to identify the biobased plastics research hotspots, emerging trends, and areas requiring further studies. This study used a bibliometric analysis approach to investigate the global trend in the research evolution and development of bio-based/biodegradable plastics or bioplastics research from 1990 to 2023. The research was undertaken to provide a broad perspective of the fields, allowing for the identification of thematic areas, overarching keywords, influential publications, and recent innovative inventions. It illustrated the network of scholarly collaborations, showcasing the interactions among researchers, academic institutions, and nations, thereby providing valuable information on how knowledge is generated and spread. This study will be an essential resource for academics and researchers seeking to navigate the ever-growing scholarly literature within this research domain.

2. Methods

2.1. Data Retrieval

Scientific publications on bioplastics and related studies were retrieved from the Clarivate Analytics Web of Science (WOS) core collection (https://0-www.webofscience.com.wam.seals.ac.za/wos/woscc/basic-search) accessed on 22 July 2024. The Web of Science database, renowned globally for its extensive and high-quality collection of archives, is widely respected and acknowledged for bibliometric studies [17]. The study was conducted to cover the scientific productions on the subject matter between 1 January 1990 and 31 December 2023. The full bibliographic records of the published articles were retrieved using the following key terms: “bioplastic* or biodegradable plastic* or biobased plastic* or biodegradable polyester* or biobased polyester* or biodegradable polyethylene* or biobased polyethylene*” with a title search option. The Boolean operator (or) was used to enhance the recovery of relevant articles [18], while the wildcard (*) was used to mine titles that contained the search terms in either singular or plural forms [19]. The inclusion of the key terms “biodegradable polyester, biobased polyester, biodegradable polyethylene, and biobased polyethylene” in the search was to ensure a wide coverage of relevant records due to the technological diversification and prospects of the field under investigation. A title search yields a collection of articles with increased precision and no significant loss of sensitivity; it has been recommended as one of the best options for bibliographic data retrieval. The WOS core collection search produced 3722 results, including articles, proceeding papers, review articles, meeting abstracts, news items, book chapters, and editorial material, among other document types. The results were refined to retain only two document types: the article and the proceeding paper. These document types have been considered to make original contributions to the body of knowledge [20]. The records were further screened to remove other years outside the survey period. The filtered results generated 2742 publications, and the complete bibliographic records with cited references were downloaded as plain text files. The metadata retrieval was conducted on 22 July 2024. The search records identified and the selection processes for inclusion in the study are presented in Figure S1. The study followed the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [21], and a checklist has been attached as a Supplementary File.

2.2. Data Analysis

The bibliographic data retrieved from the WOS core collection were analyzed for bibliometric indicators using RStudio (https://posit.co/download/rstudio-desktop/, accessed on 15 May 2025) running on R-tool v.4.3. 1 [22]. The bibliometrix package was activated in the R-environment through a command code “biblioshiny(),” which subsequently opened a web interface (Google Chrome) for bibliometric analysis. The web browser remained in synchrony with the R environment throughout the meta-analysis. The metadata from WOS was imported into the bibliometrix, then converted to a bibliographic data frame and further scrutinized for compliance. The WoS core collection Field Tag codify was used to identify the data frame columns. The descriptive analysis was conducted to obtain the main information about the bibliographic data frame and other bibliometric indicators such as annual scientific production, most prolific authors, most relevant keywords, country production, and most relevant sources. The bipartite networks were generated from the bibliographic attributes. The collaboration, coupling, co-citation, and co-occurrence networks were computed and graphically modeled by adjusting the network and graphical parameters. The patent literature on bio-based plastics inventions was retrieved using Google Patents (https://patents.google.com/).

2.3. Term Definition and Usage Clarification

Bioplastics, biodegradable plastics, and bio-based plastics have been variably defined in the literature. However, this study uses these terms interchangeably to denote plastic materials predominantly composed of polymers derived from renewable sources. Fossil-derived plastics refer to plastics manufactured from synthetic polymers derived from fossil fuels. Notably, some plastic materials of petrochemical origin (100%) can be biodegraded [10].

3. Results

3.1. Publication Dynamics on Bio-Based Plastics Research

The analysis of 2742 articles from the WOS data collection on bio-based plastics research showed that productivity generally increased from 1990 to 2023, with a few fluctuations recorded (Figure 1) and an annual growth rate of 13.55% (Table 1). After 2013, the research productivity grew steeply, and outstanding research outputs were observed in 2021, 2022, and 2023, with corresponding record publications of 277, 317, and 331 articles (Figure 1). The documents were published by 863 sources and have accumulated 27.99 average citations per article (Table 1). A total of 10,408 authors were involved in implementing the research outputs, with 20.86% international co-authorships. The publications had 4.93 co-authorships. However, single-authored articles numbered 95, published by only 79 authors.

3.2. Prevalence and Co-Occurrence Network of Keywords Used in Bioplastics Research

Bibliographic dataset mining showed 5339 and 4619 author’s keywords and keywords plus, respectively (Table 1). The top twenty author’s keywords and keywords plus are listed in Table 2 based on their frequency of occurrence. Bioplastics, as expected, showed a high frequency of 420 (n = 420) among the author’s keywords. Other highly ranked author’s keywords include biodegradable, biodegradable plastics, mechanical properties, and biodegradation, with the respective frequency of 162 (n = 162), 145 (n = 145), 143 (n = 143), and 134 (n = 134). These topmost author′s keywords also included interesting terms such as starch, circular economy, thermal properties, glycerol, and chitosan (Table 2). Among the keywords plus, degradation, mechanical properties, films, polymers and polylactic acid were the most occurring terms, with the respective frequency of 338 (n = 338), 322 (n = 322), 234 (n = 234), 232 (n = 232), and 184 (n = 184) (Table 2). The top-ranked author’s keywords and keywords plus have some common key terms, including degradation, mechanical properties, polylactic acid, starch, glycerol, and polyhydroxyalkanoates.
The co-occurrence network generally displayed dense interconnectivity, with a unique formation of three major clusters of keywords plus, which were differentiated into a red cluster, blue cluster, and green cluster (Figure 2). The first cluster in red has degradation as the highest node, which shows a stronger network link with plastics and microplastics. Other words, such as waste, biomass, polyethylene, water, soil, and polyesters, showed variable degrees of linkages with degradation and one another (Figure 2). The green cluster displayed polymers as the lead word. Polymers showed stronger network connections with ring-opening polymerization, aliphatic polyesters, acid, and polymerization. Other important words among this cluster include enzymatic degradation, copolymers, hydrolysis, kinetics, and renewable resources, among other keywords. The last cluster with blue coloration bubbles demonstrated mechanical properties as the biggest node with a few strong connection networks. Mechanical properties are strongly connected with films, composites, blends, morphology, thermal properties, behavior, and polylactic acid, but showed relatively weak connections with fibers, protein, chitosan, nanoparticles, barrier properties, etc. (Figure 2).

3.3. The Topmost Impactful and Influential Publications in Bio-Based Plastics Research Based on Average Total Global Citation per Year

The top twenty publications that are most impactful, influential, and engaging in biodegradable plastic research are hierarchically listed in Table 3 based on their average total global citations per year (ATGC/Y). Among these research outputs, one word commonly used in all the titles was “biodegradable”. Xia and colleagues’ paper, which was published in Nature Sustainability in 2021, ranked first with ATGC/Y of 104. The additional top four ranking documents that have been engaging in and significantly impacting research within this study area were authored by Emadian et al., Iwata, Shen et al., and Martin and Avérous, with respective ATGC/Ys of 80.57, 70, 67, and 57.57 (Table 3). On the other hand, based on the average total local citation per year (ATLC/Y) within the top 20 documents ranked by TGC, the study on “biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments” published by Emadian and colleagues in Waste Management ranked number one, with an ATLC/Y of 11.71 (Table 3). The other top four ranked studies based on ATLC/Y have recorded 5.75, 5.67, 4.67, and 4.33 citations and were published by Shen et al., Xia et al., Narancic et al., and Iwata, respectively. It is worth noting that these top-ranked documents were published in reputable journals, with the topmost cited based on ATGC/Y and ATLC/Y being hosted by Nature Sustainability and Waste Management, respectively (Table 3).

3.4. Most Productive Authors on Bioplastics Research and Their Collaboration Network

The ten most productive authors and their publication timelines are presented in Figure 3. Misra M. produced the highest number of articles (34) between 2006 and 2023, and the publications have accumulated a total citation of 1024 based on the bibliographic information obtained from WOS. The second researcher in the hierarchy, Mohanty A.K., produced 27 articles, which generated 994 citations from 2006 to 2023 (Figure 3). Guerrero A. (2007 to 2023) has produced 20 documents on the bio-based plastics research field with a total citation of 533. Bikiaris D.N. and Papageogiou G.Z. have similar timelines (2008 to 2022) of publications, with respective total citations of 756 and 755 (Figure 3). Interestingly, Flury M., whose publication spanned from 2017 to 2023, considering the survey period, has produced 17 articles with a total citation of 945. On the other hand, Kissel T., regarded as one of the pioneers in the publication of biodegradable plastic research, published 15 articles between 1991 and 2006, which generated 807 citations.
The authors’ network plot showed 12 distinct clusters of collaborations (Figure 4). Misra M. and Mohanty A.K., who ranked in the first and second positions (Figure 3) regarding article productivity, also displayed the strongest link of collaboration. However, Misra M. showed a weaker network link with Hedenqvist M.S. in that cluster. Similarly, Bikiaris D.N. and Papageorgiou G.Z. shared a relatively more robust collaboration network. Still, they weakly collaborated with Achilias D.S. and Kasmi N. in the same cluster of four authors (Figure 4). The cluster with eight authors, with Sameshima-Yamashita Y. as the most prolific, showed the highest network of authors participating in the development of bio-based plastics research (Figure 4). Gurrero A. and Romero A., among the top ten productive authors (Figure 3), have slightly strong collaboration and clustering with the other four researchers, with weaker network links (Figure 4). Additionally, Flury M., who ranked sixth in the authors’ productivity chart (Figure 3), formed variable-strength network links with four other researchers, including Hayes D.G., Sintim H.Y., Miles C.A., and Debruyn J. M. (Figure 4).

3.5. The Topmost Countries on Bioplastics Research Publication Ranked by the Corresponding Authorship

The article productivity within the survey period showed the distribution of publications among different countries based on the corresponding authors’ affiliation (Figure 5). The publication dynamics also reflected the single-country publication (SCP) and multiple-country publications (MCPs). From the result, it could be observed that SCP was greater than MCP. In the pecking order, and considering both SCP and MCP, China has shown the highest productivity in bio-based plastics research, with a total of 404 articles, respectively, divided into 328 and 76 articles within the study period. The U.S. ranked second in terms of SCP but third in MCP, with a total of 303 articles, which were fragmented into 260 and 43 publications, respectively. Four other countries with significant publications based on SCP include Japan, India, Italy, and Spain, with respective research outputs of 170, 135, 132, and 118. Among these four countries, their MCPs showed a different pattern of research outputs, with Italy (46) > Spain (34) > India (20) > Japan (16).

3.6. The Most Relevant Affiliations on Bio-Based Plastics Research Based on Publication Number

Among the top ten affiliations that have contributed to the development of biodegradable plastics, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Washington State University have each produced 84 documents within the survey period (Figure 6). The Centre National De La Recherche Scientifique, the University of Guelph, and the University of Sevilla have also made significant contributions, with publications of 76, 71, and 66, respectively.
The national and international collaborations among the top 50 institutions working on developing bio-based plastics are presented in Figure 7a. The affiliation networks showed a strong national partnership between the University of Tennessee and Washington State University. However, these institutions displayed weaker networks with Michigan State University (Figure 7a). The Chinese Academy of Sciences formed a national collaboration with Sichuan University and an international partnership with the University of California, the University of Tokyo, and the University of Naples Federico II. A complex network of collaboration exists among most affiliations. For example, a cluster of networks was established among the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, the University of Sevilla, the University of Naples Federico II, the University of Pisa, the Consiglio Nazionale Delle Ricerche, the University of Bologna, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the Universitat Politecnica de Valencia (Figure 7a).
A collaboration analysis showed an interconnectivity of networks of the top 50 countries participating in developing bio-based plastics research. The People′s Republic of China showed the most robust strength of its network with the U.S.A. and less strength of networks with Malaysia, Canada, Australia, Israel, and other countries sharing similar collaboration networks (Figure 7b). The U.S.A. has intensely collaborated with South Korea. At the same time, Italy developed a strong tie with Spain during the survey period. In the African continent, Egypt, South Africa, Nigeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Algeria are among the 50 most productive countries in bio-based plastic research with collaboration networks across different countries (Figure 7b). Within this continent, Nigeria has established a network link with South Africa. In contrast, Egypt and Algeria have collaboratively researched the focus area.

4. Discussion

The growth dynamics of studies evaluating bio-based plastics as a long-term solution to ameliorating the plastic environmental menace were implemented using a meta-analysis assessment of the publication records available in WOS. There has been a clarion call for a shift from using fossil-based/synthetic materials to more sustainable and eco-friendly renewable resources in producing essential plastic products due to the negative impacts at their end-of-life. The evolution of research documents published over the survey period indicated that there has been a constant advancement in the investigation of bio-based/biodegradable plastics. Notably, the steep increase in scientific publications within the past decade suggests that more researchers are participating in the investigation of bio-based plastics for the potential development of sustainable production, consumption, and recycling. The growing trend in research publications also indicates that the role of emerging technologies in promoting the circular economy has evolved from a budding research topic to a central focus of academic discussion.
Additionally, the annual growth rate (13.55%) indicates that the research status trend for bio-based plastics will continue to increase in the coming years [23]. The last three years of the survey period showed a surge, beyond an exponential growth rate, in scientific publication, and the observed publication’s upward trajectory might be attributed to the current quest to transition from a linear form of economy to a more sustainable circular model [17]. The high percentage (20.86%) of international co-authorship has shown that poor plastic waste management has attracted global attention and researchers’ curiosity to find alternative plastic products with environmentally friendly end-of-life options.
The author’s keywords and keywords plus are used for visualizing a scientific investigation’s trending concepts [24]. They are crucial in identifying a growing scientific field’s research hotspots and knowledge structure. While the author’s keywords are deemed more comprehensive in representing the content of a scientific paper, keywords plus contribute significantly to the formulation of new knowledge, as they are extracted from the title of the reference list used for manuscript development. Consequently, these keywords have intersections, and this is evident in the current study, where some key terms commonly occurred in both the topmost author’s keywords and keywords plus. Among the commonly occurring key terms, degradation, mechanical properties, and polymers formed three mega clusters in the co-occurrence network plot, indicating their essentiality in the bio-based related research. The “mechanical properties” of “polymers” (plastics) determine their environmental persistence or “degradability”. Fossil- and bio-based plastics display distinct mechanical properties because of their different sources and molecular architectures [25]. Petrochemical-derived plastics generally exhibit higher tensile strength and Young’s and flexural moduli, among other properties, while renewable resources-derived plastics offer higher ductility, lower stiffness, and increased damping. While bio-based plastics are currently gaining global attention, fossil-based plastics still dominate in certain application areas because of their superior mechanical properties and chemical resistance [11]. Therefore, bio-based plastics research constantly evolves to develop more robust materials with enhanced mechanical properties, ensuring their competitiveness with fossil-based counterparts while offering economic and environmental sustainability [26]. The three overarching keywords mentioned above are pivotal when decoupling plastics production from petrochemicals and accelerating bio-based plastics development to promote waste recycling and carbon neutrality. The patent literature describing current inventions regarding bioplastic development has been summarized in Table 4.
The existing knowledge in a particular scientific field is critically important in understanding the dynamics of the latest empirical findings that contribute to further development. The twenty most impactful, engaging, and influential documents on bio-based plastic research, ranked based on the ATGC/Y, indicated that ‘biodegradable’ was the key term in common and the focal point of the discussion among the titles of the publications mined from the WOS Core Collection. When considering the most impactful and influential documents based on citations, it is important to factor in the influence of perceived journal reputation in achieving high publication citations. The top-cited articles were published in reputable and prestigious journals, which likely influenced their highly accrued citations. A journal with a high impact factor suggests that it publishes high-quality and credible research data that address current societal needs, resulting in a broader readership with higher citations [27]. Accordingly, the number one ranked document by Xia and colleagues published in Nature Sustainability, with a current impact factor of 26.2 (2023), has recorded the highest ATGC/Y. The journal impact factor plays a significant role in measuring the relevance and performance of a journal in relation to others within the same or similar research fields [28]. It is a major component of the citation index, reflecting the frequency of citations of articles published in a journal. The impact factor of a journal also serves as a guide for some authors, especially from developed nations, in deciding where to submit their research paper [29,30]. It is noteworthy to state that publication of a paper in a high-impact factor journal does not completely guarantee high citations for individual articles, but the relevance of the article in a rapidly developing discipline influences the frequency of citations [31].
The thrust of the research in the most cited publications centered on biomass evaluation and utilization, properties of biodegradable plastics for industrial applications, and their end-of-life management potential. These discussions might have been attributed to the high engagement received by these publications and their significant influence in transitioning from traditional plastics to bio-based plastics that promote a circular economy. The overlapping topics could suggest the research hotspots and contribute to the knowledge structure of the field’s progress and formulation of new ideas. Over the years, the development of bio-based/biodegradable plastics has improved tremendously, owing to advanced technological inventions and innovative research implementations [32,33].
The authors’ productivity is measured by the number of articles produced at a given time. In contrast, the number of times the papers are cited indicates the relevance of that subject in developing that research field. Based on the frequency of article publications, the authors’ productivity ranking revealed that the top two authors (Misra, M., and Mohanty, A.K.), who commenced biodegradable plastic research publication in 2006, have consistently published. Researchers have largely acknowledged the industrial promise of bio-based plastics in cutting down carbon emissions, offering a sustainable alternative to fossil-based counterparts [34]. Interestingly, these authors have demonstrated a strong collaboration network, which might be the driving force that positively influences their research productivity. Again, these researchers could have envisioned the wealth of potential biodegradable plastics holds in revolutionizing the plastics industry regarding production, use, and recycling. In addition, the presence of the topmost-ranked publishers in different networks suggests the benefit of research collaborations in consistently producing great and impactful results [35]. The high collaboration index recorded further highlighted the status of this field of study, which is a testament that bio-based plastics have drawn global attention.
The country’s productivity ranking based on the corresponding author’s country signified how countries participate in research geared towards transforming plastics production from petrochemical/synthetic to renewable materials for a sustainable ecosystem. In today’s economy, driven by knowledge, national scientific systems must stay current and generate new advancements in science and technology. This capability is essential for maintaining the competitiveness of domestic industries and fostering socio-economic growth [36]. China and the United States are the major consumers of plastics, and the prolific bio-based plastics research implementation by these two countries might have been spurred by the government’s regulatory policies prohibiting the commercial use of single-use/disposable non-biodegradable plastics. A report has shown that the biodegradable plastics market in China has seen substantial growth, with its value increasing from RMB 4.056 billion in 2018 to an estimated RMB 23.072 billion in 2023 [37]. This growth demonstrates China’s robust position in the global biodegradable plastics industry. In the United States, the biodegradable plastics market is expected to expand considerably, reaching USD 2.18 billion by 2028 [38]. This expansion is forecasted at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.68% between 2022 and 2028. On a global scale, projections indicate that the worldwide market for biodegradable plastics will be valued at USD 12.92 billion in 2024. This market is expected to expand to USD 33.52 billion by 2029, demonstrating a CAGR of 21.3% from 2024 to 2029 [23]. Such growth reflects the ongoing research and advancements in the plastics industry, with biodegradable packaging playing a crucial role in this evolution.
As environmental awareness increases, biodegradable plastics are increasingly viewed as a viable, eco-friendly option that can drive industry transformation and satisfy the growing demand for environmentally responsible alternatives. Scientific research, evolution, and technological advancement have synergistically driven sustainable development for a greener future. For example, in a race to develop innovative solutions to the plastic waste menace, scientists in Japan recently developed a bioplastic that dissolved in seawater and degraded on land with no trace of residues after a few hours and about 200 h of exposure, respectively [39]. This innovative plastic material was non-toxic, non-flammable, and structurally as durable as fossil-based plastics. This discovery will revolutionize industry, especially the packaging sector, fostering a clean and sustainable environment. The list of the top twenty countries with high publication records showed an underrepresentation of the Global South. This trend could be attributed to the lack of proper government policies and frameworks and their enforcement in some developing countries. In addition, the high cost associated with research and innovative developments, especially those involving cutting-edge technologies, and the lack of funding are among other factors that might have contributed to the low participation from the Global South [40].
The two most relevant affiliations, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Washington State University, and the two most productive countries by corresponding authors’ affiliation, China and the United States, showed a positive correlation, indicating these regions’ efforts to find a lasting solution to plastic pollution. Though in infancy, biodegradable plastics development has demonstrated promising benefits, and the research/academic community is focused on investigating the role of emerging technologies in advancing the circular bioeconomy, promising valuable insights and groundbreaking solutions for a sustainable future.
The country’s collaboration networks offer a comprehensive view of nations collaborating in bio-based plastic research, exploring how emerging technologies can propel a circular economy [41]. This network of countries also reflects a globally connected, cooperative, and unified research community working together to build a more sustainable and technology-driven future [17]. The strong partnerships in biodegradable plastics research, spanning various cultures and geographical regions, serve as catalysts for advancement and indicate a shared resolve to create a technologically sophisticated and environmentally sustainable future. The worldwide commitment to utilizing renewable resources in developing biodegradable plastics demonstrates the ambition to transform our world from the existing linear production and consumption model to a balanced regeneration cycle, repurposing, and sustainability.

5. Application of Bioplastics: Prospects and Challenges

5.1. Bioplastics in Packaging

As global concern for sustainability grows, packaging industries worldwide are exploring biopolymers as alternatives to synthetic polymers due to their biodegradation by the enzymatic action of microbes [42]. ASTM standards D-5488-94d and the European norm EN 13,432 define biodegradables as items that can naturally break down into carbon dioxide, methane, water, inorganic compounds, and biomass [43]. Over the past decades, extensive research has been conducted on biopolymers for use in food packaging applications [44]. Bioplastics are gaining prominence as sustainable substitutes for traditional plastics in packaging, particularly for food and pharmaceutical products [45]. These materials, sourced from renewable resources such as starch, protein, and cellulose, offer advantages in biodegradability and reduced environmental impact [46,47,48]. Bioplastics can enhance product longevity, inhibit bacteria growth, improve barrier characteristics, and minimize waste while complying with regulatory standards [42,49].
Additionally, they contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to conventional plastics [49]. The bioplastics market, especially for starch-based varieties, has experienced growth, with applications ranging from composting bags to food service ware and industrial packaging [45]. Nevertheless, obstacles persist, including elevated production expenses, limited availability, and the necessity for a specialized recycling infrastructure [49]. Despite these challenges, recent advancements in technology and economics indicate a potential for bioplastics in large-scale markets, particularly in food packaging applications [48].

5.2. Bioplastics in Agriculture

Plastics are extensively utilized in various aspects of crop cultivation and management. These applications include the construction of low and high tunnels, as well as greenhouses. Additionally, plastics are employed for mulching, creating silage bags and hay bales, manufacturing pheromone traps, and developing coatings for fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, and seeds [50]. Furthermore, nursery pots and containers for growing transplants are made from plastic materials. Bioplastics offer significant potential for sustainable agriculture, addressing environmental concerns while meeting increasing food production demands [51]. Made from renewable agricultural materials, bioplastics have diverse applications in agriculture, including packaging, protection films, and compostable items [52]. They can replace short-life traditional plastic applications like clips, wires, and nets, reducing waste generation [53]. Biodegradable mulch films have shown promising agronomic effects on various crops, including tomatoes, peppers, and cucurbits, improving yield, earliness, and weed control [54,55]. However, challenges remain in designing bioplastics for optimal soil biodegradation, especially in applications where recovery is difficult [51]. Despite these challenges, bioplastics represent a significant step towards sustainable agriculture, as they can be left in the field to biodegrade, producing organic matter that can be recycled into the soil [53]. Consequently, experiments conducted on tomatoes by Peñalva and colleagues revealed that these bioplastics enhanced soil quality by boosting the concentration of trace elements (up to 13%) and reducing blossom end rot by 65% [56]. Meanwhile, for peaches, the use of biobags resulted in a uniform coloration without red blush, a desirable characteristic for this type of produce.

5.3. Bioplastics in Construction

Bioplastics are emerging as a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics in the construction industry, which consumes about 23% of global plastic production [57]. These biodegradable materials, derived from renewable organic sources, can be left in soil or composted after demolition, reducing hazardous waste [58]. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), a type of bioplastic produced by bacteria, show promise for construction applications [59]. To make PHA production economically viable, researchers suggest using the organic fraction of municipal solid waste as a raw material, employing non-aseptic cultivation with mixed bacterial cultures, and applying PHA-containing materials directly without expensive extraction processes [60]. Creating novel eco-friendly materials from waste byproducts offers an opportunity to reduce environmental harm by eliminating the need to burn agricultural residues, which significantly contributes to pollution, particularly in less developed nations [61]. Ongoing research focuses on developing biocomposite materials with suitable properties for construction use, including ligno-filled polymer materials based on PHAs. These advancements could lead to new building materials with low embodied energy, contributing to energy efficiency in construction. A diagrammatic representation of the potential sectors of bio-based plastic applications is shown in Figure 8.

6. Reduce–Reuse–Recycle and the Circular Economy for Plastics

The circular economy (CE) strategy for plastics focuses on minimizing waste through reduction, reuse, and recycling, thereby tackling the environmental issues linked to plastic waste, as well as ameliorating global sustainability stress [62,63,64]. This shift necessitates modifications throughout the entire plastic value chain, from the design phase to the management of products at the end of their life cycle [63]. The reduction of fossil-based plastics and a concomitant increased adoption of plastics predominantly produced from natural resources significantly mitigate the effects of greenhouse gases, promoting carbon neutrality [65].
An intriguing area of intense research focuses on assessing the disposal and processing of end products to minimize environmental impact [66]. Therefore, the key strategies involve innovative product design, bio-based plastics adoption, and advancements in recycling technologies to drive a circular plastics economy [67]. However, to manage the surge of plastic waste globally, zero waste, reuse, and recycle initiatives are promising for handling these waste streams for the planet’s future [68]. Based on the regulatory policies and actions across nations, recycling rates ranging from 30% to 81% significantly reduce plastic waste in different countries [69]. The circular plastics economy requires the involvement of various stakeholders and demands interdisciplinary strategies. This includes employing system dynamics modeling to explore the connections between production, waste creation, and regulatory policies [35,64]. Therefore, cross-sector collaboration involving research institutes, industries, and policymakers is necessary to ensure effective reduction and to encourage reuse and recycling for a circular plastics economy.

7. Limitations and Future Perspectives

The trends and dynamics of bio-based plastics research were surveyed using the bibliometric method. Though the study explored the publication records in a scholarly literature database, WOS, some research publications and citations on bio-based plastics may not be captured in this platform. Hence, future studies must consider multiple databases in the subject area to minimize the loss of essential publications. Bibliometrics, which includes citation analysis as a crucial element, encounters several obstacles that can impact the accuracy and consistency of measuring influence. These challenges encompass the motivations behind citations, biases in database coverage, and the methodologies used for analysis. Another parameter worth highlighting is the keywords used to retrieve the publication records. The study employed key terms that could extract the relevant literature within biodegradable plastics research while maintaining high sensitivity and precision by adopting the title search option. However, the variability of terms and the introduction of new keywords within the research domain warrant search term optimization to ensure query expansion and a significant retrieval of the relevant scholarly publications. Although the bibliographic data utilized in bibliometric analysis provide useful information about the progress in a particular research niche, the quantitative nature of the results could lack insights into the unique contributions of some of the scholarly publications. Researchers have pointed out shortcomings in widely used bibliometric measures, stressing the importance of applying these metrics judiciously. Nonetheless, bibliometric analysis continues to be an essential method for examining the development of scientific disciplines and anticipating future directions despite its recognized limitations. Researchers should consider the constraints of bibliometric approaches and apply them thoughtfully alongside other assessment methods to obtain meaningful outcomes. Thus, applying bibliometrics and a classical literature review (full-text analysis) approach may be more effective for research field evaluation and retrieval of relevant information.

8. Conclusions

This study explored the Web of Science Core Collection for scholarly publications on bio-based/biodegradable plastic research. The bibliometric methods adequately offered insights into the publication trends and research dynamics. The scientific production over the survey period and the recent surge in research publications suggest researchers’ massive participation in finding a lasting solution to the plastic menace. It also highlights the importance of technological advancement and sustained partnerships in developing eco-friendly processes for a sustainable future. The study also identified some key terms as hotspots for future research, development, and implementation. The rapid evolution of biodegradable plastic research demonstrates bio-based plastics’ current dynamics and significance in ensuring a sustainable environment for the planet’s future. In addition, identifying a wide array of new raw materials, such as algae, mushrooms, mycelium, and non-food agricultural residues, for producing durable, biodegradable plastics is crucial for scalable production and sustainable industrial development. A patent literature analysis showed innovative developments on bio-based plastics, with potential applications in various economic sectors. Developing robust materials with enhanced biodegradability in various natural environments is imperative for addressing plastic pollution in land and marine ecosystems. Therefore, the proliferation of research discoveries and innovative inventions calls for urgent cross-sector collaborations between research institutes, policymakers, and industries to accelerate the transition from a linear to a circular plastics economy. These partnerships will further fuel the growth of the bioplastics market by ensuring optimal product design and production efficiency while guaranteeing quality control and waste reduction.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su17135955/s1: Figure S1: Flow diagram for the study record identification and selection processes. Table S1: PRISMA checklist.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.E.N. and U.U.N.; methodology, N.E.N.; software, N.E.N.; validation, N.E.N.; formal analysis, N.E.N.; investigation, N.E.N.; resources, U.U.N.; data curation, N.E.N.; writing—original draft preparation, N.E.N.; writing—review and editing, U.U.N.; visualization, N.E.N.; supervision, U.U.N.; project administration, U.U.N.; funding acquisition, U.U.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data from which the results presented in this study were generated are available on the Web of Science database at https://0-www.webofscience.com.wam.seals.ac.za/wos/woscc/basic-search (accessed on 22 July 2024).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to show appreciation for the support from the Infectious Diseases and Medicinal Plants Research Niche Area, University of Fort Hare.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
WOSWeb of Science
U.S.A.United States of America
TGCTotal Global Citation
TLCTotal Local Citation
ATGC/YAverage Total Global Citation Per Year
ATLC/YAverage Total Local Citation Per Year
SCPSingle-Country Publication
MCPMultiple-Country Publication
CAGRCompound Annual Growth Rate
PHAsPolyhydroxyalkanoates

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Figure 1. Production trajectory of bio-based plastics research article from 1990 to 2023.
Figure 1. Production trajectory of bio-based plastics research article from 1990 to 2023.
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Figure 2. Co-occurrence network of the top fifty keywords frequently used in bio-based plastics research within the survey period.
Figure 2. Co-occurrence network of the top fifty keywords frequently used in bio-based plastics research within the survey period.
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Figure 3. The top ten most productive authors in bio-based plastics research within the survey period. The parallel lines show the publication timeline, the bubble size is proportional to the number of articles, and the color intensity is proportional to the total citations per year.
Figure 3. The top ten most productive authors in bio-based plastics research within the survey period. The parallel lines show the publication timeline, the bubble size is proportional to the number of articles, and the color intensity is proportional to the total citations per year.
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Figure 4. Collaboration network of prolific authors publishing on biodegradable plastics research.
Figure 4. Collaboration network of prolific authors publishing on biodegradable plastics research.
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Figure 5. The top countries in bio-based plastics research are ranked based on the corresponding author’s country.
Figure 5. The top countries in bio-based plastics research are ranked based on the corresponding author’s country.
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Figure 6. Top ten most relevant affiliations in the study of bio-based plastics.
Figure 6. Top ten most relevant affiliations in the study of bio-based plastics.
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Figure 7. Collaboration networks among (a) the top fifty affiliations and (b) the top fifty countries involved in bio-based plastic research.
Figure 7. Collaboration networks among (a) the top fifty affiliations and (b) the top fifty countries involved in bio-based plastic research.
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Figure 8. The various sectors that are potentially benefiting from bio-based plastics development.
Figure 8. The various sectors that are potentially benefiting from bio-based plastics development.
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Table 1. Bibliographic dataset from bio-based plastics research outputs.
Table 1. Bibliographic dataset from bio-based plastics research outputs.
Bibliographic InformationOutput
Publication timespan1990–2023
Sources863
Documents2742
Annual growth rate (%)13.55
Document average age8.67
Average citations per doc27.99
References75,376
Keywords plus (ID)4619
Author’s keywords (DE)5339
Authors10,408
Authors of single-authored docs79
Single-authored docs95
Average co-authors per doc4.93
International co-authorships (%)20.86
Article2400
Proceedings paper342
Table 2. The twenty most frequently used keywords in publications on bio-based plastics research over the study period.
Table 2. The twenty most frequently used keywords in publications on bio-based plastics research over the study period.
HierarchyAuthor Keyword (DE)OccurrenceHierarchyKeyword Plus (ID)Occurrence
1.Bioplastics4201.Degradation338
2.Biodegradable1622.Mechanical-properties322
3.Biodegradable plastics1453.Films234
4.Mechanical properties1434.Polymers232
5.Biodegradation1345.Poly(lactic acid)184
6.Polyesters1146.Blends179
7.Biodegradable polymers917.Behaviour168
8.Biodegradability848.Composites149
9.Polylactic acid839.Acid130
10.Biopolymers7610.Morphology127
11.Starch6411.Starch107
12.Polyhydroxyalkanoates6112.Plastics102
13.Plasticizer5513.Crystallisation94
14.Degradation4714.Glycerol92
15.Biodegradable polyesters3815.Water91
16.Thermal properties3616.Polyhydroxyalkanoates83
17.Circular economy3517.Performance77
18.Glycerol3318.Copolymers75
19.Polyethylene3319.Waste74
20.Chitosan *3120.Temperature *72
* Temperature and thermal properties shared the 20th position, with 72 occurrences each, while chitosan and extrusion shared the 20th position, with 31 occurrences each.
Table 3. Top twenty most impactful and influential documents in the development of bio-based plastics research, based on average total global citation per year.
Table 3. Top twenty most impactful and influential documents in the development of bio-based plastics research, based on average total global citation per year.
RankAuthorPaper titleYearSourceTGCATGC/YTLCATLC/Y
1.Xia et al.A strong, biodegradable and recyclable lignocellulosic bioplastic2021Nat Sustain312104.0175.67
2.Emadian et al.Biodegradation of bioplastics in natural environments2017Waste Manage56480.578211.71
3.IwataBiodegradable and bio-based polymers: future prospects of eco-friendly plastics2015Angew Chem Int Ed Engl63070384.33
4.Shen et al.Are biodegradable plastics a promising solution to solve the global plastic pollution?2020Environ Pollut26867.0235.75
5.Martin and AvérousPoly(lactic acid): plasticisation and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems2001Polymer132457.57331.43
6.JiangLignin as a wood-inspired binder enabled strong, water stable, and biodegradable paper for plastic replacement2020Adv Funct Mater22957.2551.25
7.Narancic et al.Biodegradable plastic blends create new possibilities for end-of-life management of plastics but they are not a panacea for plastic pollution2018Environ Sci Technol27345.50284.67
8.Napper et al.Environmental deterioration of biodegradable, oxo-biodegradable, compostable, and conventional plastic carrier bags in the sea, soil, and open-air over a 3-year period2019Environ Sci Technol22344.60214.2
9.Xu et al.Impact of surface polyethylene glycol (PEG) density on biodegradable nanoparticle transport in mucus ex Vivo and distribution in Vivo2015ACS Nano40044.4400
10.Sanyang et al.Effect of plasticiser type and concentration on tensile, thermal, and barrier properties of biodegradable films based on sugar palm (Arenga pinnata) starch2015Polymers30033.33141.56
11.Song et al.Biodegradable and compostable alternatives to conventional plastics2009Philos Trans R Soc B: Biol Sci47931.93432.87
12.Dusselier et al.Shape-selective zeolite catalysis for bioplastics production2015Science26129.040.44
13.Pohlmann et al.Genome sequence of the bioplastic-producing “Knallgas” bacterium Ralstonia eutropha H162006Nat Biotechnol46125.6150.28
14.Ray and OkamotoBiodegradable polylactide and its nanocomposites: opening a new dimension for plastics and composites2003Macromol Rapid Comm37317.7640.19
15.Kopinke et al.Thermal decomposition of biodegradable polyesters—II. Poly(lactic acid)1996Polym Degrad Stab47917.1190.32
16.Tserki et al.Biodegradable aliphatic polyesters. Part I. Properties and biodegradation of poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate)2006Polym Degrad Stab27615.33160.89
17.Moreno and MorenoEffect of different biodegradable and polyethylene mulches on soil properties and production in a tomato crop2008Sci Hortic24415.25291.81
18.Vansoest et al.Crystallinity in starch bioplastics1996Ind Crop Prod35712.7500
19.Lim et al.Synthetic biodegradable aliphatic polyester/montmorillonite nanocomposites2002Chem Mater25311.5060.27
20.Mohanty et al.Influence of chemical surface modification on the properties of biodegradable jute fabrics—polyester amide composites2000Compos-A: Appl Sci Manuf2329.6750.21
TGC—total global citation; TLC—total local citation; ATGC/Y—average global citation per year; ATLC/Y—average total local citation per year.
Table 4. Summary of the patent literature on recent technological and innovative developments of bio-based plastics.
Table 4. Summary of the patent literature on recent technological and innovative developments of bio-based plastics.
Invention TitleProduct PropertiesPotential UsesCurrent AssigneePatent NumberYear FiledWeblink
Cellulose-based bioplastic, preparation method, and applicationHeat resistance, water resistance, UV shielding, biodegradability, shape memory, high mechanical strengthPackaging material, transparent containersJiangnan UniversityCN118126414A2024https://patents.google.com/patent/CN118126414A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
A kind of lignocellulose bioplastic based on enteromorpha and preparation method thereofGood mechanical properties, degradable, recyclablePackaging materialsShandong Agricultural UniversityCN119241879A2024https://patents.google.com/patent/CN119241879A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Bioplastic cup-bag from renewable sources to contain/package solids and/or liquidsFlexible, transparent, or translucentBag-cupIndividualES1315056U2024https://patents.google.com/patent/ES1315056U/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
High-strength, high-toughness cellulose-based bioplastic, preparation method, and applicationHigh strength, high toughnessPackaging materials, electrical appliance shellsJiangnan UniversityCN119912730A2025https://patents.google.com/patent/CN119912730A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Biological environment-friendly plastic based on cockroach body waste and preparation method thereofHigh tensile strength, elongation at break, biodegradability-Lijiang Jijifeng Fertilizer Co Ltd.,
Dali University		CN119799018A2025https://patents.google.com/patent/CN119799018A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
A method for preparing modified polylactic acid packaging material for foodImproved oxidation resistance, biodegradableFood packaging materialBinzhou Wanjia New Materials Co., Ltd.CN119875175A2025https://patents.google.com/patent/CN119875175A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Waterproof starch-based biodegradable plastic and preparation method thereofWater resistant, biodegradable-Dezhou UniversityCN116285015A2023https://patents.google.com/patent/CN116285015A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Production process for synthesizing starch-based bioplastic from citric acid epoxy soybean oil oligomerSuperior tensile strength, transparency, decreased swelling degree-Qingdao University of Science and TechnologyCN117186499A2023https://patents.google.com/patent/CN117186499A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Biodegradable plastic composition comprising charcoal, and preparation method of biodegradable plastic using the sameExcellent physical properties, antibacterial, deodorizing, dehumidifying functions-White Biotech Co., Ltd.KR20250038987A2023https://patents.google.com/patent/KR20250038987A/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Biodegradable and compostable materials for semi-rigid packaging and products, and processes for preparing the sameEco-friendly, biodegradable, industrial compostable, free of petrochemicals, flexible, liquid compatibility, durabilityPackagingClean Filters LLCWO2025024710A12024https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2025024710A1/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Low-cost thermal stability, completely biodegradable plastic, and preparation method thereofHeat resistance, high strength-Fujian Kanglaibao Sporting Goods Co., Ltd.CN116694051B2023https://patents.google.com/patent/CN116694051B/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
Biodegradable nanocellulose–pululan–lignin food outer packaging material and preparationWater resistance, biodegradablePackaging, preservative films, disposable tableware, strawsOcean University of ChinaCN116512687B2023https://patents.google.com/patent/CN116512687B/en (accessed on 15 May 2025)
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Nnolim, N.E.; Nwodo, U.U. Insight into Global Bio-Based Plastics Development: A Bibliometric Analysis-Aided Assessment of the Past Decades’ Research Exploit. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5955. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135955

AMA Style

Nnolim NE, Nwodo UU. Insight into Global Bio-Based Plastics Development: A Bibliometric Analysis-Aided Assessment of the Past Decades’ Research Exploit. Sustainability. 2025; 17(13):5955. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135955

Chicago/Turabian Style

Nnolim, Nonso E., and Uchechukwu U. Nwodo. 2025. "Insight into Global Bio-Based Plastics Development: A Bibliometric Analysis-Aided Assessment of the Past Decades’ Research Exploit" Sustainability 17, no. 13: 5955. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135955

APA Style

Nnolim, N. E., & Nwodo, U. U. (2025). Insight into Global Bio-Based Plastics Development: A Bibliometric Analysis-Aided Assessment of the Past Decades’ Research Exploit. Sustainability, 17(13), 5955. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17135955

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