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Review

Roles of Organic Agriculture for Water Optimization in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions

by
Shikha Sharma
*,
Matt A. Yost
and
Jennifer R. Reeve
Plants, Soils, and Climate Department, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84321, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(12), 5452; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125452
Submission received: 1 May 2025 / Revised: 3 June 2025 / Accepted: 8 June 2025 / Published: 13 June 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Soil and Water Conservation on Sustainable Agriculture)
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Water scarcity is a critical challenge in arid and semi-arid regions, where agricultural water consumption accounts for a significant portion of freshwater use. Conventional agriculture (CA) methods with high reliance on chemical and mechanical inputs often exacerbate this issue through soil degradation and water loss. This review aims to examine how different organic practices, such as mulching, cover cropping, composting, crop rotation, and no-till (NT) in combination with precision technologies, can contribute to water optimization, and it discusses the opportunities and challenges for the adoption and implementation of those practices. Previous findings show that organic agriculture (OA) may outperform CA in drought conditions. However, the problems of weed management in organic NT, trade-offs in cover crop biomass and moisture conservation, limited access to irrigation technologies, lack of awareness, and certification barriers challenge agricultural resilience and sustainability. Since the outcomes of OA practices depend on the crop type, local environment, and accessibility of knowledge and inputs, further context-specific research is needed to refine a scalable solution that maintains both productivity and resilience.

1. Introduction

The population of the world is expected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050 [1], escalating the demand for food production to ensure food security. This trend of rising population places more pressure on both the land and water resources. In arid and semi-arid regions, this pressure is especially intense due to water scarcity [2], which is characterized by low storable precipitation and high evaporation rates, making efficient water management critical for food security. Higher climatic variability associated with climate change increases pressure on water resources and significantly impacts agriculture. The western U.S. (California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Utah) faces acute water scarcity [3], with stressed Colorado River flows, groundwater reserves, and seasonal snow melt due to over-extraction, prolonged droughts (including the 2020–2022 megadrought), and population growth [4,5]. These drought conditions often reduce crop yields by 30–90%, posing severe threats to global food security for the growing population. To increase crop production, heavy equipment and agrochemical usage has increased. These practices can hinder water infiltration capacity, increase soil salinization [6], and weaken soil resilience to drought conditions. Therefore, effective water management through organic practices is important to mitigate crop yield loss and preserve the environment and resources for future generations. OA, as regulated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) National Organic Program (NOP), prohibits synthetic inputs and emphasizes practices such as mulching, organic inputs, cover cropping, crop rotation, composting, conservation tillage, etc., which all contribute to long-term soil health, biodiversity conservation, and environment sustainability [7,8] while also maintaining crop yields that would otherwise be lost due to prolonged drought [9]. Several research studies have found that OA can have a greater yield than CA due to higher soil water holding capacity as well as improved management practices and crop varieties [8,10,11].
Although extensive research compares the yield, quality, and environmental impact of organic and conventional agriculture [12,13,14], few studies have been conducted to evaluate the role of OA in addressing water scarcity [15]. The objective of this review is to evaluate the effectiveness, opportunities, and limitations of organic practices in optimizing water use under water-scarce conditions. This review explores how OA can enhance water use efficiency (WUE, the ratio of water utilized by a crop to water applied) and crop water productivity/water productivity (CWP/WP, the yield produced per unit of water consumed) [16] in arid and semi-arid regions. While this review includes insights from around the world, it focuses primarily on arid and semi-arid regions similar to those in the western United States. As a result, the findings may not fully reflect the conditions or outcomes in all dryland farming regions globally.

2. Reviewing Methodology

The literature used in this review was selected based on a qualitative screening process. The literature was identified through targeted keywords searches in academic databases, including Google Scholar and ResearchGate, using terms such as “organic agriculture in dryland farming”, “organic agriculture and drought mitigation”, “arid-regions and organic vs. conventional farming”, “no-till farming and water conservation”, “severe drought organic farming challenges”, “cover crops and soil moisture in arid regions”, etc. Recent publications (mostly from the last 10–15 years) were prioritized to ensure contemporary relevance. To ensure credibility, approximately 90% of the selected sources were peer-reviewed journal articles, which formed the primary basis for evidence and data-driven discussions. The remaining 10% comprised supplementary materials from credible institutions (e.g., USDA, Rodale Institute) as well as some book chapters and theses. These sources were used for introductory context or to reinforce trends and patterns identified in the peer-reviewed literature. Abstracts and methodologies were initially reviewed to assess the relevance, focusing on field-based research studies conducted in arid and semi-arid regions. Studies were excluded if they lacked a direct focus on organic practices or were conducted in humid or temperate zones. No quantitative or statistical analysis was conducted, instead, relevant findings were summarized and synthesized thematically to draw general conclusions.

3. Water Management Strategies and Barriers to Adoption

Water management in agricultural land is important because neither excessive moisture nor drought is suitable for optimal crop growth and production. Two key metrics commonly used to assess performance in water-limited conditions are WUE and CWP/WP. These metrics are used to monitor the efficiency with which water is applied to the field and how efficiently it has been utilized by the crops to produce food [16]. While WUE emphasizes physiological efficiency and irrigation performance at the field level, reflecting input-oriented management, CWP/WP includes broader considerations of yield outcomes per water input and evaluates outcome-oriented performance [17]. In the context of OA and CA, OA systems often aim to enhance WUE through improved soil structure and organic matter [18], while CA may rely more on synthetic inputs to improve CWP.
Traditional surface irrigation methods, such as flood and furrow irrigation methods, are less expensive than sprinkler or drip systems and are widely used in some arid areas. These surface systems often demonstrate poor WUE [19] due to high water loss from runoff and deep percolation, leading to greater water clogging, soil erosion, and soil degradation [20]. In contrast, modern irrigation systems like drip, sprinkler, and center pivot irrigation systems improve WUE by offering more targeted water delivery. Drip systems are even more efficient because they deliver water directly to the root zone of the plant, reducing evaporation loss [21] and runoff [20]. Sprinkler systems, while they can result in evaporation loss due to water being applied above the canopy [22], allow more precise application and reduce labor requirements, making them practical in large-scale farming systems. Although an increasing number of farmers in arid and semi-arid regions are using efficient technologies, the challenge of maintaining water availability and soil health over the long run remains a significant concern. Given this limitation, combining precision irrigation technology with soil conservation practices can offer a promising solution to the growing challenges of water scarcity [23]. For example, the avoidance of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in OA often reduces the risk of chemical leaching and contamination of water sources. By relying on natural nutrient inputs and biological pest control, organic systems support healthier soil microbial activity, which helps to enhance soil structure and improve moisture retention [24,25].
The effectiveness of organic water-saving practices can vary significantly across different crop types due to differences in root depth, water demands, and management sensitivity. For example, in dryland cereal–legume systems, practices such as legume-based crop rotation and compost application are used to enhance nitrogen availability, soil organic matter [26], soil moisture retention, and WUE, as well as to reduce yield loss due to pest and disease infestation [27]. These systems tend to benefit from deep-rooted crops that respond well to improved soil structure. In contrast, vegetable-based systems, which often include shallow-rooted crops with high water and nutrient sensitivity, require more precise water and nutrient delivery. In such systems, localized drip irrigation combined with organic mulching and organic fertilizers like farmyard manure may be employed to reduce evaporation and improve WUE. Moreover, perennial fruit systems benefit from long-term moisture retention practices such as organic compost, permanent cover crops, and no-tillage. For example, compost and no-tillage practices can help reduce water use by 30% [28], and mulching with drip irrigation can increase the WUE by more than 50%. In arid and semi-arid regions, these crop-specific adaptations become even more critical due to limited water availability and higher evapotranspiration. Integrating precision technologies such as soil moisture sensors, smart irrigation controllers, and automated scheduling in organic systems can further enhance water conservation. For example, real-time monitoring of soil moisture can ensure water is applied only when needed, reducing both under-irrigation and over-irrigation [29].
Despite these benefits, the high upfront cost of these technologies and the labor-intensive nature of many organic practices can pose substantial barriers to adoption among small-scale, resource-poor, and beginning farmers [30]. As reported by [31], many smallholder farmers are hesitant to adopt these technologies because of limited access to information, risk aversion, small landholdings, and challenges in accessing government subsidies, all of which reduce their willingness to invest in unfamiliar or large-scale innovations. Additionally, inadequate training in irrigation techniques (e.g., irrigation frequency and scheduling and system maintenance) further constrains adoption [32]. Moreover, the transition from conventional to organic systems involves a multi-year period of conversion and certification, during which farmers may face further economic barriers as they lack access to organic price premiums. To address these challenges and improve both the technical and economic feasibility of water optimization in organic systems, low-cost irrigation alternatives (gravity-fed micro-irrigation, bucket drip kits, etc.) and targeted capacity-building efforts supported by USDA programs can offer targeted support; these include the Organic Certification Cost-Sharing Program (OCCSP), which helps offset certification expenses, the Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP), which provides funding for conservation practices such as efficient irrigation, and the Transition to Organic Partnership Program (TOPP), which offers technical assistance and mentorship [33,34]. Increasing awareness and access to these programs, alongside combining affordable organic practices with low-cost technologies, can help ensure water-saving innovations in organic agriculture without excluding resource-poor farmers.

4. Organic Practices for Water Management

Organic agriculture offers several water management benefits as it can improve soil structure and increase moisture retention. This section introduces the principles of OA associated with water management and specific practices that help to reduce irrigation demands, enhance water conservation, and address some of the issues related to water scarcity in arid and semi-arid regions.

4.1. Principles of OA and Water Use

The four principles of OA are health, fairness, care, and ecology [35]; collectively, they focus on building a healthy and resilient ecosystem, providing a framework for sustainable water management in drought-prone regions. A central focus of OA is improving soil health, which supports water conservation by enhancing soil structure, porosity, and organic matter content [36]. Practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, green manuring, organic fertilization, etc., help to maintain soil moisture and reduce evaporation [36]. Additionally, drought-tolerant and locally adapted crop varieties require less water than other varieties to sustain crop growth and quality in arid regions [37], ensuring productivity. OA also promotes ecologically sound techniques like rainwater harvesting, contour farming, and drip irrigation, which help to reduce water use and increase resiliency to drought. These principles of organic farming not only conserve water but also increase long-term farm sustainability.

4.2. Organic Practices to Improve Resiliency to Water Scarcity

4.2.1. Soil Conservation Practices

Soil health is an important factor contributing to the water retention capacity of the soil and for helping sustain plant growth in the water-scarce periods. Poor soil health results in excessive runoff, reduced water infiltration, and greater dependence on irrigation water. This situation would further strain agricultural systems in arid and semi-arid regions, where few additional sources of irrigation are available. As discussed earlier, different soil conservation practices under organic farming, like mulching, cover cropping, no-till (NT) or reduced tillage, crop rotation, composting, etc., work together to mitigate water loss, increase the soil infiltration rate, enhance drought tolerance, and reduce dependency on external sources of water. However, the effectiveness of those practices varies depending on environmental or management conditions [38,39,40,41].
Mulching, a vital practice for soil conservation, refers to covering the soil surface with organic matter such as straw, wood chips, compost, dried leaves, or plant residues to create a protective layer above the soil that helps to reduce the direct exposure of soil to the sun and wind. This minimizes moisture loss, regulates soil temperature, protects against soil erosion, and improves water infiltration [42]. These improvements boost soil health by promoting beneficial microorganisms [43] and increasing water holding capacity [44], allowing plants to access moisture even during drought periods and reducing the dependency of crops on frequent external irrigation. Research findings in a drip-irrigated vineyard in semi-arid, southeastern Spain showed that using organic mulch (pruning waste) reduced crop evapotranspiration by 16–18% compared to bare soil, highlighting organic mulching as a way of enhancing CWP [45]. Additionally, mulching suppresses weed growth, minimizes competition for water, and contributes to long-term sustainability as these organic materials decompose over time, enriching the soil with essential nutrients and carbon sequestration [42]. Some of the findings from previous studies using organic mulches, which support the above information, are shown in Table 1.
Cover crops, such as legumes and grasses, provide living ground cover that reduces evaporation and improves soil structure, organic matter, and erosion control, with potential long-term gains in infiltration and water holding capacity [50,51,52]. However, in arid and semi-arid regions, their suitability remains more complex and context-specific than regions with more water. Several studies have shown that replacing fallow with cover crops in dryland agriculture deplete stored soil water, leading to low water availability for subsequent cash crops [41,53,54]. Nonetheless, a few studies have shown that early termination of cover crops can help mitigate soil moisture losses [55] and, in some cases, even maintain or slightly improve long-term soil water retention [56]. Evidence from on-farm trials in dryland systems shows that early termination of summer sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) cover crops improved soil water content after wheat sowing by up to 4% and increased WUE, yield, and grain protein by 10%, 12%, and 5%, respectively (p < 0.05), highlighting the importance of timing in maximizing cover crop benefits [57]. The long-term benefits of cover crops may outweigh the initial water use, especially with careful species selection and timing of termination [58].
NT or reduced tillage farming involves minimizing soil disturbance to conserve soil structure and soil moisture [59,60,61]. Unlike conventional tillage practices with high soil disturbance, reduced tillage retains some crop residues on the surface as a protective layer that helps the soil to retain its natural porosity [59] and increase organic matter content [62] up to 13% (p < 0.05) [63], improving its ability to hold moisture for a longer duration. Additionally, reduced soil disturbance can provide a favorable environment for microbes in the soil, which further enhances soil structure [44] and can increase water holding capacity up to 50% [64]. In addition to these benefits, organic growers face a challenge in terms of weed management in NT organic farming, as organic standards prohibit synthetic herbicides, making tillage a common weed control method [65]. Integrating cover crops with NT may offer a potential solution, as cover crops can suppress weeds while also improving soil moisture retention in drier periods [66]. Recent research, including the work from the Rodale Institute, has demonstrated that terminating cover crops at the appropriate stage using roller-crimpers can make organic NT systems viable [67]. However, the effectiveness of this practice relies on the selection of appropriate cover crops and termination timing to ensure adequate moisture availability for subsequent cash crops. Moreover, using roller-crimpers is generally more effective in the management of annual weeds [67]. Some of the findings of NT practices that contribute to water conservation, water use efficiency, and moisture retention are summarized in Table 2.
Crop rotation is the practice of altering the crop types that are grown within and across seasons on the same land. This practice enhances water management in water-scarce regions by reducing soil degradation, improving infiltration, enhancing water storage, optimizing moisture retention, and improving WUE [72], with studies showing a 12.5% yield increase in dryland settings due to better soil–water relations [73]. These findings are also supported by the authors of [14], who reported that maize–potato rotations increased the soil water storage in the 0–2.8 m depth by 0.019 m (p < 0.05) while continuous potato cropping decreased storage by 18.6 cm, over six years. The same study reported a 15.5–23.4% increase in the WUE of potato tubers (p < 0.05) when rotated with corn. Additionally, incorporating legumes as a rotational crop enhances the porosity and water infiltration rate. Moreover, the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) notes that deeply rooted legumes, such as alfalfa, create channels from decayed roots, improving infiltration [74].
Compost is a product of the aerobic decay of organic nitrogen and carbon that can increase soil organic matter, water holding capacity, and moisture retention, making it particularly valuable in water-scarce regions [75]. Research indicates that a single application of organic compost applied at a rate of 50 Mg ha−1 can double soil organic carbon, with long-term increases in soil organic carbon of 30% still detectable two decades later [76]. Soil organic carbon is a significant factor in improving soil’s water holding capacity. Similarly, an increase in infiltration is associated with reduced runoff, better aeration, and improved irrigation efficiency [77]. Previous studies have reported that under deficit irrigation (85%), a high rate of compost (12 metric ton ha−1) resulted in the highest yield and water productivity in wheat [78].

4.2.2. Water-Efficient Irrigation Techniques

In addition to soil-based organic practices that conserve moisture, irrigation-specific strategies are also equally important for optimizing water in arid and semi-arid regions. Water-efficient irrigation techniques integrated with organic farming practices can significantly enhance WUE, conserve resources, and create a more resilient agricultural system. Drip irrigation is one of the most efficient irrigation methods, delivering water directly to the plant’s roots, minimizing evaporation and runoff. A study by [79] has reported 20% savings in irrigation water with subsurface drip irrigation in organic olive (Olea europaea) farming. Additionally, a study in a semi-arid region has reported 13–29% higher WP of drip irrigation as compared to surface irrigation in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) production [80]. Additionally, pulse irrigation, a method of applying water in multiple short durations instead of continuous application, has emerged as a promising technique to save irrigation water and improve WUE. For instance, in organic potato (Solanum tuberosum) production, the irrigation WUE increased by nearly 70% with four pulse rates at 75% of the recommended water application compared to continuous drip irrigation. This practice also resulted in a seasonal water saving of 25% [81] and increased potato yield of 40% [82], making this method suitable for water-scarce regions.
Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is another water-efficient technique that captures, stores, and utilizes rainwater for plant water needs, supporting crop growth during a dry period and reducing dependency on surface and groundwater sources. Among the different RWH techniques, micro-catchment systems, such as tied ridging, can be suitable in arid and semi-arid regions. Tied ridging, also known as furrow diking, is a practical, efficient, and low-cost technique to conserve water [83] by creating small basins or ridges along the crop rows, which allows more water to infiltrate into the soil [84]. This method has been effective in parts of the U.S. and Africa [83,85,86], supporting crops during dry periods. Studies have shown that tied ridging can increase soil moisture content up to 24% in micro-catchment areas compared to control areas without a catchment [87], and it can increase the crop yield in semi-arid regions [83]. Previous findings regarding tied ridging in arid and semi-arid regions are summarized in Table 3.

4.2.3. Water-Efficient Crops

Water-efficient crops are a cornerstone of organic farming, providing a viable option to sustain crop yield in water-scarce conditions. Crops such as sorghum, barley, wheat, triticale, and drought-resistant legumes and grasses often have a greater capacity to thrive in drought conditions than other crops [91], providing optimum yield with minimal input of irrigation water. By selecting drought-resistant and water-efficient crops, producers can significantly reduce the irrigation water needs and improve WUE. Previous studies have reported that winter wheat and winter triticale have the highest water use and yield compared to oilseed crops within the same cropping system [92].

5. Applicability of Water-Saving Organic Practices in the Arid and Semi-Arid Western U.S.

Organic farming practices have demonstrated significant success in addressing water scarcity and soil degradation in semi-arid and arid regions globally, as discussed in earlier sections. These practices could be highly applicable to agricultural systems of the western U.S., where similar climatic conditions exist. For example, the agriculture sector in Arizona uses nearly 70% of the state’s available water, with 36% reliance on the Colorado River basin. This fraction of water used by agriculture is similar in all western states. Due to severe drought over the past two decades, water shortages have been further exacerbated in the Colorado River basin. In the face of these challenges, organic practices with different efficient irrigation techniques can help improve water management [93]. For example, in Yuma, AZ, crop yield increased while water use decreased by 15% due to irrigation management, multi-crop systems, and the use of water-efficient crops [94]. In Utah, integrating different practices with drip irrigation enhanced moisture retention and reduced irrigation water loss by optimizing water use. A field study by [95] in West Weber, UT, has demonstrated 36% less water depletion under drip irrigation of onions (Allium cepa) as compared to surface irrigation. However, onion yield was higher in the surface-irrigated field due to the interaction of different variables under study. Research from New Mexico has shown an increase in soil organic carbon in the topsoil under a manure-based organic farming system [96], which helps to improve water infiltration, reduce runoff, and increase resilience to drought conditions. Furthermore, a 3% increase in soil organic matter due to compost amendment in California rangelands improved water holding capacity by 4.7 million acre-feet [97]. Additionally, the predominance of perennial crops in the western U.S., such as alfalfa, grasses, grapes, and fruit orchards, further highlights the potential of organic farming practices to enhance ecosystem resiliency and water efficiency. As mentioned earlier, perennial crops, with their deep root system, can effectively maximize the benefit of improved soil structure. The difference in crop yield between conventional and OA is often cited as a concern in organic production. However, this gap can be minimal in perennial systems because of the cumulative effects of different practices over time. The applicability of organic farming in water-scarce regions of the western U.S. holds great potential to help solve issues related to water scarcity; however, further research is needed to fully understand its benefits in specific regions.

6. Opportunities and Challenges

6.1. Yield Performance and Resilience

Organic agriculture is often associated with lower crop yield compared to conventional systems, with studies reporting an average yield gap of 20–30% [98,99]. The transition from conventional to organic agriculture often leads to temporary yield declines and some marketing risks, as producers are not able to obtain an organic premium until certification is achieved [100], which can discourage farmers from adopting organic practices. However, this gap is not universal and varies across crops, farming practices, and environmental conditions. Previous studies have reported that over time, organic farming can build the resilience of the farming system, with a diminishing yield gap between conventional and organic farming [101]. This is more efficient in perennial crops where the cumulative effects of organic practices enhance soil health, water retention, and nutrient availability, reducing the yield gap up to 5% in some cases [102]. In arid and semi-arid regions, organic systems have demonstrated yield resilience, often outperforming conventional systems by 70–90% under drought conditions [9]. This resilience is attributed to enhanced soil structure and organic matter content, which improve water retention and soil health [100]. Several organic agricultural practices often help in boosting yields under water-limiting conditions. For example, a well-organized crop rotation can enhance the yield by 40% during drought conditions [103]. Similarly, tied ridging with farmyard manure has improved yield by 90% compared to tillage without fertilization [104], demonstrating the potential opportunity of organic practices in water-scarce regions.

6.2. Agronomic and Operational Challenges

Despite the yield opportunities, several agronomic and operational challenges persist within organic farming. The use of cover crops and NT farming in organic systems is constrained by trade-offs. For example, while cover crops can help suppress weeds and improve soil moisture dynamics, their establishment in drylands is often limited by poor rainfall [54]. Termination timing is also critical: early termination conserves soil moisture but yields lower biomass and reduces weed control effectiveness; late termination enhances biomass for weed suppression but can deplete soil water and harm the yield of subsequent cash crops [53]. A three-year field trial in dryland regions of Texas found that the soil moisture was approximately more than 30% in a control plot during the dry years and over 15% during the wet year compared to the field with cover crops, with early termination in the first year reducing moisture availability and leading to 50% decline in sorghum germination in cover crop fields [41]. A similar result was observed by [57] with a 61% decline in wheat yield due to moisture depletion by a cover crop. In organic NT systems, where herbicides are prohibited, cover crops are used for weed control. Terminating cover crops with roller-crimping is common, yet this is effective mainly for annual species and rarely controls perennial weeds [105]. These approaches may not always deliver consistent results due to environmental variability and weed pressure. Additionally, practices such as mulching and composting also present their own practical limitations. Mulching, while beneficial for reducing evaporation and protecting soil moisture, may lead to unintended consequences such as introducing weed seeds, restricting root zone oxygen in poorly drained soils, and harboring pests [43]. The high carbon content of some straw mulch can further lead to nitrogen immobilization, temporarily reducing soil nitrogen availability for plants [39]. These factors may offset water saving through increased evapotranspiration from weed growth and oxygen stress, impairing root water uptake efficiency. Similarly, in composting, if it is not tested and matched with crop needs, it may lead to nutrient imbalance that reduces the root water uptake efficiency and increases soil salinity [106]. Additionally, compost production and transportation require labor and resources, which can limit accessibility for smallholder farmers. Furthermore, due to limited sources of irrigation water in arid and semi-arid regions, organic farmers may need to adopt efficient irrigation systems with advanced knowledge of soil and water management. Even though advanced irrigation technologies, such as drip irrigation and pulse irrigation, are the most input-efficient systems, initial investment in these systems is high [107], and increased soil salinity can be a major challenge with these technologies [94].

6.3. Environmental Trade-Offs and Climate Adaptation

Beyond yield- and water-related challenges, OA presents broader trade-offs for environmental resilience. For example, OA offers opportunities for climate resilience by enhancing soil health, carbon sequestration, and reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [108]. However, some field studies have shown that organically managed systems using composted dairy manure can result in higher yield-scaled methane and nitrous oxide emissions compared to conventional systems using synthetic-N [109]. Similarly, a study by [110] has reported higher methane emissions in the wheat phase of an organic 3-year rotation (with composted manure) compared to no-till systems (with anhydrous N). In contrast, ref. [111] found that no-till systems without fertilizer inputs had lower GHG emissions and greater methane uptake than mechanically tilled soils. These contrasting findings highlight that the climate benefits of OA depend on how specific practices, such as soil amendment types, tillage intensity, and nutrient source, are managed within different environmental contexts. OA also promotes ecosystem health through crop diversification, which can help control the pest population within the farm [100], but some organic farmers often struggle with managing external pests from neighboring conventional farms [100]. In addition to these climate and environmental dimensions, the long-term effectiveness of organic practices for water management under future climate scenarios also warrants critical consideration. Projected temperature increases (2–4 °C by 2050) [112] could accelerate mulch decomposition in arid regions. More erratic rainfall patterns will require adaptive strategies, such as pairing compost with drought-tolerant cover crops or precision irrigation to balance infiltration and water retention.

7. Conclusions

Organic agriculture can offer a sustainable approach to water management in arid and semi-arid regions by enhancing soil moisture retention, reducing irrigation needs, and improving drought resilience through different organic practices, like mulching, composting, crop rotation, cover cropping, and NT. Using efficient irrigation technologies with those practices further helps in water optimization. However, the effectiveness of OA varies by crop type, local environmental conditions, and resource availability. Despite growing interest in sustainable water use, long-term studies that directly compare the water efficiency under organic and conventional systems remain limited. Although some long-term trials (e.g., Rodale Institute) demonstrate the potential of OA under drought conditions, a critical knowledge gap remains, particularly in region-specific performance across diverse soils, climate, and water availability. Furthermore, the trade-offs between long-term water conservation and yield stability, the scalability of each practice in arid and semi-arid conditions, and economic barriers for small-scale farmers are understudied. Future research should prioritize long-term climate-adaptive field trials and economic analyses to ensure scalable and sustainable water optimization strategies under increasing climate uncertainty.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.S. and J.R.R.; investigation, S.S.; writing—original draft preparation, S.S.; reviewing and editing, S.S., M.A.Y., and J.R.R.; supervision, J.R.R. and M.A.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the Utah State University (USU) and Utah Agricultural Experimental Station (UAES) as well as the academic community for their invaluable contributions through research papers and scholarly works.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
CAConventional agriculture
OAOrganic agriculture
NTNo-tillage
USDAUnited States Department of Agriculture
NOPNational organic program
WUEWater use efficiency
CWPCrop water productivity
WPWater productivity
OCCSPOrganic certification cost-sharing program
EQIPEnvironmental quality incentive program
TOPPTransition to organic partnership program
SWCSoil water content
CIConfidence interval
NRCSNatural Resources Conservation Service
RWHRainwater harvesting
TRTied ridging
FDFurrow diking
GHGGreenhouse gas
USUUtah State University
UAESUtah Agricultural Experimental Station

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Table 1. Findings of studies on organic mulching.
Table 1. Findings of studies on organic mulching.
LocationCropMulch Type Soil TypeImpacts of Organic MulchingSources
Gansu Province, China (2020–2021)Potato (Solanum tuberosum)Straw strip mulch (5.55 × 10−4 plants ha−1) Loessal soilIncreased SWC by 7.3%, WUE by 50%, and tuber yield by 18.6% compared to no mulch [46]
Dryland region of China (2015–2017)Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)Maize straw (6 Mg ha−1)ClayIncreased soil moisture by 11.9% (tillering) and 7.3% (booting) compared to no mulch at p < 0.01[47]
Meta-analysis (19 countries, various years)Corn (Zea mays)/WheatStraw mulch (varied rate)-Increased WUE and yield by 60% at p < 0.001[48]
Eastern Sicily (2021–2023)Orange (Citrus sinensis)Citrus pruning and weed residues-Increased SWC by 27% at 0.75 m distance from tree trunk compared to bare soil at p < 0.05 and 95% CI[49]
Note: This table primarily presents studies on field crops, with one example from a perennial fruit system included to show the possible applicability in a perennial fruit system. WUE—water use efficiency (kg m−3), SWC—soil water content (%), CI—confidence interval.
Table 2. Findings of studies on NT.
Table 2. Findings of studies on NT.
LocationCropSoil TypeResultsSource
Semi-arid region in Spain (1994)Barley (Hordeum vulgare)Clay20% more soil water content in no-till (NT) as compared to tillage at p < 0.05.[63]
Meta-analysis from different studies (different parts of China) published between 1950 and 2018Corn-Increased WUE by 5.9% under NT compared to tillage [68]
Northwest China (2016–2017)Wheat/pea (Pisum sativum) rotation Sandy loamNT with straw cover increased grain yield and WUE compared to tillage, due to increased transpiration, water potential, and decreased water potential gradient (p ≤ 0.05)[69]
New Mexico, USA (2020–2021)Corn–sorghum rotationClay loamImproved soil macro-aggregates and soil organic matter in reduced tillage compared to conventional tillage (p < 0.05)[70]
North of Amarillo, Texas (1983–1987)SorghumClay loamNT increased irrigation WUE, soil water storage, and yield compared to conventional tillage (p < 0.05)[71]
Table 3. Findings of studies on tied ridging and furrow diking.
Table 3. Findings of studies on tied ridging and furrow diking.
LocationCropsSoil TypeImpacts of Tied Ridging (TR) and Furrow Diking (FD)Source
Arid region of Ethiopia (2003–2004)Sorghum and Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)Clay loamIncreased soil water content at the root zone by 24%, volumetric soil moisture by 24% at 0–15 cm depth in TR compared to conventional tillage[88]
Northern Ethiopia (2004–2009)BarleySilt loamReduced runoff by 60%, enhanced soil water content by at least 13% with TR and mulching compared to conservation without water [89]
Semi-arid region of eastern Kenya (2007–2009)CornSandy loamGreatest plant available soil water content and water use efficiency (WUE) in TR tillage compared to subsoiling–ripping tillage and ox-plough tillage[85]
Semi-arid region of Kenya (2011–2013)CornClayGreater yield due to a larger amount of soil moisture conserved during the season[90]
Semi-arid region of Texas (1985)SorghumSilt loamIncreased yield by 16% in FD in growing season compared to non-diked[83]
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Sharma, S.; Yost, M.A.; Reeve, J.R. Roles of Organic Agriculture for Water Optimization in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5452. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125452

AMA Style

Sharma S, Yost MA, Reeve JR. Roles of Organic Agriculture for Water Optimization in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. Sustainability. 2025; 17(12):5452. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125452

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sharma, Shikha, Matt A. Yost, and Jennifer R. Reeve. 2025. "Roles of Organic Agriculture for Water Optimization in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions" Sustainability 17, no. 12: 5452. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125452

APA Style

Sharma, S., Yost, M. A., & Reeve, J. R. (2025). Roles of Organic Agriculture for Water Optimization in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions. Sustainability, 17(12), 5452. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125452

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