Sustainable Supply Chain Strategies for Modular-Integrated Construction Using a Hybrid Multi-Agent–Deep Learning Approach
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Related Works
2.1. MiC Supply-Chain Management
2.2. Sustainability Strategies in Off-Site Construction and Modular Integrated Supply Chains
2.3. Applications of Computer Simulations and Machine Learning for Carbon Footprint Evaluation in MiC
2.4. Assessment Methods for Carbon Emissions and Cost Across the Life Cycle of Buildings
3. Proposed Agent-Based and Machine Learning Optimization Models
3.1. Problem Description: MiC Supply Chain
- Suppliers: Responsible for producing prefabricated components such as beams, walls, and other structural or architectural elements. These components may vary in type, including concrete, steel, aluminum, and other materials, depending on the design specifications.
- MiC Factories: Prefabricated components from various suppliers are assembled into fully integrated construction modules. These modules are equipped with structural features and also include mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems. The goal is to produce complete, ready-to-install units that minimize the need for on-site work.
- Construction Sites: Finished modules are received and installed, often with minimal on-site assembly.
- Transporters: These actors are connected through a series of transportation activities. There are two main types of transport activities:
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- From suppliers to MiC factories: This stage uses specialized vehicles tailored to the specific materials being transported. For example, transporting concrete elements may require different vehicles than those used for lighter or more fragile materials like aluminum or glass.
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- From MiC factories to construction sites: This stage involves the movement of fully assembled modules. These modules are often large and delicate, requiring custom vehicles equipped to handle oversized and heavy loads while preventing damage during transit.
3.2. Footprint Carbon in MiC Supply Chain
- Suppliers: Suppliers are responsible for producing and delivering prefabricated components, which are often made from a variety of materials such as concrete, steel, or aluminum. Since different materials have different environmental impacts, we base the emissions for this actor primarily on the weight of the components produced. Heavier components usually require more raw materials and energy to manufacture, leading to higher emissions.The main factor used to calculate emissions at this stage is the emission factor expressed in kg per kg of material. This value represents the average amount of CO2e released for each kilogram of material produced.
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- = Supplier emissions (kg CO2e);
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- = Emission factor per kg of material (kg CO2e/kg);
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- W = Weight per component (kg);
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- N = Number of components.
The emission factor can vary depending on the type of material used. For instance, concrete may have a lower emission factor than steel or aluminum, but may still contribute significantly due to its higher usage and weight. - Transporters: Transporters play a vital role in moving both prefabricated components and finished modules. Emissions in this stage are influenced by the distance traveled and the weight of the transported goods.To estimate transport-related emissions, we use an emission factor expressed in kilograms of per kilogram of material transported per kilometer traveled (kg CO2e/kg · km). This reflects the emissions produced when transporting one kilogram of material over one kilometer.
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- = Transport emissions (kg CO2e);
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- = Emission factor per kg per km (kg CO2e/kg · km);
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- D = Distance traveled (km);
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- W = Weight carried (kg);
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- N = Number of modules or components.
The emission factor can vary depending on the type of transporter. For example, trucks used to transport concrete components need a higher load capacity and consume more fuel than those used to transport lighter materials. In addition, vehicles carrying completed MiC modules that are often too large and delicate require specialized equipment, which can also result in higher emissions. - MiC Factories: Emissions from MiC factories primarily result from the energy used during the module assembly process. This includes the operation of machines, lighting, heating, and other equipment. These emissions are calculated using the factory’s energy consumption measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), multiplied by an appropriate emission factor (kg CO2e/kWh).
- –
- = Factory emissions (kg CO2e);
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- = Emission factor per kWh (kg CO2e/kWh);
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- P = Power consumption per module (kW);
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- T = Fabrication time (hours);
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- N = Number of modules.
- Construction Sites: While the construction site activities are relatively limited in MiC projects, there are still emissions related to on-site energy usage. These may include crane operations, minor installations, and lighting or heating during final assembly. Similar to the factory, emissions here are based on energy consumption.
- –
- = Site emissions (kg CO2e);
- –
- = Emission factor per kWh (kg CO2e/kWh);
- –
- P = Power consumption per module (kW);
- –
- T = Operational time (hours);
- –
- N = Number of modules.
- Total Carbon Footprint: At the end of the evaluation process, the emissions calculated for each actor in the supply chain are summed to determine the total carbon footprint of the entire MiC supply chain. This aggregated value gives a complete picture of the environmental impact from raw-material supply through final on-site installation:Here:
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- = Emissions from supplier i;
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- = Emissions from transporter k;
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- = Emissions from factory j;
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- = Emissions from construction site c;
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- = Number of suppliers, transporters, factories, and construction sites, respectively.
3.3. Proposed Approach
3.3.1. Modeling of Interactions Between Agents
3.3.2. Machine Learning Surrogate Models for Supply Chain Optimization
- MSE for total carbon footprint (in kg CO2e): 481,689,693.30;
- MSE for completion time (in days): 20.45;
- MSE for total cost (in EUR): 529,124,195.93.
4. Case Study
4.1. Agents Description
- Construction site: Generates demand for modules based on BIM data and project schedules. It initiates requests for integrated modules.
- MiC factory: Handles the reception of orders, fabrication of integrated modules, and assignment of vehicles for delivery to construction sites.
- Suppliers: Responsible for producing and delivering prefabricated components to the MiC factory. Each supplier has parameters such as production rate, storage capacity, and vehicle availability. In our case study, we used a total of five suppliers, divided into four categories: two for concrete wall panels, one for steel beams, one for MEP components, and one for aluminum frames.
- Transporters:
- –
- T1: Transports components from suppliers to the MiC factory.
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- T2: Transports completed modules from the MiC factory to construction sites.
Both are managed using state charts to simulate the loading, traveling, unloading, and returning cycles.
4.2. Parameter Selection
4.3. Simulation Results
4.4. Optimal Supply Chain Strategies for Sustainable, Cost-Effective, and/or Fast Construction
4.5. Discussion
5. Conclusions and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CSC | Construction Supply Chain |
OSC | Off-Site Construction |
PC | Prefabricated Components |
MC | Modular Construction |
MiC | Modular integrated Construction |
MAS | Multi-Agent Simulation |
ABM | Agent-Based Modeling |
OSM | OpenStreetMap |
BIM | Building Information Modeling |
MEP | Mechanical-Electrical-Plumbing |
Appendix A. Optimal Vehicle Allocation Strategies Predicted by Statistical Learning Algorithms
Strategy | Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e) | Project Time (Days) | Total Cost (EUR) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | [1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 3] | 3,784,115.73 | 294.06 | 2,443,178.13 |
0.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | [3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 3] | 3,798,058.77 | 77.22 | 2,015,068.14 |
0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | [3, 5, 3, 5, 4, 1] | 3,783,287.56 | 88.18 | 1,951,318.48 |
0.33 | 0.33 | 0.34 | [3, 5, 3, 3, 4, 1] | 3,787,855.40 | 94.04 | 1,967,158.35 |
0.50 | 0.50 | 0.00 | [5, 1, 6, 6, 6, 3] | 3,758,459.58 | 252.42 | 2,836,372.95 |
0.50 | 0.00 | 0.50 | [3, 6, 5, 5, 2, 1] | 3,783,672.58 | 126.26 | 2,117,662.12 |
0.00 | 0.50 | 0.50 | [3, 5, 5, 3, 4, 1] | 3,781,124.36 | 81.88 | 1,955,009.28 |
Strategy | Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e) | Project Time (Days) | Total Cost (EUR) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | [1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 3] | 3,770,827.21 | 292.37 | 2,450,530.52 |
0.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | [3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 3] | 3,796,971.18 | 80.83 | 2,036,033.15 |
0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | [3, 5, 3, 5, 4, 1] | 3,785,973.25 | 86.90 | 1,950,204.44 |
0.33 | 0.33 | 0.34 | [3, 5, 3, 3, 4, 1] | 3,781,343.71 | 97.63 | 1,975,610.88 |
0.50 | 0.50 | 0.00 | [5, 1, 6, 6, 6, 3] | 3,804,725.82 | 260.12 | 2,809,141.08 |
0.50 | 0.00 | 0.50 | [3, 6, 5, 5, 2, 1] | 3,793,755.45 | 126.32 | 2,120,010.58 |
0.00 | 0.50 | 0.50 | [3, 5, 5, 3, 4, 1] | 3,780,677.81 | 80.85 | 1,959,081.14 |
Strategy | Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e) | Project Time (Days) | Total Cost (EUR) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | [1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 3] | 3,798,056.88 | 292.93 | 2,529,926.56 |
0.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | [3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 3] | 3,794,873.51 | 93.73 | 2,128,785.70 |
0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | [3, 5, 3, 5, 4, 1] | 3,785,240.99 | 96.61 | 2,065,890.33 |
0.33 | 0.33 | 0.34 | [3, 5, 3, 3, 4, 1] | 3,786,759.29 | 104.25 | 2,067,947.50 |
0.50 | 0.50 | 0.00 | [5, 1, 6, 6, 6, 3] | 3,789,078.95 | 246.00 | 2,677,288.01 |
0.50 | 0.00 | 0.50 | [3, 6, 5, 5, 2, 1] | 3,788,573.06 | 123.99 | 2,117,511.81 |
0.00 | 0.50 | 0.50 | [3, 5, 5, 3, 4, 1] | 3,788,060.45 | 93.73 | 2,089,791.47 |
Strategy | Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e) | Project Time (Days) | Total Cost (EUR) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | [1, 6, 1, 2, 1, 3] | 3,766,735.25 | 292.47 | 2,437,129.75 |
0.00 | 1.00 | 0.00 | [3, 5, 5, 6, 5, 3] | 3,798,643.75 | 80.86 | 2,037,618.13 |
0.00 | 0.00 | 1.00 | [3, 5, 3, 5, 4, 1] | 3,789,310.50 | 86.95 | 1,951,549.75 |
0.33 | 0.33 | 0.34 | [3, 5, 3, 3, 4, 1] | 3,785,677.75 | 97.54 | 1,973,190.88 |
0.50 | 0.50 | 0.00 | [5, 1, 6, 6, 6, 3] | 3,791,028.25 | 260.17 | 2,851,382.00 |
0.50 | 0.00 | 0.50 | [3, 6, 5, 5, 2, 1] | 3,789,575.25 | 126.36 | 2,120,164.75 |
0.00 | 0.50 | 0.50 | [3, 5, 5, 3, 4, 1] | 3,788,197.75 | 80.77 | 1,956,994.50 |
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Study | Study Type | Application Domain | Estimation Scope | Key Technologies Used |
---|---|---|---|---|
[54] | Simulation | Project-level | Carbon footprint benchmarking and monitoring | 4D Building Information Modeling (BIM), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) tools |
[56] | Simulation | MiC supply chain | Logistics planning, project key performance indicators (KPIs): Project duration, MiC-SC costs, emissions | Agent-based modeling, Discrete-event simulation, Taguchi approach |
[17] | Hybrid | Multi-modal logistics in MiC | Multi-modal logistics optimization: Project duration, total costs, emissions | Hybrid multi-agent simulation, Design of experiments, Metamodeling |
[55] | Simulation | Building supply chain | Supply chain carbon footprint: GHG emissions, economic output | Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA), Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) |
[57] | Simulation | Modular construction logistics | Routing optimization for carbon emissions reduction | Cyber-Physical Internet framework, Carbon-aware routing protocol |
[62] | Review | General Construction | Global and regional supply chain analysis | Input-output analysis, Life cycle assessment |
[58] | Machine Learning | Early architectural design stage | Early-stage carbon footprint estimation | Machine Learning Models, Convolutional Neural Networks |
[12] | Machine Learning | Design stage, 70 projects in Yangtze River Delta | Embodied carbon emissions prediction | Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector Regression, Extreme Gradient Boosting |
[13] | Machine Learning | Building foundations, 35 public buildings in China | Carbon emissions prediction | BIM, Decision Tree, Random Forest, XGBoost, Neural Network |
[59] | Machine Learning | Intelligent Construction | CO emissions and energy consumption forecasting | Deep Neural Networks |
Model | MSE () | MSE (Time) | MSE (Cost) |
---|---|---|---|
SVM (SVR) | 541,352,400.00 | 39.32 | 398,188,700.00 |
Random Forest | 589,882,000.00 | 0.29 | 239,012,000.00 |
Gradient Boosting | 496,780,700.00 | 82.00 | 5,397,325,000.00 |
XGBoost | 508,183,300.00 | 0.22 | 81,027,600.00 |
Parameter | Value | Unit | Description |
---|---|---|---|
Project Setup | |||
Number of Suppliers | 5 | - | Suppliers providing prefabricated components |
Number of MiC Factories | 1 | - | Centralized factory for module assembly |
Construction Site Location | Paris, France | - | Location of final module installation |
Normal Project Completion Time | 120 | days | Deadline to avoid penalty |
Production and Storage | |||
Avg. Requests per Day | 60 C, 3 M | C: Components, M: Modules | Daily component/module demand |
Initial Storage per Supplier | uniform(5, 10) | Components | Initial buffer stock |
Production Capacity (Supplier) | uniform(10, 15) | Components/day | Daily component production |
Production Capacity (Factory) | uniform(3, 5) | Modules/day | Daily module output |
Logistics and Transportation | |||
Vehicles (T1) per Supplier | [1,2,3,4,5,6] | vehicles | Vehicles used to transport components |
Vehicles (T2) per Factory | [1,2,3] | vehicles | Vehicles used to deliver assembled modules |
Vehicle Speed T1 | uniform(50, 70) | km/h | Speed range for component delivery |
Vehicle Speed T2 | uniform(40, 60) | km/h | Speed range for module delivery |
Fixed Cost T1 | 150 | EUR/day | Daily fixed cost for T1 vehicles (e.g., rental, driver salary, insurance) |
Fixed Cost T2 | 200 | EUR/day | Daily fixed cost for T2 vehicles (e.g., rental, driver salary, insurance) |
Variable Cost T1 | 2 | EUR/km | Per-kilometer variable cost for T1 (e.g., fuel, maintenance, tire wear) |
Variable Cost T2 | 3 | EUR/km | Per-kilometer variable cost for T2 (e.g., fuel, maintenance, tire wear) |
Project Delay Penalty | 500 | EUR/day | Penalty for late delivery |
Supplier Locations to MiC Factory | Supplier1: uniform(70, 75), Supplier2: uniform(125, 130), Supplier3: uniform(155, 160), Supplier4: uniform(75, 80), Supplier5: uniform(125, 130) | km | Distance from suppliers to factory |
Factory to Site Distance | uniform(20, 22.5) | km | Transport distance for modules |
Energy and Emissions | |||
Energy Emission Factor | uniform(0.039, 0.4041) | kg CO2e/kWh | Emissions per energy unit |
Fabrication Energy Use | uniform(13, 70) | kW | Energy required for assembly |
Fabrication Time | uniform(2, 3) | hours | Time to assemble one module |
Construction Energy Use | uniform(65, 300) | kW | Energy used during site work |
Construction Time | uniform(0.1, 1) | hours | Time for on-site installation |
Material Details | |||
Concrete Emission Factor | uniform(0.17, 0.27) | kg CO2e/kg | Concrete emission rate based on the weight |
Steel Emission Factor | uniform(0.5, 0.7) | kg CO2e/kg | Steel emission rate based on the weight |
Insul. + MEP Emission Factor | uniform(10.3, 11.45) | kg CO2e/kg | Insulation with MEP emission rate based on the weight |
Aluminum Emission Factor | uniform(1.4, 3.85) | kg CO2e/kg | Aluminum emission rate based on the weight |
Concrete Weight | uniform(2400, 7700) | kg | Weight of prefabricated concrete |
Steel Weight | uniform(457.2, 2880) | kg | Weight of steel beams |
Insul. + MEP Weight | uniform(14, 17) | kg | Weight of internal MEP units |
Aluminum Weight | uniform(1.62, 108.00) | kg | Weight of aluminum units |
Module Weight | uniform(21,091, 73,616) | kg | Assembled module weight |
Transportation Emissions | |||
Concrete Transport Factor | uniform(0.000062, 0.000256) | kg CO2e/kg · km | Emission rate for concrete freight |
Steel Transport Factor | uniform(0.000088, 0.000363) | kg CO2e/kg · km | Emission rate for steel freight |
MEP+Aluminum Transport Factor | uniform(0.00012, 0.00015) | kg CO2e/kg · km | Emission rate for MEP/Aluminum freight |
General Freight Factor | uniform(0.00005, 0.00006) | kg CO2e/kg · km | Baseline freight emissions |
Vehicles per Supplier | Vehicles per MiC factory | Var. Cost T1 (EUR) | Var. Cost T2 (EUR) | Fixed Cost T1 (EUR) | Fixed Cost T2 (EUR) | Project Time (Days) | Penalty (EUR) | Total Cost (EUR) | Carbon Footprint (kg ) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1 | 1,648,941 | 46,042 | 219,100 | 58,427 | 292 | 86,067 | 2,058,576 | 3,816,959 |
1 | 2 | 1,648,806 | 45,974 | 219,430 | 117,029 | 293 | 86,286 | 2,117,525 | 3,796,678 |
1 | 3 | 1,649,246 | 46,254 | 219,349 | 175,479 | 292 | 86,233 | 2,176,560 | 3,769,565 |
2 | 1 | 1,648,691 | 46,066 | 219,560 | 29,275 | 146 | 13,187 | 1,956,778 | 3,806,080 |
2 | 2 | 1,649,390 | 46,010 | 219,736 | 58,596 | 146 | 13,245 | 1,986,978 | 3,834,559 |
2 | 3 | 1,648,785 | 45,979 | 218,550 | 87,420 | 146 | 12,850 | 2,013,585 | 3,802,363 |
3 | 1 | 1,649,603 | 45,994 | 219,583 | 19,518 | 98 | 0 | 1,934,699 | 3,787,588 |
3 | 2 | 1,649,795 | 46,039 | 220,150 | 39,138 | 98 | 0 | 1,955,123 | 3,814,929 |
3 | 3 | 1,649,388 | 45,994 | 220,024 | 58,673 | 98 | 0 | 1,974,079 | 3,805,549 |
4 | 1 | 1,649,598 | 46,024 | 242,550 | 16,170 | 81 | 0 | 1,954,342 | 3,816,099 |
4 | 2 | 1,649,555 | 46,092 | 242,505 | 32,334 | 81 | 0 | 1,970,486 | 3,786,941 |
4 | 3 | 1,649,472 | 46,063 | 242,569 | 48,514 | 81 | 0 | 1,986,618 | 3,766,033 |
5 | 1 | 1,649,060 | 46,045 | 303,118 | 16,166 | 81 | 0 | 2,014,389 | 3,805,143 |
5 | 2 | 1,648,942 | 46,095 | 303,127 | 32,334 | 81 | 0 | 2,030,498 | 3,800,661 |
5 | 3 | 1,649,147 | 45,972 | 303,072 | 48,492 | 81 | 0 | 2,046,683 | 3,795,932 |
6 | 1 | 1,649,559 | 46,035 | 363,737 | 16,166 | 81 | 0 | 2,075,496 | 3,797,855 |
6 | 2 | 1,649,520 | 46,092 | 363,725 | 32,331 | 81 | 0 | 2,091,669 | 3,811,072 |
6 | 3 | 1,649,001 | 45,944 | 363,727 | 48,497 | 81 | 0 | 2,107,169 | 3,789,590 |
Strategy | Carbon Footprint (kg CO2e) | Project Time (Days) | Total Cost (EUR) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 0 | 0 | [1 6 1 2 1 3] | 3,776,432.50 | 288.79 | 2,392,895.50 |
0 | 1 | 0 | [3 5 5 6 5 3] | 3,791,940.50 | 82.67 | 2,036,646.38 |
0 | 0 | 1 | [3 5 3 4 1 1] | 3,777,434.00 | 99.66 | 1,948,504.75 |
0.33 | 0.33 | 0.33 | [3 5 3 4 1 1] | 3,781,251.00 | 90.76 | 1,960,009.00 |
0.5 | 0.5 | 0 | [5 1 6 6 6 3] | 3,772,361.00 | 260.93 | 2,712,012.50 |
0.5 | 0 | 0.5 | [3 6 5 5 2 1] | 3,797,530.50 | 123.04 | 2,099,554.50 |
0 | 0.5 | 0.5 | [3 5 5 3 4 1] | 3,791,096.50 | 118.98 | 2,038,015.88 |
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Attajer, A.; Mecheri, B.; Hadbi, I.; Amoo, S.N.; Bouchnita, A. Sustainable Supply Chain Strategies for Modular-Integrated Construction Using a Hybrid Multi-Agent–Deep Learning Approach. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5434. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125434
Attajer A, Mecheri B, Hadbi I, Amoo SN, Bouchnita A. Sustainable Supply Chain Strategies for Modular-Integrated Construction Using a Hybrid Multi-Agent–Deep Learning Approach. Sustainability. 2025; 17(12):5434. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125434
Chicago/Turabian StyleAttajer, Ali, Boubakeur Mecheri, Imane Hadbi, Solomon N. Amoo, and Anass Bouchnita. 2025. "Sustainable Supply Chain Strategies for Modular-Integrated Construction Using a Hybrid Multi-Agent–Deep Learning Approach" Sustainability 17, no. 12: 5434. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125434
APA StyleAttajer, A., Mecheri, B., Hadbi, I., Amoo, S. N., & Bouchnita, A. (2025). Sustainable Supply Chain Strategies for Modular-Integrated Construction Using a Hybrid Multi-Agent–Deep Learning Approach. Sustainability, 17(12), 5434. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125434