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Opinion

Oxygenated Nanobubbles as a Sustainable Strategy to Strengthen Plant Health in Controlled Environment Agriculture

by
Md Al Mamun
and
Tabibul Islam
*
Plant Sciences Department, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(12), 5275; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125275 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 25 March 2025 / Revised: 30 May 2025 / Accepted: 5 June 2025 / Published: 7 June 2025
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Abstract

:
Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) offers a protected system for agricultural production; however, it remains vulnerable to diseases, particularly root diseases such as Pythium root rot and Fusarium wilt. Sustainable and eco-friendly agricultural practices using plant-beneficial microbes can help mitigate these harmful diseases. These microbes produce natural antibiotics and promote induced systemic resistance (ISR), which enhances nutrient uptake, stress tolerance, and disease resistance. While plant-beneficial microbes have been applied in conventional cropping systems, they have yet to be fully integrated into CEA-based systems. Oxygen availability in the root zone is critical for the functionalities of beneficial microorganisms. Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen (DO) can hinder microbial activity, lead to the accumulation of harmful compounds, and cause stress to the plants. Contemporary aeration technologies, such as novel oxygenated nanobubble (ONB) technology, provide better oxygen distribution and promote optimal microbial proliferation, enhancing plant resilience. Hydroponic and soilless substrate-based systems of CEA production have significant potential to integrate beneficial microbes, increase crop yields, prevent diseases, and improve resource use efficiency. This review aims to summarize the significance of DO and the potential impact of novel ONB technology in CEA for managing root zone diseases while increasing crop productivity and sustainability.

1. Introduction

Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) addresses modern agricultural challenges and ensures nutritional security through efficient crop production. The increasing demand for year-round, locally grown produce in urban markets, and the need to address climate change and food deserts drive interest in CEA [1,2]. This concept protects crops from extreme weather, pests, and diseases, ensuring a stable and reliable food supply in an unpredictable environment [3,4]. High-value fruits and vegetables, including strawberries, tomatoes, basil, lettuce, and microgreens, are efficiently growing in the CEA system due to relatively short growth cycles and taking seasonal variation out of the equation [5]. Studies indicate that strawberries grown in CEA have higher yields and better fruit quality than those grown in traditional open fields. Additionally, in CEA, enhanced nutritional content in leafy greens like basil and lettuce has also been reported [5]. CEA encompasses various technologies, from simple greenhouse systems to advanced indoor vertical farms. These sophisticated approaches often integrate recirculating hydroponic systems, artificial LED lighting, HVAC systems for precise heating and cooling, and robotic harvesting. Environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, light, and CO2 concentrations can be controlled to optimize plant growth with improved resource use efficiency [1]. However, various factors need to be established, and further technological incorporation in the CEA is required to ensure sustainability and efficient production systems. As such, dissolved oxygen (DO) and the benefits of DO at the plant physiological level have been discussed previously [6,7]. DO is critical for plant health as it promotes improved root growth and function. A low DO level is a common challenge in hydroponics and soilless substrate-based crop productions, where enclosed and recirculating water for irrigation can create hypoxic root zones [8,9]. Hypoxia reduces plant growth, limits beneficial microbial activity, and increases the risk of root-borne diseases [10]. Pathogenic attacks include Pythium root rot, Fusarium wilt, Rhizoctonia root rot, Phytophthora root rot, bacterial wilt, and Verticillium wilt, which could be devastating for the CEA production system [11,12,13,14,15,16,17]. In contrast, high-quality irrigation water with saturated levels of DO could improve nutrient and water uptake, photosynthetic capacity, and plant stress resistance [18]. The DO in the root zone could enhance the proliferation of beneficial microbes, including biocontrol agent growth [19]. Beneficial microorganisms stimulate root development and activate systemic defense systems to maintain the healthy growth of plants, and some work as biocontrols for various disease management [20,21,22]. These are primarily aerobic microbes that thrive in oxygen-rich environments and regulate rhizosphere ecosystems and plant growth and development [23]. Implementing beneficial organisms to improve nutrient use efficiency and plant health has great potential for sustainable CEA production.
Oxygenated nanobubbles (ONBs) are an innovative water treatment technology characterized by their ultra-fine size (typically less than 200 nm in diameter) and high oxygen-carrying capacity. Unlike larger bubbles, ONBs remain suspended in water for extended periods and improve oxygen availability [24,25]. ONBs offer an environmentally sustainable solution by enhancing oxygen availability without requiring continuous mechanical aeration or chemical additives, lowering energy consumption [26]. Recent studies have shown that ONBs improve DO levels and enhance the growth and functionality of beneficial microorganisms such as Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. [27]. Despite these promising findings, comprehensive reviews are needed to address the application of ONBs to beneficial microbial enhancement, biopesticide performance, and disease management in CEA systems. This review summarizes the current technologies for ONBs to maintain elevated DO levels and their role in supporting beneficial microbes, especially in CEA. By integrating findings from available research, we seek to clarify the mechanism, advantages, and limitations of ONBs and propose directions for future development and applications as a potential sustainable tool for improving plant health and productivity in CEA.

2. Methodology

This study employed a systematic review methodology to identify, screen, and synthesize relevant articles on the application of ONB in modern agricultural systems, including CEA. Comprehensive literature searches were conducted across major scientific databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect. Initial screening involved evaluating article titles and abstracts to remove duplicates. Methodological quality and scientific rigor were considered during the selection process. Conceptual models and mechanisms of ONB technology in CEA systems were illustrated using BioRender (https://www.biorender.com/) to support visual interpretation and the communication of the results.

3. Major Root Zone Diseases in Hydroponics and Soilless Substrate-Based Plant Production Systems

Hydroponics and soilless crop production systems are the most promising and efficient methods to increase productivity and prevent diseases [28]. However, these methods are not entirely immune to diseases, particularly root zoon diseases, which could interrupt the plant’s health and productivity [29]. In CEA, plants are grown with highly rich nutrient solutions using soilless media such as peat moss, coco coir, perlite, and Rockwool. The sealed and recirculating water in these systems can promote pathogen growth, leading to common root zone diseases (Table 1). Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungus caused by Fusarium oxysporum and infects a wide range of crops [8,29]. This pathogen attacks the vascular system, causing yellowing leaves, wilting, and, eventually, plant death [12]. Fusarium wilt is the most difficult to manage in a hydroponic culture system because it can survive in growing media and equipment, causing recurrence [13]. This infection causes higher production losses, increases disease control expenditures, and, in the extreme, can lead to replanting [12]. In a hydroponic system, a moist environment and warm conditions allow the growth of another pathogen, Rhizoctonia solani, which causes Rhizoctonia root rot. This pathogen significantly damages the root systems of crops, leading to poor water and nutrient uptake. This disease rapidly spreads through the nutrient solution in hydroponic systems, causing symptoms such as growth inhibition, wilting, and yellowish leaves [16]. Overwatering or inadequate water drainage in soilless media such as coco coir and peat may create an optimal environment for fungal growth, including Rhizoctonia [30,31]. The difficulty in detecting this infection at the early phase causes rapid root damage and stunted growth and eventually leads to serious crop yield loss in CEA. Significant crop losses also occur due to oomycete infections, such as Phytophthora spp., which causes Phytophthora root rot in hydroponic and soilless culture systems [32]. This disease damages roots, leading to impaired water and nutrient uptake and considerable yield losses [33]. Annual yield losses owing to many bacterial infections, such as bacterial wilt in the hydroponic and soilless systems, might cause 30 to 100% yield losses in different areas of crop cultivation [34,35]. Bacterial wilt is caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, which clogs water-conducting tissues (xylem) and prevents water transportation [35,36]. This disease causes plants to wilt, turn yellow, and eventually die within a few days of infection. It is challenging to eradicate if introduced once, leading to excessive yield losses. The higher density of plants in CEA-based production systems with shared recirculating irrigation systems and warm and moist environments spreads the disease more rapidly than in conventional open fields [1,37]. More sustainable technological approaches are needed in CEA disease management, which could boost the plant’s natural defense system and are preferable for biobased disease management strategies.

4. ONB Production Techniques and Their Significance in CEA-Based Crop Production

ONBs are an emerging technology gaining popularity in CEA systems to maintain elevated DO levels in irrigation water. Nanobubbles are little gas-filled spheres measuring 200 nm in diameter, with unique physicochemical properties, such as a negative surface charge, high gas transfer efficiency, and prolonged retention in water [41,42,43,44]. These unique properties of ONBs allow oxygen to be delivered in deep root zones at higher capacity in hydroponics and soilless plant culture systems (Figure 1). Effective levels of oxygenation might be attained by utilizing ONB technology, which offers more advantages over any traditional aeration [44]. ONBs improve the soil porosity and pore connectivity, which allows deep irrigation and better oxygenation to the plant root zone (Figure 1). For instance, irrigation with ONB-treated water enhanced the overall soil porosity by 43.2% and pore connectivity by 355.1%, leading to a crop output gain of 19.66% compared to conventional irrigation [42]. This study also demonstrated that ONBs substantially enhanced soil organic carbon, dissolved oxygen, and readily oxidizable organic carbon [42], hence augmenting soil fertility and subsequently promoting plant growth and crop yield [45]. Compared to conventional irrigation systems, using ONBs in irrigation water enhanced root distribution and the essential elements of root architecture while improving nitrogen and water use efficiency in greenhouse settings [46]. ONBs in hydroponic agricultural systems have demonstrated similar beneficial effects. For instance, an ornamental flowering plant, Anthurium andraeanum, subjected to irrigation with ONB-treated water demonstrated a substantial enhancement in both fresh and dried leaf biomass, alongside an increase in leaf area relative to the control [26]. The presence of elevated DO led to an increase in chlorophyll content (16.2%) and phosphorus levels (19.8%) in the leaves. Another study conducted using a recirculating nutrient film technique (NFT)-based hydroponics system, implementing ONBs, resulted in a 126.5% enhancement in root length, which improved the yield and postharvest quality of lettuce [9,26]. Studies with ONBs in soilless substrate-based systems remain limited. One study found no enhancement in root or plant growth when Calibrachoa × hybrida “Aloha Kona Dark Red” and Lobelia erinus “Bella Aqua” were irrigated with oxygenated water in a peat-based substrate [47]. This indicates that further studies are needed with different ONB technologies and various CEA settings with crops like economically important leafy greens, strawberries, tomatoes, etc.
Various strategies are employed to deliver ONBs in irrigation water, considering specific crops and agricultural systems. One promising approach is mechanical stirring, which efficiently generates nanobubbles smaller than 200 nm [48]. Another innovative technique that provides significant control over size and distribution involves the use of nanoscale pore membranes, which require sophisticated membrane materials to generate nanobubbles measuring 360–720 nm [49]. The microfluidic method is also an excellent option for precise control over nanobubble size (500 nm), yet its implementation is complex and costly [42]. Additional methods, including acoustic and hydrodynamic cavitation, generate nanobubbles efficiently, ranging from 200 to 300 nm; however, control over the size and production of nanobubbles relies on the flow rate and pressure conditions [43,44]. (See Table 2).

5. The Impact of DO and Beneficial Microbes on Root Zone Diseases

Water quality in irrigation is crucial for CEA systems, directly impacting the growth and development of plants. For instance, low or high pH and electrical conductivity levels in irrigation water could affect the root system, reducing plant growth and productivity [57,58]. Oxygen maintenance is essential for root respiration in root cells, which is required for nutrient absorption and plant growth [59,60,61]. In deep water hydroponics and substrate-based CEA crop production systems, DO plays a significant role in maintaining a healthy root system and prevents hypoxic conditions in the root zone, leading to the asphyxiation and proliferation of anaerobic pathogens. Recent research has shown that high DO levels in irrigation water significantly boost the plant’s defense and yield in hydroponically grown crops, such as lettuce and tomato [62,63]. Furthermore, DO impacts the plant’s systemic immunity by manipulating different biochemical pathways involved in activating defense, such as phytohormones and reactive oxygen species [18,64,65]. Moreover, increased oxygen availability stimulates the accumulation of specialized metabolites, which have antimicrobial activity in response to pathogen attacks [66,67]. Therefore, adequate oxygenation is crucial for activating the complex defense mechanism in plant cells, which inhibits root zone diseases.
In greenhouse-based agriculture, beneficial microbes, such as mycorrhizal fungi, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), and beneficial nematodes, play a significant role in boosting plant health by inducing systemic resistance mechanisms [27,68]. To maintain environmentally friendly and sustainable CEA, incorporating beneficial microbes could offer a unique and highly effective approach to controlling diseases. Reports have shown that beneficial microbes, such as Mycorrhizal fungi, significantly enhance plants’ resistance to pathogens by forming a symbiotic association with plants’ roots [13]. Additionally, it was found that beneficial fungi were involved in determining plants’ root architecture, which is integrally linked to plants’ defense-related metabolites, phytohormones, and vital nutrients [18,69,70].

6. Integration of ONBs and Beneficial Microbes

Beneficial microbes, which involve plant growth, development, and induced systemic resistance (ISR) activation, primarily maintain aerobic respiration, which requires optimum oxygen availability [23]. ONBs could provide a stable oxygen supply that improves DO in irritated water, which is essential for aerobic microorganisms’ survival and metabolic activity [9,26]. For instance, a study claimed that the integration of microbial agents with ONBs enhances soil microbial abundance and alleviates saline–alkali soil characteristics more efficiently, inducing energy-metabolism-related genes and resulting in the enhanced growth and development of rice plants [71]. The application of ONBs rich in irrigation water has been demonstrated to positively affect the composition of the microbial community, including firmicutes and other advantageous bacteria in maize rhizosphere soil, subsequently enhancing soil enzyme activity, especially alkaline phosphatase, which results in improved phosphorus availability and crop yield [72]. In addition, Xiao et al. (2021) showed that the application of ONBs substantially enhanced the development of microbial aggregates in activated sludge by augmenting extracellular polymeric substances, including proteins and polysaccharides, thereby indicating improved microbial efficacy [73]. In soilless farming systems, in response to ONBs, lettuce rhizosphere microbial diversity and root activity were enhanced while decreasing nitrate accumulation, thereby indirectly improving nutrient cycling and plant metabolic efficiency [74]. A study indicated that a beneficial microbe, Mycorrhizal spp., could improve the interaction with the plant root zone, enhancing nutrient uptake and plant resistance in the presence of higher DO levels [75]. These indicate that ONBs can even boost beneficial microbes by facilitating aerobic respiration, improving their colonization efficiency and functional performance.
In addition, pathogenic microorganisms thrive in terms of growth in the absence of significant levels of oxygen [23]. Higher DO levels in irrigation water improved the growth of beneficial bacteria in the root zone [62,67]. The increased proliferation of beneficial microbes in the plant’s root zone may trigger systemic signals, including phytohormones, and activate induced systemic resistance (ISR) in the plant’s distal regions. Several studies have reported reduced plant disease severity associated with oxygenated water [76]. For instance, in hydroponically grown tomatoes, oxygen treatment (5–7 mg L−1 DO) delivered via compressed air bubbling resulted in a twofold increase in root and shoot growth and significantly reduced Pythium spp. root colonization compared to non-aerated controls [77]. Similarly, Fraedrich and Tainter (1989) found that Pinus echinata and Pinus taeda grown under high DO levels (6.6–7.4 mg L−1) in holding tanks exhibited consistently lower susceptibility to Phytophthora cinnamomi, compared to those under low oxygen conditions (0–1 mg L−1 DO2) [78]. Although the mechanisms underlying disease suppression are not yet fully elucidated, oxygen-enriched environments may enhance plant defense responses by stimulating metabolic activity [79,80,81]. Furthermore, elevated oxygen levels can directly inhibit certain pathogens and microorganisms [82]. This indicates that ONBs mediate elevated DO levels in soilless substrates and hydroponic systems, fostering beneficial microbial activity and ultimately enhancing plant growth, health, and biotic stress resilience.

7. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

Sustainable irrigation systems are necessary to efficiently utilize water resources in agriculture, particularly for CEA, including soilless substrates and hydroponic systems. One of the most significant attributes of ONBs is their capacity to lower the surface tension of water, allowing them to penetrate deep in soil or soilless substrates, resulting in improved infiltration to the root zone where it is most needed. ONBs may enhance root respiration, nutrient absorption, and aerobic microbial activity, improving plant health for increased growth and yields [27,72]. Moreover, ONBs possess the potential to enhance water use efficiency and nutrient uptake, as their tiny size and high surface area permit improved water entry and distribution within the root zone. Nonetheless, implementing ONB technology presents challenges, including cost-effectiveness and scalability in CEA operations. Furthermore, the long-term crop-specific effects of these technologies in CEA, especially for soilless substrates and hydroponic systems, on plant health and microbial community dynamics require further investigation.
ONB technologies demonstrate significant progress in CEA production, especially in hydroponic cultivation, where plant roots are immersed in nutritional solutions, requiring aeration to maintain enough oxygen levels for enhanced productivity. ONBs may raise oxygen availability in the root zone, enhance plant physiological performance, optimize nutrient uptake, and improve water use efficiency, thereby promoting overall plant health. Furthermore, integrating ONBs with beneficial microorganisms in the root zone enhances plant resistance under stress-prone growth settings, notably in CEA, where many root-zone diseases can emerge and cause significant yield losses. Improved plant health, achieved through sustained optimal oxygen levels, will foster the growth of beneficial microbes that bolster plant immunity (Figure 2) and synergistically enhance CEA production. By adopting this approach, we can develop sustainable biobased management strategies to address root zone diseases in CEA and beyond.

Author Contributions

Writing the original draft, M.A.M.; conceptualization, writing critical revision and editing, supervision, project administration, T.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was financially supported by the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, startup funds allocated to Tabibul Islam.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Enhanced oxygen delivery and root development using oxygenated nanobubble technology in CEA. Applying irrigation water containing ordinary oxygenated bubbles results in limited water and oxygen diffusion and suboptimal root development in both soilless substrates (A) and deep-water hydroponic systems (C). In contrast, irrigation with oxygenated nanobubbles improves water and oxygen distribution throughout the substrate (B) and hydroponic solution (D), leading to enhanced root growth and more efficient oxygen utilization.
Figure 1. Enhanced oxygen delivery and root development using oxygenated nanobubble technology in CEA. Applying irrigation water containing ordinary oxygenated bubbles results in limited water and oxygen diffusion and suboptimal root development in both soilless substrates (A) and deep-water hydroponic systems (C). In contrast, irrigation with oxygenated nanobubbles improves water and oxygen distribution throughout the substrate (B) and hydroponic solution (D), leading to enhanced root growth and more efficient oxygen utilization.
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Figure 2. The effects of oxygenated nanobubbles versus ordinary oxygenated bubbles on plant growth and rhizosphere microbial communities. (A) Conventionally oxygenated water and (B) oxygenated nanobubble-enriched water in a soilless substrate; (C) conventional and (D) nanobubble-enriched water in deep-water hydroponic systems. (A,C) Ordinary oxygenated bubble application results in limited microbial diversity and weaker root development, with a higher presence of pathogenic microbes. (B,D) In contrast, oxygenated nanobubbles promote a more diverse and balanced rhizosphere microbial community, favoring beneficial microbes, enhanced root development, and improved plant vigor. Beneficial microbes are shown in green, and pathogenic microbes are shown in red.
Figure 2. The effects of oxygenated nanobubbles versus ordinary oxygenated bubbles on plant growth and rhizosphere microbial communities. (A) Conventionally oxygenated water and (B) oxygenated nanobubble-enriched water in a soilless substrate; (C) conventional and (D) nanobubble-enriched water in deep-water hydroponic systems. (A,C) Ordinary oxygenated bubble application results in limited microbial diversity and weaker root development, with a higher presence of pathogenic microbes. (B,D) In contrast, oxygenated nanobubbles promote a more diverse and balanced rhizosphere microbial community, favoring beneficial microbes, enhanced root development, and improved plant vigor. Beneficial microbes are shown in green, and pathogenic microbes are shown in red.
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Table 1. The list of common root zone diseases in hydroponic and soilless agriculture systems.
Table 1. The list of common root zone diseases in hydroponic and soilless agriculture systems.
DiseasesRelevant PathogensCropsImpactsReferences
Pythium Root RotPythium spp.Strawberries; lettuce; basilSignificant yield loss; plant death[11,12]
Fusarium WiltFusarium oxysporumStrawberries; tomatoReduced growth; wilting; plant death[12,13]
Rhizoctonia Root RotRhizoctonia solaniLettuce; tomato; ornamental plants; barley; canolaRoot rot; reduced yield[15,16,17]
Phytophthora Root RotPhytophthora spp.Strawberries; lettuceSevere root rot; plant collapse[32,33]
Bacterial WiltRalstonia solanacearumTomatoRapid wilting; plant death[38,39]
Verticillium WiltVerticillium dahliaeStrawberriesStunted growth; leaf chlorosis; yield loss[40]
Table 2. The list of different types of nanobubble generation techniques used in crop production systems.
Table 2. The list of different types of nanobubble generation techniques used in crop production systems.
Nanobubble Generation TechniquesDiameter of NanobubblesPrinciples of MethodsAdvantagesDisadvantagesReferences
Mechanical Stirring150–200 nmIntroducing gas into a liquid to generate bubblesSimple to implement; cost-effectiveFor a small amount of nanobubble production[50,51]
Nanoscale Pore Membrane360–720 nmImposing gas flow across nanoporous membranesPrecise control in size and distributionMembrane clogging[49,52]
Microfluidic MethodHighly controllable
<500 nm		Gas and liquid are combined in microchannels to produce controlled bubblesHigh precision in size; integrated with other processesComplex and expensive[53]
Acoustic Cavitation200–301 nmUtilizing ultrasonic waves to generate bubbles by rapid compression and expansionRapid production of nanobubbles; energy-efficientRequires specialized equipment and limited size control[54]
Hydrodynamic Cavitation<200–301 nmChanges in pressure inside a fluid induce cavitation, resulting in the formation of bubblesSimple to implement and low-costFlow rate and pressure could impact the production[54,55]
Dissolved Gas ReleaseDepending on gas solubilityDissolving gas at elevated pressure, followed by pressure release to generate bubblesSimple; inexpensiveLimited size control[44]
Periodic Pressure VariationSize decreases with exposure.Periodically adjusting pressure to facilitate the dissolution and precipitation of bubblesPrecise control in uniform bubble productionSmall-scale production[56]
Hydraulic Air CompressionIncreases in outlet pipe heightGas is hydraulically compressed and combined with liquid to generate bubblesCost-effective production of nanobubbles at low costLimited control of size and distribution[48]
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Mamun, M.A.; Islam, T. Oxygenated Nanobubbles as a Sustainable Strategy to Strengthen Plant Health in Controlled Environment Agriculture. Sustainability 2025, 17, 5275. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125275

AMA Style

Mamun MA, Islam T. Oxygenated Nanobubbles as a Sustainable Strategy to Strengthen Plant Health in Controlled Environment Agriculture. Sustainability. 2025; 17(12):5275. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125275

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mamun, Md Al, and Tabibul Islam. 2025. "Oxygenated Nanobubbles as a Sustainable Strategy to Strengthen Plant Health in Controlled Environment Agriculture" Sustainability 17, no. 12: 5275. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125275

APA Style

Mamun, M. A., & Islam, T. (2025). Oxygenated Nanobubbles as a Sustainable Strategy to Strengthen Plant Health in Controlled Environment Agriculture. Sustainability, 17(12), 5275. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17125275

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