Implementing Education for Sustainable Development in Organizations of Adult and Continuing Education: Perspectives of Leaders in China, Germany, and the USA

Abstract

Societies need to develop more sustainable ways of living, working, and doing business. Education for sustainable development (ESD) plays a pivotal role in this endeavor. The aim is to provide people with the necessary knowledge, values, and skills for the needed transformation. Therefore, organizations of adult and continuing education must address issues of climate protection and sustainability in their programs and act accordingly in the way the organization is managed. This article reports on a qualitative study that involves leaders of adult education institutions in China, Germany, and the USA. This study seeks to investigate what these leaders do and how they act to implement ESD in their organizations. It specifically looks at current challenges, management strategies, beliefs, and values of the leaders. The results of this study show that leaders of adult and continuing education organizations recognize the need to address sustainability in adult education. However, they face many challenges in implementing ESD, including a lack of resources (e.g., finances and staff), structural barriers, and difficulties in reaching new target groups. Despite these challenges, many participants strive to develop their organizations in a more sustainable way, such as through curriculum design and campus management. Some leaders take a comprehensive approach, guided by the Whole Institution Approach, by integrating ESD into their institution’s vision and mission, establishing dedicated working groups, and forming new partnerships with external stakeholders. Overall, this study highlights the crucial role of leadership in advancing sustainability efforts.

1. Introduction

The planetary boundaries framework defines a “safe operating space for humanity with respect to the Earth system”. It identifies “nine processes that are critical for maintaining the stability and resilience of Earth system as a whole” [1] (p. 472). A recent study shows that the Earth is currently “beyond six of nine planetary boundaries” and that humanity thus is leaving safe operating space [2] (p. 1). Maintaining the stability of the Earth system will require a substantial change in the ways societies make use of the natural resources of our planet. Considering the multiple crises, in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the community of states represented in the United Nations (UN) agreed on Sustainable Development as a guiding principle for their development [3]. In 2015, 193 nations agreed on the Agenda 2030 and 17 global goals (with 169 sub-goals) for sustainable development (SDGs—Sustainable Development Goals) [4].

SDG 4 is Quality Education, with the subgoal 4.7, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). ESD is expected to support the transformation of societies towards more sustainable ways of thinking, working, and living. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) understands ESD as “an integral element of the ambitious SDGs” that connects SDG4 with all other SDGs [5] (p. 14).

In its current program, “ESD 2030”, UNESCO advocates for Whole Institution Approaches (WIA) to ESD, aiming not only at the implementation of ESD in curricula, teaching, and learning, but also in the way the organization is managed. In this regard, all structures and processes of an educational organization need to be evaluated and aligned with sustainability principles [5].

Regarding the necessary societal transformation, adult and continuing education are particularly important. It is adults, not children and young people, who today are responsible for decisions in politics, business, and science, and who shape social development. For this reason, adults, in particular, must learn about sustainable development. The transformation of our societies to sustainability can only succeed if all citizens develop the necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills. Organizations of adult and continuing education must, therefore, address the need for societal transformation toward sustainability in their curricula and programs. They should offer seminars and workshops that provide opportunities for adults to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to drive meaningful change in their homes, workplaces, and communities.

Despite the eminent importance of adult and continuing education, this stage on the continuum of lifelong learning is neither the focus of ESD policies on the global and country level, nor is it a prominent field of research. This is especially true for the specific aspect of leadership for ESD in adult and continuing education.

Against this background, this study aims to explore the practices of organizations of adult and continuing education in China, Germany, and the USA. It addresses the leaders of such institutions and inquires about their specific views, attitudes, and actions related to the implementation of ESD within their institutions.

2. ESD in Adult and Continuing Education

Despite the high significance of adult and continuing education regarding the necessary transformation towards sustainability, current UNESCO documents, such as “ESD for 2030”, seem to largely neglect this field of education. The Agenda 2030 addresses “all learners” but does not explicitly refer to adults. In an article entitled “Lifelong Learning for Sustainable Development—is Adult Education left behind?”, Lovren and Popović pointed out the following:

“… adult education is not even mentioned, except as a peripheral addition to the indicator providing the number of people that should acquire new skills, and in the literacy target… The fact that adult education has also ‘disappeared’ from other major international documents and programs not only influences the achievements of the educational goals but also jeopardizes the implementation of all other SDGs”.

[6] (p. 1)

The European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA), however, emphasizes the important role of Adult Education for SD and illustrates this with an instructive example:

“Adult learning contributes to the achievement of all SDGs by building the foundations of change in the social, political, economic, ecological and cultural spheres. Promoting sustainable agriculture, to take SDG 2 as an example, requires targeted educational measures on the sides of the producers as well as the consumers to acquire a better understanding of ecosystems and their improvement or protection through farming methods and consumption behavior”.

[7] (p. 2)

The same applies to all other SDGs, e.g., Goal No 3: Health and Well-being, as the following examples show. Neither the prevention and avoidance of infectious diseases nor the treatment of patients with novel diseases, such as, lately, the COVID-19 pandemic, can be successfully managed without appropriate further training for doctors and nurses.

To promote sustainable development and support the SDGs, adult and continuing education centers should expand their activities and implement training strategies like experiential and problem-based learning, encouraging hands-on projects in areas such as renewable energy, waste management, or circular economy. Interdisciplinary approaches can help learners understand the connections between environmental, social, and economic issues. Community engagement through partnerships with businesses, NGOs, and local governments fosters real-world application. Advocacy training empowers individuals to influence policies and professional development programs. These strategies can help adults improve their knowledge and skills to drive meaningful change in their communities [7].

To strengthen the role of adult education in the societal transformation toward sustainability, several measures can be implemented: Integrating Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into curricula ensures that sustainability topics are systematically covered across programs. Expanding professional development opportunities equips educators and leaders with the necessary expertise to teach sustainability effectively. Increased funding and resources help overcome financial and structural barriers that limit the impact of sustainability initiatives. Strengthening community engagement through partnerships with businesses, NGOs, and local governments fosters real-world learning opportunities. Flexible learning formats, including online courses and blended models, enhance accessibility for diverse learners. Policy advocacy efforts can further promote sustainable development by encouraging civic participation and informed decision-making. Additionally, applying the Whole Institution Approach aligns institutional vision, operations, and curriculum with sustainability principles. Implementing these measures enhances the contribution of adult education to the transition toward a more sustainable society [7].

The situation of adult and continuing education within the member states of the UN is very diverse. The status of ESD in the three countries where our study took place is discussed in the following section.

3. Adult and Continuing Education in China, Germany, and the United States

Adult and continuing education systems vary significantly across the three countries studied. Even though we do not follow a strictly comparative approach, it is helpful to have a general idea about the different systems. Therefore, we give a short overview of adult and continuing education in China, Germany, and the United States. Due to the limited space, we can only briefly sketch the situation. Our intention is not to make a holistic comparison between the three countries but to provide some background information so that the findings of our study can be interpreted in their respective contexts. Readers, however, are encouraged to make interpretations and comparisons of the adult and continuing education between the three countries through our descriptions.

3.1. Adult and Continuing Education in China

Chinese adult education was put into the legislature in 1949 when the People’s Republic of China was founded to help illiterate workers and peasants, who accounted for 80% of the Chinese population at that time [8]. With the legislature, Chinese adult education has witnessed early development in the next 20 years until the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s, when higher education was halted. After the official announcement of the end of the Cultural Revolution, adult education underwent fast development in the 1978–1987 period and was recognized as an essential condition for the development of economics, science, and technology [8].

Adult and continuing education is important not only because people have more time to learn after tertiary education, but also because it has a more significant impact on the promotion of a country’s citizenship [9]. In China, there were more than 40,000 public learning institutions for adult and continuing education with 4.3 million enrolled learners [10]. This number cannot meet the needs of the ever-growing population of retired older adults [11]. According to Chen and Morgan (2023), 13% of the Chinese population was over 65 years in 2021 [12]. As a result, private adult education institutions emerged in the last decade [11]. The adult and continuing education in China has witnessed a rapid growth during the last 40 years as China has undergone unprecedented industrialization and modernization, as people are looking for more meaningful lives and a better self that contributes to a harmonious society and nation [13]. The adult education system was adopted nationwide in 1995 and has been found in various formats: radio, TV, internet, vocational higher education institutions, distance learning institutions, training programs, or the College of Education in some universities.

In addition, many companies also offer continuing education for their employees to train skills needed for the job because no school system can fully prepare people for lifelong participation in society [8]. When the relationship between China and the former Soviet Union deteriorated in the 1950s, nearly 12,000 Soviet advisors and technicians in industry withdrew, leaving a lack of workers with essential skills. Many universities, such as the Harbin Institute of Technology, offered 3–5-month crash courses for directors and deputy directors of factories to learn advanced skills. Many companies also offered continuing education for their own employees to master the skills needed for the job. Recently, continuing education has become very important, with more and more jobless people looking for job opportunities. These people are looking for quick training in essential skills that will enable them to find jobs. The programs offer certificates and career advancement for graduates from regular schools and universities.

In agriculture, however, Chinese adult education was originally developed to help the illiterate peasants to read. After the cultural revolution, China’s agricultural output increased dramatically and the annual income of an average peasant more than doubled. This has created a stronger need for adult education, which provided training in agricultural knowledge and skills to make more products or to grow new products.

The adult education policy was set by the Chinese government [8], but each region (province or city) has the freedom to implement it according to need and budget. Chinese adult education also provides opportunities for people to enhance their lives. The popular programs are about law, public health, arts, cooking, planting, hair dressing, martial arts, etc. In some regions, for example, the local government pays tuition for their people to attend these classes on a limited basis.

ESD was developed as a response to the vision of UNESCO to build inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all in 2015. However, ESD has not become the focus of Chinese scholars [14]. Zhou (2021) claimed that the environmental dimension of ESD was incorporated in the kindergarten curriculum in China, but ignored the social and economic dimensions of ESD [15]. ESD in China has shifted from environmental education to education for sustainable development [16]. There are three main means to promote ESD in China: formal curriculum, informal curriculum, and campus curriculum [14]. The formal curriculum refers to courses and academic programs in educational institutions. The informal curriculum involves all kinds of activities that impact the learner experience. The campus curriculum provides learning opportunities on the university’s campus [17]. In China, the central government plays an important role in ESD through public policy and regulations [14]. For example, the Chinese Ministry of Education published a notice to establish water-saving education and soil conservation education for primary and secondary schools in 2011 and asked schools to deepen the activities of saving food, water, and electricity in 2013. Although the interpretations of ESD and the relationship between economic growth and sustainable development shifted toward economic growth, resources and the environment have always been the core issues in China [14].

3.2. Adult and Continuing Education in Germany

Due to Germany’s federal structure, the 16 states (Länder) enact legislation on education independently from the Federal Government’s authority. The Federal Government is responsible for continuing vocational education outside the school sector, research on continuing education, and statistics. Since there is no centralized system of adult education, the situation is difficult to summarize [18] (p. 4).

Adult education in Germany is provided by a variety of organizations with a wide range of interests in continuing education. Key providers include trade unions, chambers of industry and commerce, company-based and commercial providers, as well as religious organizations, voluntary initiatives, alternative groups, and institutions of higher education, such as universities (ibid., p. 8). Many of these institutions are organized in umbrella organizations, such as the Catholic Adult Education of Germany (Katholische Erwachsenenbildung—KEB Deutschland), the umbrella organization for institutions of adult and continuing education run by entities of the Catholic Church [19].

A typical institution is the German Volkshochschule (VHS), an adult education center found in almost every city, run by the city itself or a registered non-profit association. More than 900 VHS offer evening classes and weekend workshops, focusing on subjects like languages, German as a second language, health courses, culture and creativity, politics, and many more. An important field is basic education for adults who, for various reasons, did not have the opportunity to complete their education as children (e.g., reading, writing, calculating for adults, school-leaving qualifications; Deutscher Volkshochschul Verband n.d.). VHSs are funded by the city, the state, and participant fees. The VHSs are organized in umbrella organizations in each of the 16 states (in the following “state association”) and in the German Association of Adult Education [20]. The DVV also maintains the Institute for International Cooperation (DVV International), which provides worldwide support for the establishment and development of sustainable structures for Youth and Adult Education and cooperates with more than 200 partners in over 30 countries in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Europe [21].

Germany has a long tradition of offering education on environmental issues, peace, and justice. Starting in the 1970s, related to protests by environmental, peace, and anti-nuclear movements, some initiatives began developing self-organized education. Soon after, established organizations of adult education started offering programs to discuss these issues. Projects developed teaching and learning materials, as well as course concepts for such offerings (e.g., Landesverband der Volkshochschulen Niedersachsens) [22]. Environmental protection and nature conservation associations established academies focusing on ecology. Ever since, most adult education organizations have offered programs covering topics of environmental education. ESD broadens the focus from purely ecological topics to include social and economic aspects. However, despite the long history of environmental education in Germany, ESD has not yet become very common in German Adult and Continuing Education.

Regarding policies, the National Action Plan on ESD (NAP) [23] explicitly mentions Adult Education at several points. Referring to a paper of the DVV, the plan suggests that adult education centers incorporate sustainable development in their mission statements and programs. The DVV commits itself to compiling information materials on the NAP and developing modules for adult education centers (ibid., pp. 70, 109). The national ESD monitoring recommends linking further education more closely with ESD via state laws. There are links to this in terms of content in various federal states [24] (p. 2).

Regarding offerings of adult education centers, there are major differences between individual organizations. Overall, the scope of the offerings does not correspond to the importance of the topic [25]. Recently, ESD in adult education has become a more prominent topic in research [26].

Some current projects on ESD in adult education are focusing on the whole institution approach. DVV International, with five international partners and six German Volkshochschulen, carried out the project “International ESD Alliances”. The project supported organizations in implementing the whole institution approach to ESD. As a result, materials such as the “Guidebook sustainabALE” and various working tools were developed to support the implementation of ESD following the WIA. These materials can now be used by other organizations as well [27,28].

3.3. Adult and Continuing Education in the United States

In the United States, the U.S. Department of Education has established the national goal that all American adults develop the basic skills needed to be productive workers, family members, and citizens [29,30]. Those basic skills include reading, writing, mathematics, English language competency, and problem-solving [31,32].

Within the U.S. Department of Education, the Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education (OCTAE) administers and coordinates programs that are related to adult education and literacy, career and technical education, and community colleges [33]. By establishing national leadership activities and helping states to improve program quality, accountability, and capacity, the OCTAE is responsible for enabling adults to acquire the basic skills necessary to function in today’s society so that they can benefit from the completion of secondary school, enhanced family life, attaining citizenship and participating in job training and retraining programs [29].

Individual states within the United States offer an array of adult education opportunities for their citizens [34,35]. Official state websites typically direct people to classes, programs, and organizations to assist in the goal of basic skill development for all adults.

The priorities of adult education vary significantly within states. Those priorities may include (a) vocational, technical, and professional competence; (b) health, welfare, and family living; (c) civic, political, and community competence; (d) fundamental literacy skills remediation; and (e) personal interest or self-development/fulfillment [36,37].

Despite attempts to ensure adult education opportunities for all citizens, several barriers to adult education exist for some adults [29,38]. In some cases, limited financial resources prohibit the pursuit of adult education. Because their time is spent pursuing work and personal obligations, many adults lack the time to engage in adult education activities. Without clear guidance or direction, some adults lack clarity on academic and/or career goals. Finally, some adults fail to become involved in adult education because they doubt their ability to succeed in an academic environment [31,34].

In 2016, the Coalition for Lifelong Learning Organizations (2024) [39], in collaboration with the International Council on Adult Education, sponsored an international symposium to share strategies and resources for meeting the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [40]. Several prominent organizations involved in ESD in the United States (i.e., U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Sierra Club, the Nature Conservancy, the National Audubon Society, the National Center for Environmental Education, and several institutions associated with the American Association for Adult and Continuing Education) attended the symposium [41,42]. One outcome of the gathering was a determination that ESD in adult and continuing education in the United States should provide learners with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to foster sustainable development and address global challenges such as climate change, social inequality, and economic instability [43]. ESD should exist in the context of a global effort to integrate sustainability into education at all levels, guided by UNESCO’s principles of ESD and the United Nations’ SDGs [42,44].

Despite this vision, ESD implementation in the United States has been erratic. In many educational environments involving adults, ESD is often viewed as non-essential to organizational success and profits [45,46]. Despite the importance of preserving our resources and making existing assets last as long as possible, many organizations fail to realize that the accomplishment of those goals will enhance their success and profit margins [47]. As a result, employee hiring practices often do not consider knowledge of or even support for sustainability among prospective employees. As a result, many organizations are devoid of any emphasis on resource preservation, resulting in the unnecessary and often preventable loss of life-sustaining resources [48]. Furthermore, adult organizational leaders in the United States are often neither educated nor trained on ESD. If leaders fail to prioritize the need for sustainability in their organizations, rarely will their employees seek opportunities to conserve or protect resources [49].

In addition to failing to prioritize ESD, many U.S. organizations and corporations fail to follow their own policies intended to ensure the existence of ESD in their work environments [50,51]. Requirements specified in organizational strategic plans and bylaws that were designed to ensure that precious resources are preserved are often ignored. In addition, the amount of time devoted to learning how to implement ESD is often insufficient [52]. In many organizations, employees receive little or no education or training on sustainability topics. Generalized employee training gives superficial attention to ESD, and resources are not typically allocated to ESD implementation.

Only a few organizations in the United States have successfully incorporated ESD in their adult education programs. Practices that have resulted in this success have included designing reward structures within the organization that encourage and recognize the contributions of ESD [53]. Some adult education programs emphasize the cost savings to individuals if they support sustainability goals. Other programs focus on the need to protect natural resources for use by future generations [45]. A few organizations have branded themselves as environmentally conscious and often cater to constituencies whose views align with their interests in sustainability [49].

4. Theoretical Background

In its current program, “ESD 2030”, UNESCO points out that “ESD is about much more than preaching and teaching on sustainable development. It is also about practicing sustainable development” [5] (p. 28). Therefore, one of the five priority fields of the program is “Transforming learning and training environments”:

To encourage learners to become change agents who have the knowledge, means, willingness and courage to take transformative action for sustainable development, learning institutions need, themselves, to be transformed. The entire learning institution needs to be aligned with sustainable development principles, so that learning content and its pedagogies are reinforced by the way facilities are managed and how decisions are made within the institution. This Whole Institution Approach to ESD calls for learning environments where “learners learn what they live and live what they learn” [5] (p. 28).

Accordingly, UNESCO advocates for WIA to ESD in all types of educational institutions. During the last two decades, many articles have conceptualized this approach in different ways. Based on a systematic literature review, Holst (2023) [54] identified key characteristics of WIA approaches and clustered them in five core principles (i.e., coherence, continuous learning, participation, responsibility, long-term commitment) and seven highly integrated areas of action (i.e., governance, curriculum, campus, community, research, communication, capacity building) [54] (p. 1015). He summarizes the WIA as “participatory and integrative processes of learning how to live, act, and co-create sustainability within and around educational organizations” (ibid., p. 1026).

Current conceptualizations of WIAs mainly focus on schools [55,56] and higher education [57,58]. Although some organizations of adult and continuing education offer environmental education courses, the achievement of ESD depends not only on education but also on the actions, which means that the organizations need to practice environment-friendly behaviors [59]. In adult education, the concept of the WIA has rarely been adopted. Only in recent years have articles and working materials been published that support organizations on their path to holistically integrate sustainability in the organization [21,60]. However, there is no empirical knowledge of how organizations of adult and continuing education work with the WIA and how they use it for the implementation of ESD.

The holistic transformation of an educational organization into a learning environment that integrates sustainability in all its structures and processes requires a comprehensive organizational development process that encourages and supports all individuals and stakeholders of the organization: learners, staff, external partners, the community within which the organization is located, etc. [61]. Initiating, supporting, and maintaining such a process of organizational development towards sustainability that effectively involves the whole organization and leads to substantial transformation requires leadership [62]. Studies that explored leadership for ESD in schools point out that the role of the principal in establishing and promoting ESD is crucial [56,63,64]. Principals must create a shared vision related to ESD within their school, organize a participative process, develop a holistic concept, anchor sustainability in structures and processes, emphasize ESD in daily life, support teachers in the application of ESD, and facilitate students’ engagement [65]. Other studies emphasize that ESD is a collegial effort and requires teamwork [66] and, therefore, requires corresponding leadership approaches such as distributed leadership [56,67] and responsible leadership [63].

There are no comparable empirical studies regarding leadership for ESD in adult and continuing education, but it is safe to assume that, in this field of education, leaders play a similar important role.

Holst’s framework for WIAs in general includes Participatory and Proactive Governance as one of seven areas of action and lists as central aspects: top-down and bottom-up, participatory decision making, vision and mission, audits, action plan, policies, monitoring, and celebration [54].

DVV International, focusing on the WIA for organizations of adult education, describes four priority areas: 1. Educational program, 2. Management, 3. Teaching and Work Environment, and 4. Networks. Regarding area 2, Management, the authors list a variety of areas that can be aligned more closely with sustainability as part of a WIA: values, mission statement, decision-making culture, participation, diversity, quality development, personnel development, communication, finances, and quality management [27].

In both conceptualizations of the WIA, values, in general, and responsibility, in particular, are mentioned as essential for the process.

WIA is rooted in systems thinking and organizational learning theories, emphasizing that sustainability should be integrated holistically into all aspects of an institution—its governance, teaching and learning, community engagement, and operations. This makes it a useful conceptual framework for understanding how ESD can be embedded into adult education organizations beyond isolated programs or curricula. However, while WIA provides a strong theoretical foundation, there is rarely any knowledge of how organizations of adult and continuing education use the approach for the implementation of ESD.

Against this background, it is the purpose of this study to take an initial look into perspectives and practices of leaders of organizations of adult and continuing education concerning the implementation of ESD in their organization. Thereby, the WIA provides the theoretical background for the development of the research questions and the interview guide, as well as for the analysis of the collected data.

5. Methods

5.1. Participants

Despite considerable effort, recruiting participants for this study proved to be quite challenging. In all three countries, we initially contacted several hundred potential participants (leaders in adult and continuing education) directly through postal mail, email, and WeChat (a social media platform similar to Facebook, widely used in China). However, due to a very low response rate, we diversified our strategies across the three countries, using both convenience sampling and a snowball sampling approach.

In China, seven participants responded to our written interview questions (Appendix A). After analyzing their initial responses, we sent follow-up interview questions to these seven participants, five of whom responded. The participants represented higher education (n = 2), companies (n = 2), and government offices (n = 1).

In Germany, contact was eventually established by reaching out to adult education associations, which were asked to forward the participation request to managers of their member organizations. Additionally, contacts from ESD networks were asked to share the invitation. In the end, 32 leaders from Volkshochschulen (adult education centers, Section 3.2) participated in the written interviews. Video interviews were also conducted with six individuals who expressed a willingness to participate. The sample includes participants from small, medium-sized, and large organizations.

In the USA, most participants were recruited from universities and institutions offering adult education programs. After several follow-up messages, 16 participants completed the written interviews. They were later contacted via phone and invited to participate in follow-up written interviews, of which 10 agreed. Of the 16 participants, 15 worked in higher education or university settings, while one was employed in a company. The participants held a range of positions, including Academic Advisors, Directors of sustainability programs, and professors, providing a broad perspective on how sustainability is integrated into higher education institutions.

Due to the challenges in accessing the target group, the samples from the three countries are diverse and not directly comparable. Nonetheless, the participants provided rich data, offering valuable insights into how ESD is implemented in adult and continuing education in China, Germany, and the USA. Furthermore, the use of convenience and snowball sampling likely introduced biases, as participants were recruited through personal networks, potentially leading to a sample that overrepresents certain groups and perspectives while excluding others. This concern is particularly relevant to the German sample, which included participants who were involved in an ESD-related project and recommended others they knew who were also part of this network.

5.2. Research Questions

Against the aforementioned background, this study aims to answer the main research question: How is ESD implemented in organizations of adult and continuing education, and how do leaders address the topic? More specifically, we pursued the following sub-research questions:

• What are the current challenges of the organization from a management and leadership perspective?
• How is ESD within the organization implemented and in the context of organizational development addressed?
• What leadership strategies do leaders apply to introduce and/or sustain ESD within their organizations?
• What are the personal values and beliefs of the leaders in the context of implementing ESD within the organization?

5.3. Procedures

Since the field of research is new and less developed, this study is based on a descriptive-explorative approach, combining a written online interview [68,69] and video interviews [70]. All participants took part in the written online interview, and a small group of them also participated in the video interviews. For uniformity in the collection and analysis of data, the German interview guide for both procedures was translated into English and Chinese and retranslated into German in order to ensure the greatest possible consistency. The questions allowed open-ended responses. According to the explorative character of this study, the interviewers in the video interviews were also enabled to pursue upcoming unexpected topics and in such collect additional information that helped to deepen our understanding. In each country, the interviews were conducted by the same researcher.

For data analysis, we used an inductive and descriptive-explorative approach [71,72,73]. The researchers from the three countries collaborated using a unified category system. To ensure intercoder reliability, the category system was ultimately refined through comparisons of researchers’ individual preliminary work during several virtual roundtable discussions. Additionally, they aligned and examined selected estimates, interpretations, and inquiries, as well as the presentation of research findings, following a methodological approach that was both descriptive and exploratory. Emphasis was placed on cross-case comparisons, with numerous quotations carefully selected to support the results.

For the analysis of the answers to the main research question, regarding ESD implementation, six of the main categories were deducted from Holst’s framework for WIAs, as explained in Section 4, theoretical background. Subcategories were developed inductively from the interview material.

Table 1. Category system.

Research Question	Main Categories	Subcategories
Current challenges	General challenge Challenge regarding ESD	Structural barriers Funding Effort Financial resources
ESD implementation	Used models Governance Curriculum	WIA Model of State Association Mission statement Organizational goals ESD integrated across program Link program to SDGs
Leadership strategies	Established management strategies ESD specific	Discussion in team meetings Training Participation in state project Learning from others
Personal values and believes	Personal Professional	Motivation Biographical Societal transformation Responsibility of the organization

shows the category system related to the research questions.

6. Findings

6.1. Current Challenges

In response to the initial question regarding general challenges the institution is currently facing, the study participants described a variety of difficulties. In all three countries, structural barriers, funding problems, and staff shortages were repeatedly mentioned. In answering the question, many participants not only stated general challenges but also referred to ESD and sustainability.

In China, the biggest challenge is economic growth. With the booming of private industries, every company is seeking the greatest profit at the lowest cost. This makes ESD difficult to implement in continuing education in the industry. The government regulation of environmental protection was not consistent, sometimes strict, but sometimes loose. One participant, a manager of a wastewater treatment company, said, “there was a river with clean water in my hometown. After the establishment of a factory that produces batteries, the water became dark and toxic. Occasionally, the factory was fined for letting the wastewater into the river, but the fine was minimal in comparison to the economic gain”. As a leader of the wastewater treatment company, our participant has visited many factories introducing their products to help clean the water before letting it into the river.

Another challenge is the connection between education and practice. In China, ESD for the environment or ecology was included in adult education programs as a required course. However, adult learners took these courses as prerequisites for certificates, which might help them with career advancement. The students could memorize the content and do well in the exam to earn the credit, but would hardly apply it in life. As one participant said: “our students could do well in the exam for the ESD courses but still litter right after the exam. They could hardly connect knowledge and practice”.

In Germany, participants highlighted two legal changes that could threaten the existence of adult education institutions: (a) the possible imposition of VAT on certain offerings, which would significantly increase costs and deter participants, and (b) the status of freelance lecturers. The German Pension Insurance is currently reviewing the employment status of freelance instructors at many institutions and, in several cases, has determined that they should be considered employees subject to social insurance contributions. This would require the institutions to permanently employ these instructors, which would be considerably more expensive and unaffordable for many.

Additionally, German participants also mentioned challenges such as the need to renovate buildings and reach new target groups. One participant summarized the latter as follows: “The target group of 18 to late 20-year-olds doesn’t know us as an educational institution. As a result, it’s difficult to reach them. Even when appropriate courses are offered, this target group doesn’t take notice. At the same time, our ‘outdated image’ is still being reinforced too often”.

In the US, the findings on the top challenges in organizations, as perceived by organizational leaders, highlight structural barriers and political constraints. One participant noted, “The main challenge is organizational; the structure of the university is still collegiate and largely disciplinary with traditional norms of what constitutes ‘success’ in the academy”. Another participant echoed, “The institution does not incentivize new course development”. These structural challenges create barriers to fostering the interdisciplinary approaches needed for ESD.

The political climate surrounding sustainability was another commonly cited barrier in the United States. As one participant expressed, the idea that “The current way that sustainability has been cast in a political light and the negative attitudes towards it from that perspective” creates resistance to implementing ESD.

6.2. Implementation of ESD in the Organization

In response to our second main question, participants described a wide range of ways in which ESD is implemented in their organizations, providing numerous examples to illustrate them. In the following sections, we group the results according to six of the seven areas of action identified by Holst (2023) [54] in his analysis of WIA conceptualizations. Holst notes that the seventh area, research, pertains only to universities.

6.2.1. Governance

Participants described various approaches in which they address sustainability and ESD in the governance of their institutions. Several have integrated ESD into their mission statements. In one organization, the management board developed and signed a statement of commitment to ESD. Some leaders reported that they aligned the organizational goals with the SDGs, while others embedded holistic ESD implementation as a strategic objective within their Quality Management systems. A few organizations developed explicit sustainability strategies, with goals broken down across the organization. Several institutions established steering committees or working groups focused on ESD or specific related topics. One participant explicitly mentioned WIA as a guiding principle, while, in several other cases, this could be inferred from participants’ explanations.

One German participant remarked that “It is a balancing act to create the right level of guidance and insight to drive organizational change towards sustainability”. One Chinese participant added, “we have to establish policies to govern the people because there are so many people in China, and we cannot expect all of them to protect our environment”.

Some institutions emphasize the importance of leadership and strategic planning in driving sustainability. One US participant shared, “We try to improve the sustainability of our institution itself and lead by example, implementing our climate action plan and reducing emissions”. Others highlighted the role of senior leadership in guiding the integration of sustainability principles across all areas of the institution, including business practices, investments, and educational programming. Another participant explained that their institution is involved in “research, engaged learning, marketing, and communication” to spread awareness and encourage sustainability action.

6.2.2. Curriculum

Several participants began their answers by discussing the types of programs they consider suitable for ESD and wish to implement. One German leader summarized it as follows: “Holistic, participatory educational processes that enable people of all ages to think and act sustainably and responsibly, in the spirit of lifelong learning”.

Some organizations have integrated ESD into their programs as a fixed component, often in a dedicated section like “Ecology and Nature Education”. Others have incorporated ESD into their general programs, with some institutions adopting both strategies. Topics mentioned include photovoltaics, wind energy, power grid expansion, e-mobility, energy-saving practices, the German heating law, heat pumps, proper wood heating, and “Climate Change on Our Doorstep: What Can I Do?”. Environmental aspects of sustainability appear to dominate the offerings in all three countries. In a Chinese university, three programs were implemented in the continuing education: planting green, water guard, and exploring the green field. The planting green program helps to transfer theoretical knowledge of environmental protection, and the water guard program calls on the people to save water through daily propaganda. The exploring green field program organizes activities in the green spaces of the campus to arouse students’ feelings for nature. A Chinese participant said, “we take our students to a park nearby to learn about the plants and water, hoping to help them develop a love for nature and the environment we are living in”.

A few organizations adopt a broader understanding of sustainability and link their offerings to the SDGs (e.g., SDG 3: “Fit Thanks to a Baby”, SDG 7: Energy-efficient Home Renovation, SDG 12: “Repair-Café”). Some organizations hold program-planning conferences to develop interdisciplinary offerings, while others collaborate with external partners to design their programs, develop new offerings, and reach out to new target groups.

One US participant described how their organization “recently established our first faculty workshop about integrating sustainability into the curriculum”. These workshops help faculty incorporate sustainability into their courses, ensuring that ESD is infused across disciplines. Some institutions also offer guest lectures and use the campus as a laboratory to provide practical examples of sustainability in action.

Some organizations adopt a systems thinking approach to teaching sustainability. One US participant explained, “We follow a systems thinking approach, route our interdisciplinary instruction in environmental science, and strive to achieve sustainability across the curriculum”. This holistic method aims to integrate sustainability content across all disciplines and fields of study, encouraging a comprehensive understanding of environmental and social issues.

Many respondents voiced a desire for inclusive and interdisciplinary approaches to ESD. One US participant noted that, even as a music historian, they incorporate environmental and sustainability issues into their teaching, arguing that anyone from any field should be able to do so. This belief underscores the importance of integrating sustainability into all aspects of education, not just traditional environmental or scientific disciplines. Another participant also discussed the creation of a sustainability course designation, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of these courses and their importance in fostering critical thinking about sustainability challenges.

Many organizations integrate ESD across disciplines, offering opportunities for experiential learning, leadership programs, and engaged research. One participant explained, “In coursework, degree programs, co-curricular leadership programming, and experiential learning for university students and lifelong learners”. These initiatives help bridge the gap between theory and practice, providing students with real-world experience in sustainability challenges and solutions.

Participants highlighted several challenges, particularly the difficulty of reaching specific target groups, such as young people and diverse communities. They also mentioned that developing new topics depends heavily on program managers’ commitment to ESD. As one German leader has put it, “If they are not committed to ESD, it’s difficult”. Offering free ESD events, as noted above, presents a challenge, as alternative funding sources are needed to cover costs.

Many organizations in all three countries have had the experience that ESD offerings are not in high demand. To address this, leaders employ various strategies to maintain these programs. Some German organizations offer ESD events free of charge, while others focus on hands-on activities, such as nature experiences, where sustainability can be “grasped” physically. Popular programs include thematic hikes (e.g., on herbs), bike tours, visits to notable natural sites (e.g., moors), cooking courses, or “kitchen parties” where people cook and eat together, but also learn about sustainable nutrition. While these hands-on activities are popular, it was noted that they often cannot address more complex sustainability topics. Another strategy that was reported as successful is to focus on regional issues related to nature or sustainability.

6.2.3. Campus

In terms of purchasing, organizations have adopted several sustainable practices, such as prioritizing regional and local products, including paper, and choosing items that are organic or Fairtrade certified. Efforts are made to ensure transparent supply chains, and there is a growing trend towards incorporating second-hand items. Additionally, some organizations are working on developing comprehensive concepts for sustainable procurement to further enhance their purchasing strategies.

For facility management, a strong emphasis is placed on waste reduction, including minimizing plastic and paper use and promoting waste separation in seminar rooms and administrative offices. Recycling initiatives are in place for items like corks, bottle caps, cell phones, and presentation pens. Organizations are also transitioning to energy-efficient LED lighting, though this is not always fully under their control. There is a move towards paperless offices and solar energy adoption. Critical discussions about program booklet production—addressing circulation, printing methods, paper selection, and transport—are taking place. Some organizations now print only program overviews, with detailed information available online, and digital teaching solutions, such as the VHS cloud, are provided to reduce paper use. One Chinese participant said, “My company has limited every employee’s use of paper daily. Digital documents are encouraged in meetings and communication”.

At events, several sustainability practices have been implemented. Fair trade coffee and tea are offered, and water is served in carafes from a water dispenser. Drinks are provided in returnable bottles to reduce waste. Catering is sometimes sourced from an inclusive catering company, with a focus on vegetarian options and organic products from regional cultivation. In terms of mobility, carpooling and the use of public transport are encouraged to promote more sustainable travel options.

Participant involvement in sustainability projects was mentioned infrequently. However, one German participant stated the following: “We are planning a wall of ideas for both participants and employees, where they can contribute input on various topics. This way, interested parties can provide ideas on sustainability, share their opinions, and be involved in the development of our institution”.

Some organizations also encourage student involvement in sustainability through extracurricular activities, internships, capstone projects, and by using the campus as a living lab. A US participant highlighted, “We coordinate with Facilities and Academia, and support our Solar Vehicle Team”, illustrating the practical, hands-on opportunities for students to engage in sustainability projects.

Several organizations are using their campuses as platforms for hands-on sustainability education. For example, participants mentioned initiatives such as composting, recycling, and energy efficiency projects. In one case, “Energy efficiency in buildings, renewable energy, zero waste, and solar-powered transportation” were cited as key components of the organization’s sustainability efforts.

6.2.4. Community

Several organizations pursue intensive cooperation strategies. By collaborating with various local partners, ESD becomes a networked project and gains greater visibility. Cooperation partners include local, regional, or district administration members, such as sustainability or mobility managers, environmental officers, or climate protection officers; energy providers and companies; municipal institutions responsible for waste or water management; biosphere regions or national parks; clubs and associations such as environmental education centers, nature garden or conservation organizations, and local citizens’ initiatives, along with other civil society organizations and educational institutions, including universities.

Some leaders highlighted the importance of involving politicians at various levels, as this often leads to better support. Others cited companies as key partners.

One German participant noted the following: “It is very important for us to be credibly perceived as an ESD player within our community”. Another reported serving on the city’s sustainability advisory board as part of their community contribution. A Chinese participant answered, “it takes the efforts of the government, schools, neighborhood, and the people to form a community of ESD”.

6.2.5. Communication

Several participants discussed how they communicate their ESD offerings to the public. A common debate revolves around whether to present the program in a conventional printed brochure or exclusively online. A common medium of communication for ESD in China is through slogans. One Chinese participant said, “we put slogans everywhere, in the parks, on the street, on the buses, bridges, and even TV commercials to help people protect our world”.

Surprisingly, few participants reported other communication strategies. None mentioned explicit marketing strategies related to ESD or collaboration with the local press, for instance.

6.2.6. Capacity Building

This study revealed several initiatives aimed at organizational development related to sustainability and ESD. Some organizations point out that they started a process of organizational development towards sustainability, but are still in the early stages, while others are further along and regularly hold annual workshops on ESD to integrate sustainability goals into daily operations and have installed rotating working groups. A few organizations have appointed one staff member as a transformation manager or sustainability officer to lead and coordinate the efforts.

Some promote sustainable mobility, e.g., by offering employees access to local car-sharing services. To reduce the need for in-person attendance, potentially causing mobility that is harmful to the climate, ZOOM meetings have also been implemented as part of organizational development strategies.

In Germany, several institutions in Bavaria and Schleswig–Holstein participate in a state-wide sustainability development project for ESD in VHSs. The leaders of these organizations reported in detail how the support of the state association and the collaboration with other VHSs helps them to get ahead and make progress.

In China, some TV stations organize competitions or contests on the knowledge of ESD. One Chinese participant mentioned in his response to our interview questions that Chinese people like to participate in award-winning contests, and these contests help popularize the knowledge of environmental protection via mass media such as TV.

This study highlights several efforts related to staff development on topics related to sustainability and ESD. One US participant shared that their institution implemented ESD “through various participation in professional development throughout the semesters”. Workshops and guest lectures are also used to engage both faculty and students in sustainability topics.

Organizations are working to raise awareness of health, sustainability, and mobility issues among employees, e.g., by addressing these topics in team meetings. During meetings, teams collect ideas on how to improve, often engaging in joint brainstorming sessions on integrating sustainability into daily work practices. Further training opportunities on sustainability and ESD are provided, and some organizations offer specific courses to staff. Some organizations now include sustainability objectives in team goals and in personal goals. Employees are encouraged to maintain their well-being, e.g., through access to health magazines.

In Germany, several organizations launched initiatives like city cycling, but found that the participation of employees was limited. Some organizations also offer further training opportunities to—external, freelancing—course leaders, and aim to establish a solid foundation for long-term, continuous cooperation. However, many organizations find it challenging to engage their course leaders effectively. As one German participant succinctly put it, “Very few lecturers are familiar with ESD”.

6.3. Concepts and Models

In response to the open-ended question about concepts guiding organizations in their ESD efforts, four German participants explicitly mentioned the WIA, while five others referred to concepts of their respective state association (or the DVV’s). As these concepts also align with the WIA, this approach is important for about a quarter of the institutions. The SDGs and quality management approaches were also mentioned. Five participants explicitly answered “none”, while, for another five, it can be inferred that they do not operate according to any formal theoretical or practical concept.

In China, all participants mentioned the WIA and emphasized that ESD cannot be achieved by individuals and that it takes the efforts of every member of the community to build a healthy environment. One participant said, “my university has implemented the whole institution approach and uses all means to educate the teachers and students about saving water and other resources for our next generation”.

6.4. Whole Institution Approach

When asked specifically about the WIA, just under half of the German participants stated that they were aware of this approach. Some institutions have begun working with it, in some cases intensively. This is particularly true for those engaged in projects by state associations or who use resources provided by the respective association or the DVV. Overall, management’s involvement in these projects or participation in relevant training provided by the associations plays a crucial role. Particularly, those organizations involved in sustainability projects run by state associations are committed to ESD. The closer an institution is to its state association, the more likely it seems to work with the WIA. From the responses, it appears that many other leaders are unaware of the resources and support offered by their respective state associations, as well as those offered by the DVV.

In China, none of the participants mentioned collaborating with the government at the city or provincial level. According to them, WIA only applies to their own institutions.

In the US, all participants apparently did not know the WIA as a concept, but some explained their concept in a way that shows some similarities with the WIA.

A lack of time and personnel resources is frequently cited as a reason for not engaging more with the approach. As one German participant put it, “Yes, I know the approach, but there’s no time to delve into or implement it: …overtime, overtime, overtime…”. Additionally, managers of smaller institutions often feel overwhelmed by the WIA approach.

6.5. Biggest Challenges in Connection with ESD

When asked about the biggest challenges in implementing ESD, participants in all three countries repeatedly cited the lack of time, the lack of human resources, and the lack of financial resources. Demand for ESD offerings is low, and, to attract participants at all, these offerings would need to be free, but institutions lack the funds to cover this. The effort required to apply for additional funding is seen as too burdensome.

ESD is often perceived as an additional task that requires significant effort on top of existing duties. Participants also mentioned the lack of interest from the public and, in some cases, from local and regional politicians, as well as the difficulty in reaching target groups. Another challenge is related to building management, as many institutions do not own the buildings they operate in and, therefore, have little influence over how sustainably they are managed.

A Chinese participant gave us an example of his challenge in educating people about microplastics. His company produces paper products, and part of his job is to educate people about the harm microplastics could do to our bodies. He has participated in a TV program to promote the use of paper or metal products to replace plastic bottles. He told us in his responses to our open-ended question that people are not willing to pay to use paper or metal bottles because plastic bottles are cheap and easy to carry. “They do not care about the damage microplastics does to their body because the damage was gradual, and they could not feel it”.

6.6. ESD Implementation Strategies

Participants mentioned various strategies for implementing ESD, including established management strategies such as integrating it into the institution’s mission statement and overall strategy, deriving organizational and personal employee goals from this strategy and planning specific measures, regularly discussing ESD in team meetings, appointing an ESD officer, forming a steering group or ESD working groups, and reviewing goal achievements. In one case, in Germany, the board and management have formulated and signed a formal declaration of commitment.

In Germany, the use of support services offered by state associations plays an important role, particularly participation in training and advisory services. Participation in ESD projects offered by two state associations was frequently mentioned. Surprisingly, the DVV does not seem to play a significant role, as it is seldom referenced, in contrast to state associations, which are often mentioned. Two participants also noted that their institution is currently working towards ESD certification. In China and the USA, specific sustainability projects or services of umbrella organizations were not mentioned. It is surprising that in all three countries, links to quality management are rarely mentioned.

Several institutions try to establish ESD as a fixed part of their program. Some pursue this strategy through dedicated program components, while others attempt to incorporate ESD as a cross-cutting theme in various courses, such as using regional, sustainable, and organic food in cooking classes. Another approach involves forming and expanding partnerships with external organizations, such as local authorities, initiatives, clubs, and associations, to develop new events and formats.

Smaller institutions, however, find it much harder to create an overall strategy, as they are already overburdened with time constraints. One participant mentioned “learning from larger organizations” as a strategy. The leader of another small VHS reported working together with a bigger institution in a sort of mentorship, with the bigger VHS guiding the efforts of the smaller one. A Chinese participant told us that she sometimes went to a national conference on ESD and learned a lot from others. Many participants responded that they do not have any specific implementation strategy for ESD.

6.7. Looking to the Future

The participating organizations have a wide range of plans. Some have concrete strategies for (further) anchoring ESD, such as incorporating it into their quality management system, applying for ESD certification, submitting project proposals for additional funding, or establishing further collaborations. One German participant provided a detailed description of the VHS’s goals from their organizational strategy. Others, however, have no specific plans or see no possibility of advancing the topic.

In Germany, there is a noticeable difference between organizations involved in ESD projects and those that are not. The former often already decided on concrete next steps aligned with the WIA concept, as outlined in manuals and guidelines (e.g., from state associations or the DVV). Networking and cooperation with other institutions, as well as the use of action-oriented publications, appear to be significant drivers for strengthening ESD in adult education.

A Chinese participant, Associate Dean of the College of Continuing Education in a Chinese university, said “we are asked to make a five-year strategic plan for ESD education and ESD education courses account for 30% of our continuing education courses”.

6.8. Personal Conviction

The personal beliefs and values of organizational leaders play a significant role in shaping how ESD is implemented. Many participants expressed a strong sense of responsibility toward addressing climate change and fostering sustainable practices.

A recurring theme across responses was the belief that societal transformation is necessary to support long-term human life on Earth. This transformation, driven by education, must focus not only on immediate sustainability goals but also on planting the seeds for cultural and behavioral shifts. Leaders in ESD expressed a desire to play a role in this transformation, advocating for long-term thinking and cooperative efforts to inspire future generations.

Many participants pointed out the responsibility of educational organizations. They believe that educational institutions have a unique and powerful role in driving global climate action through the development of knowledge and competencies. For example, one US participant stated, “I would love to know more about how to better understand my role in ESD and what our organization is doing at a small and large scale and how I can help!” Another participant echoed, “I believe that people have a right to know how their actions are affecting the world and other people”. One participant shared, “Research and education that produce leaders are essential ingredients to building a sustainable and prosperous future for all people”.

For some participants, the urgency of addressing climate change drives their dedication to ESD. A US participant stated, “Addressing climate change is the key challenge of our time”, while another noted, “We have to address climate change, and ESD is required to be successful in mitigating and preventing the worst impacts of climate change”. These values demonstrate a shared belief in the necessity of immediate action to combat environmental degradation.

While management expressed a personal commitment to sustainability, the institution was also strongly committed, as indicated by responses to earlier questions. These engaged managers often reflect on how they can bring their employees along on this journey. A Chinese participant, manager of a wastewater company, said, “I ask every member in my team to report their efforts in educating local factory leaders about ESD and policies regarding pollution”.

7. Discussion

The aim of this study was to explore how leaders of adult education organizations address the topic of sustainable development and how they act to implement ESD in their countries. Although the purpose of this study is not to make holistic comparisons between the three countries, our findings should be interpreted with consideration of the context in each country. For example, participants in China are under centralized governance and, therefore, their perspectives about ESD implementation reflect a large reliance on the central government and law enforcement. On the contrary, participants in Germany and the United States are under decentralized governance, and their perspectives often reflect a lack of resources (e.g., time and financial support) for the implementation of ESD. In the following, we summarize our findings regarding the research questions and the literature review and discuss some conclusions that, in part, may be read as hypotheses to be evaluated in further studies.

7.1. Challenges

Political statements at the international level, particularly those issued by the United Nations [5], along with the scientific literature [62] and practice guidelines [60], emphasize the need for adult education institutions to align their structures and activities with the principles of sustainable development. Our findings indicate that many of the organizations in our study acknowledge this call and actively strive to implement these principles. However, participants also reported encountering numerous barriers in their efforts.

7.1.1. Legal and Financial Framework of Adult and Continuing Education

A major challenge stems from the legal and financial conditions under which these organizations operate. Across all three countries studied, participants consistently highlighted systemic issues related to the overall status of adult education, funding structures, and specific government regulations that hinder their work.

These findings underscore the need for political intervention, as these challenges can only be effectively addressed at the policy level. Participants also repeatedly mentioned that the further implementation and expansion of ESD for adults might be fostered by additional funding for these offers.

7.1.2. Specific Challenges of Small Institutions

Participants leading smaller organizations highlighted particular difficulties in implementing Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Institutions with only a limited number of full-time employees often struggle to allocate the necessary personnel resources for comprehensive organizational development toward sustainability.

As a result, umbrella organizations may consider taking greater account of the specific needs of small institutions by addressing their challenges more explicitly in guidelines and offering targeted support.

However, even under difficult circumstances, some leaders find innovative solutions. One of the participants reported a successful approach: a “tandem partnership” between a smaller and a larger organization, which fostered a mentorship-like relationship. This model appears to be a viable strategy that could be further developed and expanded.

7.1.3. Challenges Regarding Curriculum

Participants reported low demand for ESD courses, difficulty reaching certain groups, and issues concerning reliance on committed program managers.

7.2. Implementation of ESD

According to the current approach of the WIA, the literature on ESD in adult education identifies several fields of action that should be addressed when implementing ESD in an organization (e.g., governance, curriculum, campus, community, communication, capacity building) [54,62]. The results of our study indicate that the implementation of ESD in the curriculum seems to be well advanced. However, in many organizations, there is still significant room for improvement in other areas.

7.2.1. Differences Between the Three Countries

Apparently, there seem to be major differences between the three states regarding the implementation of supranational UN initiatives, such as the 17 SDGs at the political level (national sustainability strategy) and the adoption of UNESCO ESD initiatives, such as “ESD 2030”. This continues at the association level of umbrella organizations and is echoed in differences in how organizations of adult and continuing education address ESD. Our cautious assumption is that there are more initiatives at all three levels in Germany than in China and the United States.

7.2.2. Differences Between Organizations

However, also, between individual organizations within each country, there can be found a large bandwidth regarding the level of integration in the organization. The size of the organization certainly plays an important role here. However, there were also differences between organizations of a similar size. Unfortunately, our samples are too small to make reliable statements about decisive factors.

7.2.3. Importance of Initiatives of Umbrella Organizations

The German findings point out that initiatives of umbrella organizations, such as the publication of guidelines and manuals or initiating projects, are of great importance for progress in the implementation of ESD in adult education. Organizations that participated in projects or worked with the manuals published by umbrella organizations seem to achieve a higher degree of ESD implementation. On the other hand, many leaders did not know much about these initiatives, which leads to the impression that umbrella organizations only partially succeed in reaching out to their member organizations. For Germany, this leads to the recommendation that the DVV and the VHS state associations could increase their engagement in disseminating their initiatives.

In China and the US, where we did not find comparable initiatives, umbrella organizations might consider taking action.

7.3. Applied Leadership Strategies for ESD Implementation

7.3.1. Whole Institution Approach (WIA)

Taking our findings together, we conclude that there are a small number of organizations working with the approach in all three countries, but only very few have adopted it as a comprehensive strategy. Overall, the WIA has not yet reached the level of dissemination that would be necessary for a comprehensive implementation of ESD in adult education.

7.3.2. Program Strategies

All participants reported on many different strategies to foster ESD components within their programs and to develop new program offerings. Many organizations incorporate ESD into their programs as a fixed component or embed it within broader educational offerings. Some institutions use a systems-thinking approach, ensuring sustainability is embedded across disciplines. Environmental topics dominate, with themes like renewable energy, climate change, and resource conservation. Successful strategies to engage learners in campus-based sustainability projects, free events, interactive activities (e.g., hikes, cooking classes), and a focus on regional sustainability issues.

7.3.3. Networks and Cooperations

In all three countries, participants repeatedly reported on networking and corporations as successful strategies to foster ESD, be it for the development of new program offerings or for reaching new target groups. Organizations that are not yet involved in such cooperation or networks might consider intensifying their connection to the community.

7.3.4. Importance of Leaders

In all three countries, participants pointed out the significance of leaders in the process of successfully implementing ESD. It can be assumed that they play a similar decisive role as has been shown for principals in schools [63,64,65,66]. Without the initiative, commitment, and support of the leader, an organization of adult and continuing education will hardly take determined action towards the implementation of ESD in the curriculum, not to mention a comprehensive organizational development for sustainability in line with the WIA.

7.4. Personal Values and Beliefs

Research has shown that organizational leaders’ personal beliefs and values significantly influence the implementation of ESD [74]. The results of our study also point in this direction. Many participants expressed a strong sense of responsibility for addressing climate change and promoting sustainability, emphasizing the need for societal transformation through education. They see educational institutions as key drivers of global climate action by fostering knowledge and competencies.

Participants highlighted the urgency of climate change, viewing ESD as essential for mitigating its worst effects. Leaders also reflected on their role in engaging employees and stakeholders in sustainability efforts. Institutional commitment to ESD was evident, with managers actively encouraging staff involvement in educational and policy initiatives.

8. Limitations

One major limitation of this study is the lack of comparability in the composition of the samples from the three countries. Fundamentally, international-comparative research in the field of adult and continuing education is difficult [75]. The substantial differences between countries, regarding actors, organizations, forms of institutionalization, legal frameworks, and other factors, make it hard to identify comparable research subjects [75]. In our case, this challenge was further compounded by the difficulties in recruiting participants, as described in Section 5. As a result, the samples in each country were highly diverse but not representative of all Chinese, German, and US leaders in adult and continuing education. Given this context, the present study does not claim to be comparative. Nevertheless, the results offer valuable insights into adult learning related to sustainable development in China, Germany, and the USA. Moreover, the challenges we faced in finding leaders willing to participate in our study may, in themselves, be considered a noteworthy result. This allows us to assume that sustainability and ESD are not priorities in many organizations of adult and continuing education. This aligns with the little consideration that adults and continuing education receive in UN concepts, national and statewide policies, and educational research.

9. Conclusions

Despite these limitations, our study provides some insights into the work of adult education institutions regarding the implementation of ESD.

The study results indicate that leaders in adult and continuing education organizations acknowledge the importance of integrating sustainability into adult education. However, they encounter various challenges in implementing ESD, including limited resources (such as funding and staff), structural constraints, and difficulties in reaching new target groups. Despite these obstacles, many participants actively work toward making their organizations more sustainable through curriculum development and campus management. Some leaders adopt a holistic approach aligned with the Whole Institution Approach, embedding ESD into their institution’s vision and mission, establishing dedicated working groups, and fostering collaboration with external stakeholders. Overall, this study underscores the vital role of leadership in driving sustainability initiatives.

Future studies could address the limitations of this research by ensuring greater comparability in sample composition across countries. This could be achieved through more standardized participant selection criteria or by focusing on specific sub-sectors within adult and continuing education to enhance comparability. Additionally, longitudinal studies could provide deeper insights into how ESD implementation evolves over time within different institutional and national contexts.

Given the recruitment challenges encountered in this study, further research could explore the extent to which sustainability and ESD are prioritized in adult and continuing education institutions. Investigating barriers to engagement, such as institutional constraints or lack of awareness, could offer valuable insights into how to promote ESD more effectively in this sector.

Expanding research to include a broader range of countries and cultural contexts could provide a more comprehensive understanding of global trends and best practices in integrating sustainability into adult and continuing education.

Finally, we would like to raise a question that came up when comparing the numbers of programs, initiatives, policy papers, and research articles that are aimed at or relate to children and young people. There seems to be an overwhelming imbalance between those aimed at young and old adults. To put it pointedly, the more power to shape and the more influence on societal development a person has, the less education on sustainability he/she receives, and vice versa, the less power and influence one has, the more ESD the person receives. Are we overburdening children and young people with the care for a sustainable future while releasing adults from their responsibility?