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Article

Antimicrobial Action of Ginger and Ornamental Rock Wastes for Cement Mortar

by
Romário Moreira Siqueira
1,
Bruna Sthefanie Paz de Souza
2,
Jonas Alexandre
3,
Aline Chaves Intorne
4,
Edmilson José Maria
5,
Sergio Neves Monteiro
6 and
Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo
3,*
1
Advanced Materials Laboratory, State University of the Northem Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28013-602, Brazil
2
Biotechnology Laboratory, State University of the Northern Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28013-602, Brazil
3
Civil Engineering Laboratory, State University of the Northern Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28013-602, Brazil
4
Laboratory of Chemistry and Biology, Federal Institute of the Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 27213-100, Brazil
5
Laboratory of Chemical Sciences, State University of the Northern Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 28013-602, Brazil
6
Department of Material Sciences, Military Engineering Institute, Rio de Janeiro 22290-270, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(10), 4698; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104698
Submission received: 6 February 2025 / Revised: 17 April 2025 / Accepted: 16 May 2025 / Published: 20 May 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Advancements in Construction Materials)
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Abstract

:
This study investigated the technical feasibility and antimicrobial potential of incorporating ornamental rock, limestone, and ginger waste into coating mortars with the aim of developing an innovative and sustainable solution for civil construction. This study evaluated the synergistic action of these materials on the microbiological and mechanical resistance of mortar, contributing to the greater durability and efficiency of the coatings. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed to characterize the morphology, chemical composition, and crystalline structure of the added materials, confirming their suitability for the cement matrix. Tests in the fresh state evaluated parameters such as density, consistency index, and entrained air content, demonstrating the viability of the formulations, whereas flexural and compressive strength tests indicated significant improvements in the mechanical performance of the modified mortar. Microbiological tests demonstrated a significant reduction in microbial colonization, indicating the action of ginger’s bioactive compounds, such as gingerol and shogaol, which have antimicrobial properties and are effective in inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms, as confirmed by the reduction in the bacterial colony count from 4 × 102 to 1 × 102 CFU mL−1. Comparisons with conventional compositions indicate that the proposed approach outperformed traditional formulations in terms of both mechanical resistance and microbiological control. Thus, the results validate this research as a promising strategy for improving the durability and performance of coating mortars, reducing maintenance costs, and promoting the sustainable use of alternative materials in civil construction.

1. Introduction

The workability of mortar is directly related to its reduced density, which facilitates application and increases productivity. Density is influenced by the incorporated air content and the specific mass of the materials, with the aggregate playing a crucial role [1]. According to Rosello [2], the workability of rendering mortar is defined by characteristics such as ease of spreading, effective filling of base indentations, maintenance of plasticity during application, resistance to segregation during transport, and controlled adhesion to the trowel. Additionally, an adequate density is essential to reduce physical labor during handling.
Despite its widespread use, it is crucial to explore new technologies and construction methods that enhance structural durability, given that building façades are continuously subjected to physical and mechanical stresses. These stresses primarily result from daily thermal variations and constant exposure to environmental agents such as sunlight, wind, and rain [3]. The construction employed plays a fundamental role in the construction sector, being widely utilized for various applications, including masonry bonding, surface coatings for walls, ceilings, and floors, as well as structural rehabilitation processes, among other functions [4].
Rendering mortars must meet specific properties according to their intended application, making it essential to analyze characteristics such as workability, shrinkage, adhesion, water permeability, deformation capacity, and mechanical strength [5]. To ensure adequate performance, mortar must exhibit a balance between strength and elasticity, preventing excessive mechanical resistance, as its primary function is to act as an elastic layer within the system [6,7].
According to Wang et al. [8], the lower sections of external masonry walls are directly exposed to environmental conditions, particularly in low-temperature regions. Under such conditions, mortar degradation can lead to masonry settlement, altering the stress distribution within the structure. Mortar, widely used in the construction industry, is primarily composed of cement, sand, and water, standing out for its versatility, cost-effectiveness, and key properties such as high compressive strength, durability, fire resistance, and low permeability. However, its inherent porosity can facilitate microbial adhesion and growth, potentially compromising structural integrity over time [9,10,11].
The deterioration of buildings and their components has become a complex issue with significant economic, cultural, and environmental implications [12]. Over the past century, studies have highlighted the importance of preventive maintenance and continuous monitoring through inspection. In this context, it is imperative that construction managers implement preservation-oriented practices. Consequently, numerous studies have been conducted to develop effective techniques and solutions for monitoring recurring pathologies that threaten the stability and performance of buildings [13].
A critical factor in the degradation of cementitious materials is the presence of water, which acts as a transport medium for aggressive ions and can initiate harmful chemical processes in porous solids. Furthermore, this impact is exacerbated by the material’s permeability, which facilitates the penetration of detrimental agents [14]. As highlighted by Makul et al. [15], in humid environments or aqueous media, cement-based materials are frequently exposed to microbial activity, including algae, bacteria, and fungi, whose proliferation is primarily dependent on water availability. The activity of these microorganisms can lead to significant material deterioration, compromising its microstructure, mineralogical composition, and biochemical properties in a process known as biodeterioration.
Isolation of microorganisms is a fundamental practice in microbiology and is widely applied for the analysis, identification, and study of various species in different environmental contexts. The success of microbial strain isolation is intrinsically linked to factors such as sample preparation methods, specific cultivation conditions, and the appropriate selection of growth media [16].
Microorganisms play a pivotal role in many fields including ecology, medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology. In order to explore microbial diversity, understand their physiology, and investigate their functions, isolation and characterization are essential [17]. This process is crucial for the production of enzymes, antibiotics, and other secondary metabolites with significant industrial and medical value. Additionally, microorganisms contribute fundamentally to ecological processes [18].
Fungi are among the primary agents responsible for the microbiological deterioration of materials used in the construction industry. These microorganisms can colonize both external surfaces and internal structures, including pores, capillaries, and microcracks within materials, leading to the degradation of cementitious matrices. This process can result not only in aesthetic alterations, but also in the impairment of functionality and, in some cases, the structural integrity of buildings [19]. Furthermore, according to Stanaszek-Tomal [20], bacteria also play a significant role in the degradation of ceramic materials as they release byproducts into the environment, such as organic acids, including citric acid and oxalic acid. Among the antibacterials, ginger is widely recognized for its antimicrobial properties [21].
Although the antimicrobial properties of ginger are widely recognized in the literature, especially in studies using extracts or essential oils, which present high concentrations and bioavailability of active compounds such as gingerol and shogaol (Singh et al., 2008) [22], it is important to consider the particularities of the powder applications adopted in this study. Despite the lower concentration of active ingredients in this form, the experimental results demonstrate that powdered ginger exerted a significant antimicrobial effect. The observed reduction in microbial colonization can be attributed to the presence of these bioactive compounds, indicating that, even in the face of possible limitations imposed by the cementitious matrix, part of the antimicrobial activity of ginger is preserved (Ghasemzadeh et al., 2010) [23]. Although organic materials are more susceptible to fungal activity, inorganic surfaces such as concrete and cement mortar are also vulnerable due to their porosity and roughness. Studies indicate that these structural characteristics, often resulting from erosive processes caused by water or friction with other elements, create favorable conditions for microbial colonization, particularly when combined with the presence of moisture and nutrients. In the case of mortar, its porous and irregular texture significantly contributes to fungal growth and dissemination, emphasizing the importance of preventive and corrective strategies to mitigate these impacts [9].
According to De Leo and Urzì [24], fungi are the primary agents responsible for the deterioration of construction materials and can be classified into three main groups: (i) fungi such as Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus, which do not produce melanin; (ii) fungi, such as Alternaria, Ulocladium, and Cladosporium, which produce melanin and belong to the Coelomycetes and Hyphomycetes genera, characterized by their rapid growth; and (iii) black yeasts and meristematic fungi, which form a heterogeneous group of pigmented fungi. These microorganisms are commonly found in widely used construction materials, including concrete, mortar, paint, wood, gypsum board, and wallpaper, with Aspergillus niger being particularly prevalent on these substrates [24].
Aspergillus niger is a fungal species that frequently colonizes construction materials, including concrete and, particularly, mortar. This fungus belongs to the Aspergillus genus, which consists of filamentous organisms (molds) commonly found in both indoor and outdoor environments. In addition to its impact on construction materials, Aspergillus is also known to cause aspergillosis diseurs in humans, because its spores are highly dispersed in the environment. Its presence is especially common on susceptible surfaces such as mortar, where the inherent porosity facilitates the adhesion and proliferation of these microorganisms [9].
This study aimed to investigate the effects of incorporating ornamental stone waste and ginger into rendering mortars, with an emphasis on analyzing their antimicrobial activity, and morphological and chemical characterization, as well as the physical properties of the material in fresh state and mechanical performance. These additions were evaluated as an innovative approach to mitigating issues related to microbial attack, considering the well-documented antimicrobial properties of ginger in other contexts, which may contribute to the resistance of the rendering against microbial colonization.
Additionally, physical parameters such as the consistency index, fresh-state density, and incorporated air content were analyzed, along with mechanical tests including flexural tensile strength and compressive strength, to assess the mortar’s behavior and performance during application.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

To produce the coating mortars, CP II-E-32 cement was used, purchased from the company CSN, located in the city of Rio de Janeiro, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. According to the manufacturer, this cementitious material contained clinker and gypsum in proportions ranging from 51% to 94%, granulated blast furnace slag between 6% and 34%, and carbonate material between 0% and 15%, which complies with the standard guidelines [25]. This compositional variation, which may occur across different batches, led to the decision to use only a single batch in this study to ensure greater uniformity and reliability of results.
To enhance the properties such as workability and plasticity, CH III-type hydrated lime, with a density of 2.31 g/cm3, was incorporated into the mixture. The lime is produced by the company Itabira, located in the city of Cachoeiro do Itapemirim, in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil. The sand used in this study was of natural origin and was washed, sourced from the Paraíba do Sul River in the municipality of Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ. The material was sieved, passed through a #8 sieve, and retained in sieves #16 (2.0–1.2 mm), #30 (1.2–0.6 mm), #50 (0.6–0.3 mm), and #100 (0.3–0.15 mm), following the classification established by the standard [26], separated in equal proportions of 25% for each retained fraction. These granulometric fractions correspond to medium–coarse, medium–fine coarse, medium–fine, and fine fractions, respectively, as specified by the standard [27].
The ornamental rock waste used in this study was obtained from Santa Alice Granitos, located in the municipality of Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, Espírito Santo, Brazil. This material, generated as sludge during the cutting of ornamental rocks, underwent a dehydration process, followed by disaggregation and sieving through a #50 mesh (0.3 mm) to remove impurities, and had a density of 2.57 g/cm3.
The ginger used in this study was grown in the state of Espírito Santo, Brazil and was provided in powdered form by the Chemistry Laboratory (LCQUI) at the (UENF) at the UENF with a density of 1.48 g/cm3. It has an average market price of BRL 19.98 per kg and a production of 84 thousand tons in the state of Espírito Santo [28].

2.2. Morphological Characterization

The morphological characterization of ornamental rock waste and ginger was conducted using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM–EDS). The sample preparation stage included metallization using the DENTON VACUUM DESK V (Moorestown, NJ, USA) system, and imaging and analysis were performed using a JSM 6460 LV scanning electron microscope, manufactured by Jeol (Akishima, Tóquio, Japan). The experiments were performed at the LAMAV Microscopy Laboratory of the State University of Northern Rio de Janeiro (UENF). EDS, which is widely used in conjunction with SEM, enables the identification and qualitative analysis of the chemical elements present in the samples, providing a detailed understanding of their elemental composition [29]. SEM–EDS is crucial for characterizing the microstructure and phase assembly in cementitious systems and supporting studies on environmental interactions [30].
To identify the crystalline phases present in the aggregates, an X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was performed using the AXRD Benchtop equipment, manufactured by PROTO (Los Angeles, CA, USA). The scan occurred in the 2θ range between 10° and 70°, allowing for the characterization of the mineralogical composition of the samples and providing detailed information about their crystalline structure. The XRD technique, widely recognized for its speed, accuracy, and non-destructive nature, plays a fundamental role in the identification of crystalline phases, ensuring comprehensive and highly reliable results for the analysis of the materials studied.

2.3. Microorganism Isolation

Bacterial and fungal isolation was performed using a methodology adapted from [31]. A specimen from each treatment, with dimensions of 1 cm3, was extracted directly from the treated bricks to analyze their antimicrobial properties. These samples were transferred to Falcon tubes (Cralplast, São Paulo, Brazil) containing 0.85% saline solution. The mixture was vortexed for 2 min. The methodology for microorganism isolation is based on the use of selective or differential culture media, which promotes the growth of specific microbial groups while restricting the development of others. This strategy plays a crucial role in investigating microbial diversity and gaining an in-depth understanding of the ecological functions of different species [32]. Moreover, the quantification of microbial abundance in samples is a well-established practice with a long historical trajectory, although the best practices for its execution are not always consistently applied across all fields of microbiology. Serial dilution methods are commonly used to reduce the concentration of bacterial cultures, allowing the attainment of countable colony numbers. Based on these counts, the bacterial concentration was inferred and expressed in colony-forming units (CFU). The most common strategies for generating data and estimating CFU include plating microorganisms on solid culture media, followed by counting the resulting colonies or identifying tubes at different dilutions that exhibit detectable growth [33].

2.4. Mortar Fabrication

The mortar formulations were designed to assess the use of ginger in coating mortars, aiming to analyze its influence on reducing microbial colonization. Therefore, the mortar formulations began with a standard mix, called control, where the control mixture consisted only of cement and sand (ratio 1:6) to evaluate microbial proliferation in the absence of lime. Subsequently, the mortars were prepared according to the standards established by [34,35] using a standard proportion of 1:1:6 (cement: lime: sand). “Treatment 1” was used to incorporate lime into the mixture to examine its influence on microbial colonization reduction. In “Treatment 2”, lime was replaced with ornamental rock residue, enabling a comparison between the antimicrobial effects of lime and rock residue. In “Treatments 3” and “4”, the coating mortar was used again according to the guidelines of the standards and rock waste was not used; instead, specific amounts of powdered ginger were added (5 g in Treatment 3 and 10 g in Treatment 4). These formulations allowed the evaluation of the antimicrobial efficacy of ginger in conventional mortar mixtures. Finally, “Treatment 5” was developed with a formulation composed of cement, lime, rock residue, ginger, and sand, following the proportion of 1:1:0.3:0.075:6. This composition was strategically designed to evaluate the synergistic effects of incorporating these materials in mitigating microbial colonization. All mixes maintained a thickness of 2 cm and an area of 551 cm2 of cement coating on ceramic bricks. The combination of mineral waste with natural additives aims not only to enhance the antimicrobial properties of the mortar, but also to contribute to improving its physical and mechanical characteristics, promoting a sustainable and innovative solution for applications in civil construction.
The different mixtures were classified and developed based on the careful separation of the materials, as presented in Table 1. This methodology ensured systematic organization of the compositions, enabling a detailed comparative analysis among the different proposed treatments, where the materials are presented as a percentage (%) in relation to the mass (g) of the sand.
Initially, the mortar components were meticulously weighed and individually stored in plastic bags, following standardized procedures. The amount of water required for the mixture was precisely measured using a laboratory-grade graduated container. The dry materials were then transferred to a mechanical mortar mixer, where the mixing process was performed in accordance with the specifications established by the standard [34].

2.5. Physical and Technological Tests

All tests conducted on the different mortar samples strictly adhered to pre-established mixing and homogenization protocols. The consistency index was calculated using the 1.119.220 Solotest equipment (São Paulo, Brazil) and was determined as the arithmetic mean of three measurements, yielding values of 26 ± 5 cm and providing an accurate estimate of the workability of the evaluated mortars. According to [36], higher consistency indices indicate greater fluidity and ease of handling, which directly influence the workability of the material. Cracking owing to plastic shrinkage in cementitious materials is an increasingly relevant issue, exacerbated by the finer particle size of cement and the widespread use of mineral additives. During the shrinkage process, the mortar was subjected to constraints that generated internal tensile stress. Plastic shrinkage cracks form when these stresses exceed the initial strength of the material. These cracks negatively impact the properties of cementitious materials by facilitating the penetration of harmful ions and compromising the structural durability. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the mechanisms governing the development and progression of shrinkage-induced cracking is essential to improve the performance and longevity of these materials [37].
A density test was conducted following the guidelines of [38], to determine the specific mass of the mortar in fresh state. This procedure enables the calculation of the fresh mortar density, which is crucial for assessing its quality and performance.
The air content test will be performed in accordance with the guidelines of the standard [38], using a 1-L capacity device manufactured by Solotest-model 1.150.001 (São Paulo, Brazil). This parameter is highly relevant because it represents the amount of air retained within a specific volume of mortar and is expressed as a percentage. The analysis of the incorporated air content is essential, as it directly influences mortar properties such as workability and mechanical strength, contributing to a comprehensive characterization of the material under study.
Flexural and compressive tensile strength tests were performed using six specimens for each composition and were conducted in accordance with [39] using prismatic specimens with dimensions of 4 × 4 × 16 cm. The mortars were prepared and molded into four uniform layers, each compacted with 30 blows of tamping rod per mold. The specimens were then demolded after 24 h. The load was applied at a rate of 500 ± 50 N/s, following standard specifications, until the specimen failed.
The actual specific masses of the grains of rock residue, limestone, and ginger were determined according to the guidelines established by [40]. The tests were conducted in the Soil Laboratory of the Civil Engineering Laboratory of the Darcy Ribeiro State University of Northern Fluminense (UENF), ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the results obtained.

2.6. Weathering Performance

Six different mortar formulations were prepared and two specific locations were selected for exposure to climatic conditions and weathering to promote microorganism development. The first selected location was a slab simulating the application of mortars in parapet coatings. This area, considered as a dry zone, exhibited microbial growth at various points, demonstrating the impact of environmental conditions on the samples.
The second site selected for the experiment was a floor area near the cattle pen at the UENF. This environment was chosen because of its high relative humidity, which is an ideal condition for simulating capillary absorption, which is frequently observed in residential buildings. This characteristic allows for the evaluation of mortar performance under high-humidity conditions, creating a favorable scenario for microorganism development. The presence of these organisms was confirmed through the analyses conducted, further validating the suitability of the location for the objectives of the study. This experimental setting was designated as the “humid area”. The samples were subjected to serial dilutions according to their location: for the humid area near the UENF corral, dilutions ranged from 10−2 to 10−5, while for the dry area near Building 8 of UENF, dilutions of 10−2 and 10−3 were used, all performed in triplicate. Subsequently, a 100 µL aliquot from each tube was inoculated onto Petri dishes containing selective media, such as BDA for fungi and DYGS for bacteria. The plates were sealed with Parafilm™ (produced by Bemis NA in Neenah, WI, USA) to prevent cross-contamination and incubated at 30 °C for 3 days in triplicates (Figure 1). After incubation, the microbial population was quantified in (CFU.mL−1).
The obtained data were statistically analyzed using Tukey’s test for mean comparison to assess the significance of the differences between treatments. Statistical analyses were performed using Prism 9 for graphical representation and the Sisvar software (https://www.se.com/il/en/product-range/2236-sisvar-international/#overview, accessed on 16 April 2025) accessed on for statistical evaluation.

3. Results and Discussion

Preliminary characterization of the materials was conducted using micrographs obtained by SEM. This approach enabled a detailed analysis of the morphology and particle size distribution of the ornamental rock residues (Figure 2a,b) and ginger (Figure 2c,d) and limestone (Figure 2e,f). The micrographs played a crucial role in identifying potential heterogeneities within the samples, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of the behavior and functional contribution of each material within the cementitious matrix. The obtained data provide valuable insights into the impact of these additives on the technological properties of coating mortars.
The micrograph of the rock residue (Figure 2a,b) reveals particles with angular morphologies and varying dimensions. This structural characteristic enhances adhesion and integration within the cementitious matrix, facilitating more efficient compaction and potentially improving the mechanical strength of the mortar [41].
On the other hand, the micrograph of the ginger (Figure 2c,d) reveals a rounded morphology, with shapes ranging from circular to ovoid. This rounded morphology tends to reduce the friction between particles during the mixing process, facilitating the handling and application of the mortar. Consequently, this may have contributed to the improved workability of the mixture [42,43].
The micrograph of hydrated lime (Figure 2e,f) shows particles with irregular and grouped morphologies, probably due to production and sedimentation processes. Lime allows the formation of a strong bond with aggregates, increasing structural integrity [44].
The EDS integrated with SEM is a widely used semi-quantitative analytical technique for identifying the chemical elements present in a sample. Figure 3 shows the EDS spectra obtained for the ornamental rock residue and ginger.
Figure 3a displays the characteristic elemental analysis of the ornamental rock residue, revealing the predominance of silicon, aluminum, magnesium, and calcium. These components are typical of silicate and aluminosilicate materials commonly found in ornamental rocks, and play a fundamental role in the mechanical and chemical properties of the mortars in which they are incorporated [45,46]. Figure 3b displays the elemental analysis of ginger, indicating the significant presence of potassium and silicon. Potassium, widely associated with organic compounds and minerals found in biomaterials, may influence cement hydration, whereas silicon, which is essential for structural formation, can directly affect the chemical and physical interactions within the cementitious system [47,48]. Thus, these analyses provide relevant information on the elemental composition of both materials, aiding the understanding of their effects on the micro-structure and performance of the mortars developed in this research.
In Figure 3c, the elements identified in the limestone through energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis were carbon (C), oxygen (O), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca). These elements are characteristic of the mineralogical composition of the dolomite limestone, evidencing its predominantly carbonate constitution.
Continuing on Figure 3, the elements gold (Au) and niobium (Nb) that are present in samples are, respectively, due to the metallization process where the sample becomes conductive and the characteristics of the equipment used.
The X-ray diffractometry presented in Figure 4a,b shows the diffraction peaks identified in the fraction of the material that passed through the #200 sieve (75 µm), corresponding to the rock residue and ginger, respectively. This analysis allows for the characterization of the crystalline composition of the materials, providing essential information about their mineralogical structure and possible interactions in the cementitious matrix.
XRD analysis in Figure 4a identified the presence of quartz (SiO2) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) in the samples. According to [46], quartz is a mineral commonly found in granites and quartzites (ICDD–96-900-9667), while dolomite is one of the main constituents of marbles (ICDD–96-900-0887). This waste was collected from companies using metamorphic and igneous rocks composed of primary minerals that contribute to mortars as inert materials. These minerals also influence the plasticity properties of mortars because of their high specific areas. Therefore, the results show that the residues analyzed in this study come from different types of rocks.
Figure 4b shows the X-ray diffractogram (XRD) of ginger, in which the intensity of the diffracted signal is recorded as a function of the diffraction angle 2θ. Analysis of this graph allows us to infer the crystalline or amorphous structure of the compounds present in the sample, aiding in the mineralogical and structural characterization of the material.
It can be observed that the diffractogram presents a diffuse pattern, indicating a predominance of amorphous phases in the ginger sample. This characteristic is common in materials of organic origin, such as the polysaccharides and bioactive compounds present in ginger, which have a disordered structure and do not form regular crystalline networks. The presence of a diffraction halo between approximately 15° and 30° 2θ suggests the existence of semicrystalline regions, which may be associated with macromolecules such as cellulose, starch, and lignin, which may maintain a certain structural organization within the material matrix. In the consistency index test carried out according to the specifications of [36], the water-to-cement ratio was determined, reflecting the amount of water required for each treatment. The amount of water in percentage (%) used in each formulation was obtained during the experimental process (Table 1). This analysis allowed for the evaluation of the influence of water on the workability properties of mortar. In the water-to-cement ratio analysis, a reduction tendency in the required water volume was observed with the addition of ornamental rock residue and ginger.
In addition, it was observed that formulations containing ornamental rock residue and ginger required a smaller amount of water to achieve ideal consistency for application. With the residue, the reduction is associated with the high specific area and fine granulometry of the mineral residues, which act as filling agents between the grains of the mixture, reducing the volume of voids, and, consequently, the need for water to maintain workability. The composition of the ginger contributes to the modification of the rheology of the mortar, acting as a natural air entrainer. This favors the dispersion of solid particles in the cement matrix and reduces internal friction, allowing for the handling of mortar with a lower water content. This decrease represents a significant aspect of sustainability in mortar use, promoting the optimization of water resources in the construction industry [49,50].
The results for the fresh-state density of the mortars (Figure 5) indicate an increase in density in Treatments 1 and 2, which included the addition of hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) and ornamental rock residue, respectively. In Treatments 3 and 4, a decrease in mortar density was observed when 5 g and 10 g of ginger were incorporated, respectively. In Treatment 5, despite the presence of rock residue, the addition of ginger resulted in a lower density compared to Treatments 2 and 3. This reduction in density can be considered advantageous for the application of these mortars as coatings because it contributes to reducing the specific weight of the structure, as highlighted by Azevedo et al. [51].
The results for the air entrainment content in Figure 6 indicate that the addition of lime and ornamental rock residue leads to a reduction in the air content incorporated into the mortar, as evidenced in Treatments 2 and 3, respectively. Conversely, the addition of ginger resulted in a notable increase in air content, as observed in Treatments 3 and 4. However, the combination of ginger with rock residue was effective in reducing air entrainment levels, suggesting a positive interaction between these components in the mortar formulation.
The incorporation of untreated natural additives into cementitious matrices tends to increase the air-entrainment content [52]. This effect occurs because of the thickening of the interfacial transition zone within the matrix caused by the lack of efficient adhesion. Additionally, some natural additives absorb part of the mixing water, promoting the formation of voids, which, depending on the water volume in the mixture, may be filled with either air or water [52].
Figure 7 presents the results of the mechanical flexural tensile strength tests for mixtures incorporating CH III hydrated lime, ornamental rock residue, and ginger after 28 days of curing.
The flexural tensile strength tests assessed the ability of the mortars to withstand bending stresses. The control mixture exhibited the lowest strength values, highlighting reduced structural cohesion in the absence of additives. In contrast, Treatment 1, which incorporated CH III hydrated lime, showed a significant increase in tensile strength, attributed to the enhanced plasticity and cohesion provided by the lime.
Treatment 2, where the lime was replaced with ornamental rock residue, demonstrated superior performance, indicating that the rock residue reinforces the cementitious matrix due to its angular morphology, which promotes improved mechanical interlocking between particles.
In Treatments 3 and 4, which incorporated increasing proportions of ginger, a slight reduction in flexural tensile strength was observed compared to Treatment 2. This decrease may be associated with the increased air content induced by the addition of ginger. According to Chen et al. [53], higher air content in cementitious mortars is directly correlated with a reduction in tensile strength, negatively impacting mechanical properties. However, Treatment 5, which combined rock residue and ginger, exhibited strength values comparable to those of Treatment 2, suggesting that ginger, when combined with rock residue, did not significantly compromise the mechanical performance of the mortar.
Figure 8 presents the results of the compressive strength tests for mixtures incorporating CH III hydrated lime, ornamental rock residue, and ginger after 28 days of curing.
The compression tests evaluated the mortar’s resistance to compressive stress, providing essential information on its structural robustness. Similar to the flexural tests, the control mixture exhibited the lowest compressive strength values, reflecting the absence of additives that enhanced the interaction between the components of the cementitious matrix.
In Treatment 1, the addition of hydrated lime CH III resulted in an increase in the compressive strength owing to the greater cohesion provided by the lime, which helps reduce the formation of microcracks. Treatment 2, in which lime was replaced with ornamental stone waste, exhibited the highest compressive strength among all treatments. This performance can be attributed to the chemical composition and morphology of the stone waste, which contributes to strengthening the cementitious matrix. According to Pereira et al. [54], stone waste possesses properties that qualify it as an inert filler material, aiding the pore-filling process within the matrix.
In Treatments 3 and 4, which incorporated increasing proportions of ginger, a slight reduction in compressive strength was observed compared to Treatment 2. This reduction is associated with a higher air content, which decreases the mortar density, and consequently, its mechanical strength. As explained by Zhang [55], a lower-density cementitious matrix is more susceptible to the formation of microvoids, which weaken its mechanical properties by reducing internal cohesion and strength.
However, Treatment 5, which combined stone waste and ginger, exhibited results comparable to Treatment 2, indicating that ginger does not significantly compromise the mortar’s ability to withstand compressive stress, especially when combined with stone waste.
The actual density of the grains of the additives rock residue, limestone, and ginger was determined following the guidelines in [40], presenting values of 2.57 g/cm3, 2.31 g/cm3, and 1.48 g/cm3, respectively. These results provide essential information on the physical properties of materials and contribute to a better understanding of their behavior in the cement matrix. Figure 9 and Figure 10 present the CFU counts of fungi and bacteria isolated from bricks subjected to treatment with ornamental stone waste and ginger, known for their antimicrobial properties. The bricks were kept in an outdoor area near Building 8 of the UENF, exposed to natural environmental conditions, including direct solar radiation and precipitation, since 2023. In the control treatment, a high microbial density was observed, indicating unrestricted fungal and bacterial growth on the untreated surfaces. In Treatment 1, a reduction in microbial density was noted with the addition of hydrated lime CH III to the composition. This reduction was even more pronounced in Treatment 2, in which lime was replaced with ornamental stone waste, demonstrating that this material is more effective in reducing microbial colonization. Although lime is known to create an alkaline environment that inhibits microbial activity, incorporation of mineral waste enhances this property. The waste used, originating from igneous and metamorphic rocks, is composed of silica, aluminum, magnesium, and calcium, elements that interact with the cement matrix and contribute to the reduction in porosity and moisture retention, which are essential factors for microbial survival. In addition, the angular morphology of this waste, as evidenced by the SEM analyses, favors greater compaction of the mixture and hinders the adhesion of microorganisms to the surfaces. This set of physical and chemical characteristics gave the mortars a superior biocidal capacity, as demonstrated by the reduction in colony-forming units (CFU) compared to traditional formulations. In Treatments 3, 4, and 5, where increasing amounts of ginger were incorporated, a significant decrease in CFU was observed, highlighting the antimicrobial action of both ginger and stone waste. Treatment 5, which combined stone waste and ginger, recorded the lowest CFU count, confirming the synergy and antimicrobial effectiveness of these materials.
Figure 9 presents isolates obtained from raw samples in a selective medium for fungi at a 10−2 dilution. The bars represent mean values ± SD (n = 3), with different letters indicating statistically significant differences between isolates.
Figure 10 presents the isolates obtained from the raw site in a selective medium for bacteria at a 10−2 dilution. The bars represent mean values ± SD (n = 3), with different letters indicating statistically significant differences between the isolates.
Figure 11 and Figure 12 present the CFU counts of fungi and bacteria isolated from bricks maintained in a high-humidity outdoor area near the UENF corral. These bricks were exposed to natural environmental conditions, including direct solar radiation and precipitation, over a 12-month period. The results reveal a pattern similar to that observed in bricks kept in dry areas, as shown in Figure 9 and Figure 10, which represent fungal and bacterial counts, respectively. However, the CFU counts were higher in bricks placed in humid areas, highlighting the impact of high moisture levels on microbial proliferation.
The incorporation of hydrated lime CH III, ornamental stone waste, and ginger into coating mortars resulted in a significant reduction in microbial colonization. This reduction was particularly pronounced in formulations that combined stone waste and ginger, demonstrating the effectiveness of these materials in decreasing CFU counts. These data emphasize the potential of ginger as an efficient antimicrobial agent against fungi and bacteria, especially in coating mortars applied in humid environments subjected to climatic variations. Figure 11 presents the isolates obtained from the humid site in a selective medium for fungi at a 10−3 dilution. The bars represent mean values ± SD (n = 3), with different letters indicating statistically significant differences between the isolates.
Figure 12 presents the isolates obtained from the humid site in a selective medium for bacteria at a 10−3 dilution. The bars represent mean values ± SD (n = 3), with different letters indicating statistically significant differences between the isolates.
In this study, ginger (Zingiber officinale) was widely recognized for its antimicrobial properties. This study demonstrates a significant reduction in the CFU counts of fungi and bacteria in the treated mortars, highlighting its potential as an antimicrobial additive.
However, the structure of the mortar, chemical reactions during cement curing, and possible interactions between plant and mineral constituents must be considered, as they may influence the stability and release of active compounds (Mohamed and El-Sayed, 2021) [56]. In addition, changes in the surface roughness, porosity, and chemical composition of the mortar may hinder microbial adhesion (Kordestani and Yekta, 2019) [57].
These results are in agreement with the findings of [58,59], which highlight the effectiveness of bioactive compounds in ginger, such as gingerol and shogaol, in inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms. Studies indicate that these compounds act on the cell membranes of bacteria and fungi, promoting cell death and inhibiting microbial growth, thus reinforcing the potential of ginger as a natural alternative for better efficiency in darkening pathology in surfaces, owing to microbial colonization in coating mortars.

4. Conclusions

The results of this study demonstrate that the incorporation of ornamental stone waste and ginger in coating mortars can mitigate issues related to microbial colonization. The results show a notable reduction in the counts of colony-forming units, particularly in formulations that combine both components, proving the antimicrobial efficacy of these materials. Morphological and chemical characterization through SEM and EDS validate the compatibility of these materials within the cementitious matrix, whereas fresh-state tests indicate good workability and technical performance of the mortars.
The flexural and compressive strength tests reveal that the addition of ornamental stone waste increased the mechanical strength of the mortars, whereas ginger, in addition to its antimicrobial properties, proved to be an effective additive when combined with stone waste. The incorporation of ginger, in particular, has emerged as a promising approach owing to its strong antimicrobial action against fungi and bacteria. The observed synergy in combination with stone waste results in an efficient system for inhibiting microbial growth, making this solution both viable and sustainable for the construction industry. This proved that its use in coating mortars contributes to the durability of coated structures, reducing the darkening of mortar surfaces and the need for synthetic chemical products and promoting environmentally friendly practices. The most efficient composition identified in this study was Treatment 5, which consisted of 16.67% of CP II-E-32 cement, 16.67% of hydrated lime CH III, 5% of ornamental stone waste, 1.25% of ginger, and 1200 g of sand. This formulation followed the in mass proportions 1:1:0.3:0.075:6, demonstrating superior performance across the analyzed properties in relation to the reduction in microorganism colonization.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.M.S., J.A., A.C.I. and E.J.M.; methodology, R.M.S., J.A. and A.C.I.; software, R.M.S. and B.S.P.d.S.; validation, R.M.S., J.A., A.C.I., E.J.M., B.S.P.d.S., A.R.G.d.A. and S.N.M.; formal analysis, R.M.S., J.A., A.C.I. and A.R.G.d.A.; investigation, R.M.S. and B.S.P.d.S.; resources, S.N.M. and A.R.G.d.A.; data curation, R.M.S. and B.S.P.d.S.; writing—original draft, R.M.S. and A.R.G.d.A.; writing—review and editing, R.M.S., J.A., A.R.G.d.A. and S.N.M.; visualization, R.M.S., A.R.G.d.A. and J.A.; supervision, J.A. and A.C.I.; project administration, J.A. and A.C.I.; funding acquisition, S.N.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by State University of the Northern Fluminense (UENF) and financed by CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brazil) com bolsa de pesquisa processo 88882.461669/2019-01.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
UENFState University of Northern Rio de Janeiro Darcy Ribeiro
LAMAVAdvanced Materials Laboratory
CFUColony-forming units
SEMScanning electron microscope
EDSEnergy-dispersive detector
BDABatata dextrose agar
DYGSDextrose yeast glucose sucrose

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Figure 1. Experimental design.
Figure 1. Experimental design.
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Figure 2. SEM analysis: (a) ornamental rock residue at 700× magnification; (b) ornamental rock residue at 3000× magnification; (c) ginger at 600× magnification; (d) ginger at 3000× magnification; (e) limestone at 800× magnification; (f) limestone at 3500× magnification.
Figure 2. SEM analysis: (a) ornamental rock residue at 700× magnification; (b) ornamental rock residue at 3000× magnification; (c) ginger at 600× magnification; (d) ginger at 3000× magnification; (e) limestone at 800× magnification; (f) limestone at 3500× magnification.
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Figure 3. Chemical analysis by EDS: (a) the rock residue; (b) ginger; (c) limestone.
Figure 3. Chemical analysis by EDS: (a) the rock residue; (b) ginger; (c) limestone.
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Figure 4. Elemental analysis by XRD: (a) the rock residue; (b) ginger.
Figure 4. Elemental analysis by XRD: (a) the rock residue; (b) ginger.
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Figure 5. Results of the fresh-state bulk densities of the mortars.
Figure 5. Results of the fresh-state bulk densities of the mortars.
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Figure 6. Results of the incorporated air content in the mortars.
Figure 6. Results of the incorporated air content in the mortars.
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Figure 7. Flexural tensile strength test.
Figure 7. Flexural tensile strength test.
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Figure 8. Compressive strength test.
Figure 8. Compressive strength test.
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Figure 9. BDA analysis of fungal population in the dry area.
Figure 9. BDA analysis of fungal population in the dry area.
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Figure 10. DYGS analysis of bacterial population in the dry area.
Figure 10. DYGS analysis of bacterial population in the dry area.
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Figure 11. BDA analysis of fungal population in the humid area.
Figure 11. BDA analysis of fungal population in the humid area.
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Figure 12. DYGS analysis of bacterial population in the humid area.
Figure 12. DYGS analysis of bacterial population in the humid area.
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Table 1. Mortar compositions.
Table 1. Mortar compositions.
MixturesSand (g) Cement (%)Lime (%)Ornamental Rock Waste (%)Ginger (%)Water (%)
Control120016.67---23.75
Treatment 1120016.6716.67--21.67
Treatment 2120016.67-10.00-20.00
Treatment 3120016.6716.67-0.4221.67
Treatment 4120016.6716.67-0.8321.67
Treatment 5120016.6716.675.001.2519.17
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MDPI and ACS Style

Siqueira, R.M.; Souza, B.S.P.d.; Alexandre, J.; Intorne, A.C.; Maria, E.J.; Monteiro, S.N.; Azevedo, A.R.G.d. Antimicrobial Action of Ginger and Ornamental Rock Wastes for Cement Mortar. Sustainability 2025, 17, 4698. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104698

AMA Style

Siqueira RM, Souza BSPd, Alexandre J, Intorne AC, Maria EJ, Monteiro SN, Azevedo ARGd. Antimicrobial Action of Ginger and Ornamental Rock Wastes for Cement Mortar. Sustainability. 2025; 17(10):4698. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104698

Chicago/Turabian Style

Siqueira, Romário Moreira, Bruna Sthefanie Paz de Souza, Jonas Alexandre, Aline Chaves Intorne, Edmilson José Maria, Sergio Neves Monteiro, and Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo. 2025. "Antimicrobial Action of Ginger and Ornamental Rock Wastes for Cement Mortar" Sustainability 17, no. 10: 4698. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104698

APA Style

Siqueira, R. M., Souza, B. S. P. d., Alexandre, J., Intorne, A. C., Maria, E. J., Monteiro, S. N., & Azevedo, A. R. G. d. (2025). Antimicrobial Action of Ginger and Ornamental Rock Wastes for Cement Mortar. Sustainability, 17(10), 4698. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17104698

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