Climate Change Education: Preparing African Youth for Future Challenges

Abstract

Climate change poses significant challenges globally, with Africa being particularly vulnerable due to its socioeconomic and environmental contexts. Education is a powerful tool for equipping African youth with the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to address these challenges. This paper examines the role of climate change education (CCE) in preparing African youth for a sustainable future. This study presents a conceptual framework for integrating CCE into African educational systems through a robust methodology incorporating a qualitative paradigm. It also reviews the pertinent literature, discusses key findings, and proposes strategies for effective implementation.

1. Introduction

Climate change impacts, including extreme weather events, biodiversity loss, and socioeconomic disruptions, have profound implications for Africa. Children and young people are growing up in increasingly uncertain times due to global climate change’s social, cultural, and environmental impacts [1]. Leading scientists have established that human-induced climate change is a reality, and technological advances now allow for a more precise tracking of its effects [2]. This clarity has brought social justice issues to the forefront, especially as climate change is expected to affect indigenous people and children in developing countries the most. The Global Center on Adaptation [3] reported that 2023 was the hottest year in history. Worldwide, heatwaves, floods, and wildfires wreak havoc while young people have inherited a world in constant flux, living through an unfolding climate crisis. Africa is the world’s most vulnerable region to climate change and is warming faster than the global average. Youth, who constitute a significant proportion of the African population, are at the forefront of these impacts. Africa’s population is predominantly young and is experiencing swift growth. By the year 2050, it is expected that more than half of the continent’s population will be under 25 years old, with a workforce exceeding 1 billion people [4]. However, if Africa does not increase its investments in education, it will face difficulties in tackling the climate crisis effectively.

This paper examines the role of climate change education (CCE) in preparing African youth for a sustainable future by equipping them with the skills, knowledge, and opportunities needed to be actively involved in climate mitigation, adaptation, and decision-making. According to [5], CCE “is about learning in the face of risk, uncertainty and rapid change”. CCE helps people understand and address the impact of climate crises by empowering them with the skills they need to act as agents of change [6,7]. This study’s objectives are to explore educational gaps, youth awareness, technological opportunities, and innovative strategies for embedding CCE in African educational systems, hence Africa’s vulnerability to climate change and the increasing need for youth engagement. Furthermore, this study focuses on examining the barriers to youth participation in climate action and policymaking while identifying strategies to strengthen their engagement.

Ref. [8] argue that the challenges associated with implementing effective climate change action lie in the limited representation of youth voices within formal negotiating platforms. This absence not only undermines the inclusivity of the decision-making process but also hampers the potential for innovative solutions that resonate with the perspectives of younger generations. Youth are usually “co-opted into endorsing policy but are rarely able to craft independent policy inputs” [8]. There is an issue of tokenistic youth participation rather than genuine inclusion as partners for climate action. According to [9], tokenistic youth participation is when young people are included in climate initiatives in a performative way by giving them minimal roles without any decision-making power.

While youth are expected to resolve the previous generation’s problems, opportunities for them to express their understanding and concerns about climate change remain limited [2]. Therefore, there is a critical need for innovative climate change education (CCE) that empowers children and young people worldwide. CCE provides an opportunity to empower this demographic to mitigate and adapt to climate change effectively. This paper explores the methodologies, frameworks, and strategies for embedding CCE in African educational systems to foster resilience and innovation among young people. The key research question of this study is as follows: how can the integration of digital technologies and indigenous knowledge systems into climate change education programmes enhance the capacity of African youth to develop innovative, context-specific solutions for mitigating and adapting to climate change? This article is structured as follows: Section 2 explores the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) framework related to climate change education and youth engagement. Section 3 outlines the research methodology, including the materials and methods used. The literature review in Section 4 examines the existing studies on CCE, the role of education, and challenges in implementing CCE in Africa. Section 5, Section 6 and Section 7 contain the findings of this study, discussions, and a conclusion.

2. Theoretical Framework

This study employs the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) framework. ESD is rooted in transformative learning theory, which focuses on reshaping how learners perceive their roles in addressing sustainability challenges. As noted by [10] this approach fosters a critical awareness of sustainability issues and encourages a shift in personal values and behaviours, empowering individuals to act for social change. Another vital aspect of ESD is systems thinking, which helps learners understand the interconnectedness of environmental, social, and economic systems [11]. This perspective allows for a holistic view of sustainability challenges, blending local and global insights while incorporating both scientific and indigenous knowledge.

The effective application of ESD operates within a complex framework of governance [12]. ESD consists of interactions among global, national, and local actors and relies on various educational channels. Policy and practice dynamics play a crucial role in the success of ESD initiatives. Furthermore, ESD highlights three essential educational dimensions: knowledge, competency, and values. The knowledge aspect involves a scientific understanding of sustainability, the competency area focuses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills, and the values framework emphasizes ethical considerations and intergenerational responsibility [13,14].

Integrating CCE into ESD is also critical. This integration involves grasping climate science, acknowledging social and economic aspects, and linking them to broader sustainability goals all while fostering climate literacy and justice [14]. However, according to [13], challenges such as cultural diversity, resource constraints, and the need for improved coordination in implementation need to be addressed.

3. Methodology

Materials and Methods

This study adopts a mixed methods approach, combining qualitative and quantitative data to examine the integration of CCE in African contexts. Mixed methods research promotes the use of various techniques for gathering and analysing data within one study, recognizing the limits of relying solely on a single method [15]. When used together in a single study, quantitative and qualitative methods enhance one another and provide a more thorough examination of the research issue [15]. In our pursuit of identifying emerging trends and innovations in climate change education, this approach proved to be effective. It enabled us to uncover research that might have otherwise gone unnoticed with a more restricted set of criteria.

Literature Review: A systematic review of peer-reviewed journals, reports, and policy documents from 2010 to 2024 was conducted to identify existing knowledge and gaps in CCE implementation. To conduct this literature review, we used academic search engines such as Google Scholar and Wits Library to gain access to accredited sources. We also used Google to access organizations’ websites such as UNICEF, AFDB, the Green Protector, and UN CC Learn. Descriptors were selected through a systematic review of peer-reviewed journals, reports, and policy documents from 2010 to 2024. This timeframe was chosen to ensure that this review captured a wide range of relevant information regarding CCE implementation. Choosing search terms involved finding a balance between ensuring the search was wide enough to include relevant information while also being narrow enough to keep the review process manageable.

Table 1. Overview of methodology adopted.

Category	Component	Description	Source
Key Components	Integration of Data	Combines qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis for holistic research questions	[15]
	Methodological Framework	Structured proposal including introduction, literature review, and detailed methodology	[16]
	Flexibility in Design	Utilizes various techniques including interviews, focus groups, and surveys	[17]
Benefits	Enhanced Credibility	Improves reliability through triangulation of multiple data sources	[15]
	Cultural Sensitivity	Enables nuanced understanding of diverse populations	[17]

below shows an overview of the mixed methods approach.

This study uses case studies to provide a detailed analysis of successful CCE programmes in Rwanda, Ghana, and Ethiopia, providing practical insights and best practices that can inform future programmes. The selection process focused on identifying programmes that exemplify the category of effective climate change education, providing a comprehensive framework for analysis. Each case serves to clarify and explain key elements of successful CCE approaches, as defined by [18], offering a holistic examination of these programmes through a detailed investigation. According to [18] case studies are “analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more methods”. The case being examined will represent an example of a category of phenomena that offers an analytical framework through which the investigation is carried out and which the case clarifies and explains [18].

4. Literature Review

This section examines the health impacts of climate change, food insecurity, economic challenges, and psychological burdens in Africa while also addressing educational gaps and successful practices in CCE. It highlights challenges and opportunities for empowering youth with the knowledge and skills needed to address climate change.

4.1. The Impact of Climate Change

4.1.1. Health Risks

The ecology of disease vectors has changed due to climate change, which has increased the prevalence of illnesses, including Ebola, dengue fever, and malaria [19,20]. In sub-Saharan Africa, flooding and environmental degradation have made these health concerns worse. Moreover, increased mortality from waterborne infections due to increasing sea levels and extreme weather events is one of climate change’s direct and indirect health effects. Ref. [19] state that the number of malaria cases is increasing, particularly in highland areas of Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Ethiopia, and Uganda, with the number of people exposed expected to double by 2070. In South Africa, foodborne and water infections are sensitive topics, especially those related to bacteria, are of significant concern among youth due to close contact in schools. Rising temperatures exacerbate the situation by increasing the risk of asthma in adolescents [21,22]. Research by [23] also reveals that climate change hazards such as drought in the Western Cape have become frequent, resulting in a rapidly increased prevalence of vectorborne diseases such as heat-related illnesses, malaria, and Rift Valley fever.

4.1.2. Food Insecurity

Climate change affects food security, particularly in communities and locations that depend on rain-fed agriculture [24]. Crops and plants have thresholds beyond which growth and yield are compromised. Changes in rainfall patterns are also an important issue affecting the agricultural sector and irrigation water quality [25,26]. According to [19] the Food and Agriculture Organization reported that malnutrition in Africa has increased by 50% since 2012. This issue is believed to be a contributing factor in 1.7 million deaths in Africa each year. Food production is disrupted by environmental shocks, which increase food insecurity and hunger, both of which are serious health issues. The decline in long rainfall seasons in East Africa has led to the decreased crop yield of long-life grains such as maize. The low production of maize, which provides significant daily calorie percentages—13.1% in Burundi, 19.5% in Ethiopia, 9.3% in Uganda, 25.7% in Tanzania, and 33.3% in Kenya—greatly impacts food supply [27].

4.1.3. Economic and Livelihood Challenges

Climate change threatens traditional livelihoods, necessitating adaptation. Many people experience difficulty accessing food, water, and their ways of earning a living due to the impacts of climate change. In South Africa’s Limpopo region, worsening droughts have led to a shift from cattle to more climate-resilient livestock like goats, impacting cultural practices and economic stability [28]. Climate change has destroyed about a fifth of African countries’ gross domestic product (GDP). This economic loss worsens poverty and limits the ability to adapt to climate change [19,29]. Severe flooding in West and Central Africa regions has resulted in the loss of shelter, cultivated land, and livestock, causing people to migrate [19,27]. This displacement has resulted in additional social and economic challenges. Moreover, the effects of climate change can lead to forced migration and social unrest, further complicating political stability according to [29]. Ref. [29] argues that as communities struggle to adapt to changing environmental conditions, tensions may rise, therefore leading to conflicts over resources.

4.1.4. Mental Health and Well-Being Impacts

The psychological burden of climate change, including anxiety about the future and experiences of loss due to environmental disasters, significantly affects youth mental health. Young activists, such as those from the Philippines, express feelings of fatigue and being unheard, advocating for more institutional support and active involvement in decision-making processes [30]. Adolescents are uniquely vulnerable to climate-related health issues due to their developmental stage. In South Africa, for instance, many adolescents face increased exposure to extreme heat, leading to dehydration and heat stress. Approximately 20% of children aged 7–17 are engaged in economic activities, with about 17% working in extreme temperatures, equating to around 400,000 children at considerable risk [23].

4.1.5. Sustainable Future Energy Deficit

Climate change education (CCE) in Africa faces considerable challenges in addressing future energy supply, largely due to inadequate infrastructure, rapid population growth, and continued reliance on fossil fuels [31,32]. The limited integration of indigenous knowledge systems and the widening digital divide further hinder the effectiveness of CCE, restricting young people’s access to sustainable energy solutions [33,34]. Additionally, weak policy frameworks, financial constraints, and insufficient climate education integration present significant barriers to advancing energy transitions [35,36].As industrialization accelerates, balancing economic development with sustainability becomes increasingly complex [37]. Restricted access to modern technologies, coupled with Africa’s vulnerability to climate change, exacerbates these challenges [38].

4.1.6. Educational Disruptions

Extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and floods, disrupt education by damaging infrastructure and causing school closures. In East Africa, children have missed significant schooling due to extreme heat, with temperatures reaching 45 °C, leading to prolonged absences and impacting vital examinations [39]. Additionally, in South Africa, many students report difficulties concentrating during hot weather, with 72.9% of learners experiencing heat-related symptoms, likely undermining educational performance [40].

4.1.7. Knowledge and Awareness Gaps

While youth are at the forefront of climate activism, there are gaps in knowledge and awareness. In South Africa, only 59.7% of secondary school learners recognize human activity as being responsible for climate change, and 58.0% believe it affects human health, indicating a need for enhanced climate education [40]. Despite challenges, youth in the Global South are actively advocating for climate action. At the UN climate talks in Baku, Azerbaijan, young people from developing nations highlighted the urgent need for climate education, climate action, and funding, emphasizing the disproportionate impact of climate change on their futures [41].

4.2. Effects of Climate Change on Education

The GCA released a report explaining the different effects of climate change on education. The report stated the following effects [4].

4.2.1. Direct Effects

Climate change has a profound impact on education systems in Africa. When storms and floods strike, they can cause significant damage to schools, leading to collapsed buildings and the loss of essential teaching materials. Climate shocks directly reduce the quality of service provision, lead to more frequent school shutdowns, and prolong the duration of these closures by converting schools into emergency shelters [42]. On top of this, rising temperatures and extreme heat create uncomfortable and unhealthy learning environments. Droughts further strain schools by putting pressure on vital water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities, which are crucial for students’ health and well-being.

4.2.2. Indirect Effects

Food insecurity, health crises, economic shock, migration, and displacement contribute to the indirect effects of climate change [42]. Families facing droughts may struggle financially, which often means they can no longer afford school fees or supplies. Unfortunately, this is particularly true for girls, who may be the first to be pulled out of school in challenging times. Moreover, health issues caused by climate change, such as malnutrition and waterborne diseases, can affect students and teachers, making it even harder for children to learn and thrive. These indirect pathways lead to decreased student preparedness for learning due to health and nutrition shocks, reduced interest in education due to household coping mechanisms, and interruptions in educational services caused by displacement and conflict [42].

4.2.3. Compounding Effects

The challenges caused by climate change are made even worse by longstanding issues like gender inequality and conflict. For instance, during times of drought, adolescent girls face heightened risks when they have to travel long distances to collect water. Marginalized communities often bear the brunt of these climate risks, making it exceedingly difficult for them to access quality education. Overall, the intersection of these factors makes it clear that climate change is not just an environmental issue; it is deeply intertwined with the future of education for many young people in Africa.

The following graph (Figure 1) shows the relationship between climate change, vulnerability, and education.

The figure adopted from the Global Center on Adaptation highlights the interconnectedness of climate change, vulnerability, and education [4]. Climate change disproportionately affects vulnerable populations, particularly in developing regions where limited resources and infrastructure hinder adaptation efforts. Education is a critical tool in building resilience and equipping individuals and communities with the knowledge and skills necessary to mitigate and adapt to climate impacts. It is clear that education is not just a developmental goal but a strategic necessity in addressing climate change challenges.

4.3. Role of Education

Education is pivotal in equipping young people with the capacity to understand and address climate change [14,43]. Effective CCE should integrate scientific knowledge with traditional and local practices [6,44]. According to [6] successful educational interventions often focus on local, tangible aspects of climate change and sustainable development. This localized approach makes the content more relevant and actionable for young people, enhancing their engagement and effectiveness.

Education equips future generations, fosters community resilience, and encourages adopting sustainable practices [29]. It also provides individuals and communities with the knowledge and skills necessary to make informed decisions and adapt to climate change’s impacts in a sustainable manner. Ref. [9] emphasizes that effective climate change education is crucial for empowering young people to become active participants in decision-making processes related to climate action. This author argues that youth possess an untapped potential that policymakers should recognize and harness.

A comprehensive CCE programme integrates various subjects, including environmental stewardship, climate change literacy, and sustainable consumption [6]. This equips learners with the knowledge needed to make informed decisions about their lives and the environment. Ref. [9] concurs that the integration of CCE into school curricula ensures that young people are well informed about environmental issues and equipped with the necessary skills to engage in climate advocacy and action.

Education plays a crucial role in determining climate change literacy, as highlighted by [45]. Their study revealed that individuals with post-secondary education are 35 percent more likely to be knowledgeable about climate change than those without formal schooling. Another study by the Global Partnership Organisation of young leaders from Canada and Guyana advocated for an inclusive approach where every learner has access to climate change education [46]. Similarly, in South Africa, a non-governmental organization called “Change Drivers” run by 500 youth stated that climate change crises require environmental literacy [47]. This indicates a strong correlation between educational attainment and an increased awareness of climate-related issues.

4.4. Challenges in Implementing CCE in Africa

Barriers to CCE include inadequate teacher training, a lack of resources, and cultural factors [27,48,49]. Additionally, curricula often lack climate-specific content, and there is limited emphasis on participatory and experiential learning methods [50]. Ref. [9] highlighted some obstacles young people face when accessing quality CCE. Many of these challenges stem from economic struggles, a lack of resources, and insufficient educational facilities. Rural schools struggle with limited access to basic infrastructure and educational resources, while the overall implementation of CCE lacks systematic coordination and tends to prioritize short-term adaptation over long-term mitigation strategies [49]. The financial constraints and implications of climate-sensitive actions pose a barrier in rural areas because most African countries are in debt and have unjust financial systems, making it difficult for governments to fund transformative climate adaptation and mitigation initiatives. When young people cannot access the education they need, it makes it much harder for them to participate meaningfully in efforts to tackle climate change. Education is massively overlooked in climate financing, contributing to factors that hinder the implementation of CCE, but channelling more climate funding to education could significantly boost climate mitigation and adaptation [42].

While there have been some updates to the curriculum, teachers frequently find themselves without the necessary training or support materials to effectively teach climate change topics [51]. Many educational curricula are outdated and do not accommodate the dynamic nature of climate change nor the diverse knowledge systems present in Africa [51]. This rigidity limits the ability to adapt teaching methods and content to current environmental challenges. Furthermore, the language used in education can be a barrier as many local knowledge systems are not adequately represented in the dominant languages of instruction [51]. This can alienate students from their cultural contexts and hinder understanding. Adding to this complexity is the limited support from the government at the community level and the lack of active involvement from local communities in educational programmes [51]. Ref. [52] argued that CCE faces several challenges, including a lack of awareness among youth and a limited incorporation of sustainability topics in the existing curriculum. Many educational institutions, such as universities and colleges in Africa, have struggled to integrate climate change and sustainability topics into their curriculum.

A study by [51] argues that CCE often focuses on international perspectives, leaving local voices from Africa on the side-lines. This is a missed opportunity, as Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK) is rich and multifaceted, yet its complexity makes it hard to fit into the standard education systems that typically prioritize Western science. Cultural and societal resistance may delay the progress of climate education initiatives because local beliefs may conflict with modern environmental practices. Moreover, policies often overlook the importance of integrating ILK, making it challenging to create an educational framework representing local experiences and needs. Many teachers also struggle because they have not received the training needed to weave ILK into their lessons, leading to a disconnection between what young people learn and their real-life experiences.

5. Findings

This section offers an overview of climate change education research and aims to identify some trends that were revealed through our reading of the literature.

5.1. Youth Awareness and Knowledge

In a study conducted by [53], the researchers found that 54% of South Africans said they had never heard of climate change. However, their study consisted mostly of rural residents and individuals without formal education. In contrast, Ref. [54] found that 93% of respondents were aware of climate change. Additionally, 79% of the students made connections between the topics they learned in the school curriculum and their interest in understanding links between how different organisms impact their environment. However, the high percentage of climate change awareness found in this study is because these students studied Geography and Life Sciences in high school. A study by [49] revealed that undergraduate students at the University of Ghana possess an average knowledge level of 66.9% regarding climate change and its underlying causes. Furthermore, more than 50% of the participants did not think that climate change could lead to a rise in food- and waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea. In addition, only 41.5% of the respondents were aware that carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O) are classified as greenhouse gases, while 34% were unaware that CO₂ is the main greenhouse gas. These studies revealed that the level of education, programme of study, ethnicity, religion, and socioeconomic status of the students influenced their knowledge, perception, and attitude towards climate change.

5.2. Educational Gaps

Africa faces significant educational challenges, particularly in higher education and technical training. In 2018, higher education enrolment in sub-Saharan Africa was just 9% and 35% in North Africa, well below the global average of 38% [55]. The continent also lags in key professional fields, with only 19% of graduates in engineering, manufacturing, construction, and health sectors compared to 27% in developed economies. Climate change impacts and inadequate funding compound these challenges. African countries invest just 0.2% of GDP in Technical and Vocational Education and Training and 0.9% in higher education—notably less than the 1.24% spent by high-income countries on higher education in 2018 [55].

Using data from “Afrobarometer round 7 for 34 African countries, collected between 2017 and 2020”, Ref. [56] found that education was associated with climate change knowledge and awareness. There were significant differences in climate change consciousness according to age group, education level, sub-region, and occupation. Respondents with higher education levels showed more concern about climate change than less educated respondents. This aligns with previous research findings highlighting that climate change education can lead to increased awareness, attitude change, and climate action [45,56,57,58]. The research findings indicated that the majority of participants had a limited understanding of climate change. The primary source of information on this topic was found to be radio broadcasts [56]. According to [45] climate change literacy rates vary substantially across African countries, ranging from 23% in Tunisia to 66% in Mauritius. There is also high variation within countries, with some subnational regions having literacy rates as low as 5% and others as high as 71%.

5.3. Best Practices

Case studies highlight some of the successful programmes in Rwanda, Ethiopia, and Ghana such as Rwanda’s Green School Initiative and Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Schools, which integrate local knowledge, technology, and community engagement. The

Table 2. Successful climate change education programmes in Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Ghana.

Country	Programme	Source	Results
Rwanda	Eco-Schools Programme	[59]	This study found that integrating climate action initiatives into a Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC) and involving parents and the community effectively addressed issues like inadequate facilities, poor nutrition, and health problems while enhancing education quality. Teachers reported significant improvements in their teaching methods since Eco-Schools’ introduction, positively impacting student learning and confidence. Furthermore, 31,000 parents and community members have adopted waste management practices, tree-planting, and gardening at their homes and farms.
	Greening of Schools Project	[60]	This initiative empowers over 10,000 students in 10 schools to learn about climate change and environmental conservation [60]. So far, GS Matyazo students and teachers have planted 1040 trees and contributed 2925 from their nursery to local communities. Countrywide, this project has resulted in 42,852 trees planted, 11,661 in 10 schools and 31,191 in surrounding communities.
	The Green Protector (TGP)	[61]	This programme educates individuals and communities about environmental issues, fostering a deeper understanding of the natural world and promoting sustainable practices. TGP has also conducted Youth Climate Dialogues whereby youth collaborate and discuss climate change issues.
Ethiopia	Climate-Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy	[62]	CCE is critical for promoting the CRGE strategy and achieving sustainable development in Ethiopia. However, CCE in Ethiopia is still in its infancy stage and faces several challenges such as limited teacher qualifications, an overcrowded curriculum, a shortage of scientific knowledge and expertise, and a lack of relevant instructional materials.
	Youth Climate Dialogue	[63]	In April 2017, a Youth Climate Dialogue brought together students from the Lycée International de Ferney-Voltaire in France and those from schools in the Shedder refugee camp near the Somaliland border.
	The UN CC: Learn initiative	[64]	The UN CC: Learn initiative in Ethiopia started in September 2016 and will continue until 2030. It is demand-driven and country-owned, aligned with key national frameworks such as the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy and the Growth and Transformation Plan.
Ghana	Ghana Integrated Climate Risk Management (ICRM) project	[65]	This study found that participation in climate change capacity-building workshops, the use of family labour, and agricultural insurance significantly increase the adoption intensity of climate-smart agricultural practices (CSAPs) among farmers. On the other hand, higher off-farm income and longer distances to health facilities and water sources reduce the adoption intensity of CSAPs.
	Ghana Education Service	[66]	In October 2016, a forum was held to assess climate change knowledge among school children and teachers from 45 schools in five regions. Over 2000 primary teachers have received training on this topic. Ghana also organized National Climate Change and Green Economy Weeks in 2016 and 2023, featuring radio and TV interviews, community events, a Youth Climate Dialogue, a high school quiz, and a symposium to raise awareness.

shows examples of the climate change education programmes implemented in these countries.

5.4. Technological Opportunities

Africa currently has the lowest rate of internet access in the world at just 39%, compared to the global average of 60% [67]. There is a significant digital divide between urban and rural areas. Several factors drive this digital divide, including the high cost of accessing the internet, a lack of digital skills and literacy, and poor internet infrastructure, especially in more remote communities.

Digital platforms and geospatial tools were identified as underutilized resources with significant potential for enhancing CCE [32]. Ref. [67] highlighted several barriers to the implementation of digital farming in Africa. Key issues include the expensive nature of digital technologies, mobile phones, and data access, which particularly affects small-scale farmers. There is also a significant lack of awareness regarding information and communication technology (ICT) and deficits in digital skills and literacy. Other challenges consist of inadequate internet and cell phone infrastructure, resulting in unreliable network signals, slow internet speeds, irregular connectivity, and inadequate electricity supply. There are also concerns that the shift towards digitization could reduce the number of unskilled jobs, along with limitations in technological features and coverage, as well as linguistic diversity among rural farmers.

Ref. [68] highlights a significant challenge faced by African countries in implementing effective climate action: the lack of in-country capacity to deploy climate technology. This issue was identified in the 2013 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) climate technology needs assessment report by all 11 participating African nations. Ghana specifically reported inadequately skilled personnel at local levels as a key barrier to maintaining transferred water technologies in the water and agricultural sectors. Ref. [68] also mentions that similar capacity issues for deploying and maintaining clean technologies have been identified as technical barriers to climate action in the energy and aviation sectors in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa.

Taking into consideration the findings, the authors propose a transformative approach to climate change empowerment (Figure 2).

The arrows show the progression from foundational knowledge to leadership and action-oriented learning. They follow a progressive pathway where different components of education contribute to increasing levels of impact and empowerment.

Knowledge and awareness serve as the foundation, ensuring that young people understand climate science, environmental literacy, and indigenous knowledge.

Skill development builds on this knowledge, equipping youth with critical thinking, problem-solving, and digital competencies.

Innovation and action encourage students to apply their skills in real-world situations, engaging in community projects, green entrepreneurship, and climate advocacy.

Policy and governance represent the highest level of empowerment, where young leaders influence policies, participate in decision-making, and drive systemic change.

The graph also shows impact levels moving from Basic Understanding to Transformational Leadership, reinforcing the idea that education must move beyond theory to practical, action-driven learning. This approach ensures that youth are not just informed about climate change but also actively engaged in creating solutions and shaping policies for a sustainable future.

6. Discussion

Research demonstrates significant discrepancies in climate change awareness and education across different populations in the Global South. Ref. [53] found that 54% of South Africans had never heard of climate change, a figure influenced by the high proportion of rural and less educated respondents in their study. In contrast, Ref. [54] a 93% awareness level among students, with 79% linking climate change to their academic curriculum. This difference underscores the impact of education on climate change awareness, aligning with [69] who found that university students in Ghana had moderate knowledge (66.9%) but lacked an understanding of greenhouse gases and disease impacts.

These findings align with [56] who found that higher education levels correlate with increased climate change awareness. However, the Afrobarometer [53] study raises concerns about the digital divide and lack of information access for marginalized communities, a challenge echoed by [45], who noted vast disparities in climate literacy across Africa, ranging from 23% in Tunisia to 66% in Mauritius.

The economic repercussions of climate change significantly impact youth employment and livelihoods. In South Africa’s Limpopo region, worsening droughts have necessitated a shift from cattle to more climate-resilient livestock like goats [28]. This adaptation, though essential for survival, alters economic and cultural traditions. Similarly, [68] identifies a lack of in-country capacity to implement climate technologies, particularly in Ghana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa, limiting the ability of youth to leverage technology-driven solutions for economic resilience.

The psychological toll of climate change is profound, particularly among young activists in the Global South. Research by the Associated Press [30] highlights feelings of frustration and fatigue among youth advocates in the Philippines, who often feel unheard in policy discussions. These sentiments mirror findings in South Africa, where students report stress and anxiety linked to heat-related educational disruptions [40].

Despite the potential of digital platforms to be used for climate education and mitigation, technological barriers persist. Africa has the lowest internet access rate globally at 39%, which is significantly lower than the global average of 60% [70]. Digital farming and geospatial tools remain underutilized due to high costs, poor infrastructure, and limited digital literacy. Furthermore, Ref. [70] identify the digital divide between urban and rural areas as a key constraint in leveraging technology for climate action. However, best practices from Rwanda’s Green School Initiative and Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Schools demonstrate how integrating local knowledge and technology can enhance climate education and adaptation. These initiatives provide scalable models for addressing both educational and technological gaps.

The findings underscore the urgent need for the systemic integration of CCE into African education systems. Effective implementation requires the following.

6.1. Political Engagement in CCE

While this paper focuses on behaviour, attitudes, and skill development for farming and industry, integrating political engagement is crucial for holding governments accountable for decisions impacting sustainability. Empowering individuals and communities with the knowledge and skills necessary to influence political processes can help drive more effective policies and actions towards sustainability at the governance level. This inclusion would strengthen CCE’s role in addressing broader systemic issues affecting environmental and societal resilience.

6.2. Global-Level Influence in CCE

It is important to acknowledge CCE’s potential for global-level influence, particularly regarding greenhouse gas emissions from other continents. Addressing global emissions through CCE could contribute to a more integrated approach to climate action, emphasizing the interconnectedness of local and global environmental impacts. Highlighting this aspect would emphasize the need for global cooperation in tackling climate change and its implications for local communities.

6.3. Harmonizing National Education Policies with Global Sustainability Goals

Stronger governmental policies can facilitate the integration of climate change into educational frameworks. There is a need for genuine, non-tokenistic youth participation in climate policy development processes, where young people are empowered to take the lead in crafting policy inputs [9]. According to [9], it is also important to build trust and sustained engagement between youth, local government, and other partners to enable meaningful and impactful youth participation.

6.4. Training Educators and Providing Resources to Deliver CCE Effectively

Comprehensive training programmes for educators are essential to equip them with the skills and knowledge needed to effectively teach climate change topics [51]. Building educator capacity through regular evaluations of training programmes can help identify gaps [51].

6.5. Leveraging Local Knowledge and Participatory Approaches to Enhance Relevance and Impact

Research has shown that there is a need to ensure equitable access to resources, information, and capacity-building opportunities to enable diverse youth participation, especially for underprivileged young people [9]. CCE must move beyond traditional scientific methods to incorporate participatory, interdisciplinary, and creative approaches that empower youth to engage in climate action. Affective and arts-based methods should be integrated to evoke emotional connections and inspire proactive behaviour [2]. Education must extend beyond formal classrooms to engage communities, especially those without access to traditional educational resources. Decolonizing climate change education involves integrating ILK systems into curricula to ensure relevance and inclusivity [51]. Bottom-up educational strategies that empower learners to design climate projects can foster ownership and practical engagement [27]. Programmes like Rwanda’s Climate-Smart Agriculture and Ethiopia’s CRGE highlight the need for localized and community-driven adaptation strategies supported by policy frameworks [29,71].

6.6. Utilizing Digital Tools and E-Learning Platforms to Overcome Resource Limitations

Estimates indicate that digital technologies could significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions in key sectors such as energy, transport, industry, and agriculture [55]. The World Economic Forum suggests that these solutions could contribute to over one-third of the 50% emissions reduction target needed by 2030. Additionally, Nature-based Solutions (NbSs) could create 500,000 new jobs in Europe by 2050, representing 0.2% of the workforce. Applying this percentage to Africa could result in over 2.5 million new green jobs [55].

6.7. Establishing Robust Mechanisms to Assess the Effectiveness of CCE Initiatives

To effectively assess CCE initiatives, a comprehensive and context-sensitive approach is essential. This includes developing clear evaluation frameworks that utilize integrated assessment tools like carbon and ecological footprint calculators to track behavioural changes [6]. Such frameworks should incorporate ILK to ensure relevance [51]. Participatory monitoring and evaluation (M&E) processes can enhance assessment outcomes by engaging students, educators, and communities in co-creating evaluation tools, facilitating diverse perspectives, and providing regular feedback loops [8,27].

Assessments should prioritize measuring behavioural and attitudinal changes, focusing on whether CCE initiatives inspire sustainable behaviour beyond just imparting knowledge [2]. Aligning assessment frameworks with national and international standards, such as the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 13 (Climate Action), ensures contributions to global climate and education targets [59]. This research indicates a need for robust evaluation systems to measure the effectiveness of CCE initiatives. Studies like that conducted by [56] demonstrate that education levels significantly influence climate change awareness and understanding. However, the varying success rates of different programmes suggest the need for standardized assessment frameworks to identify and replicate effective practices across different contexts.

7. Conclusions

Preparing African youth to address climate change requires a transformative approach to education. By integrating climate change into school curricula, investing in teacher training, and leveraging technology, African nations can empower young people to become resilient and innovative leaders in climate action. Achieving this goal will require collaboration among governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the private sector. To ensure the long-term success and sustainability of climate change education (CCE) initiatives, it is crucial to establish robust, context-specific mechanisms for evaluating their effectiveness. This involves implementing clear and adaptable evaluation frameworks that assess not only knowledge acquisition but also behavioural and attitudinal shifts toward sustainable practices. Incorporating ILK systems into these frameworks will help ensure that educational content remains relevant and culturally appropriate. Additionally, providing young people with leadership opportunities and decision-making roles can foster innovative, locally adapted climate solutions.

Investing in digital infrastructure and developing e-learning platforms can help bridge the digital divide, particularly in rural areas, making climate education more accessible. Africa’s technological landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for climate resilience and education. The continent faces a significant digital divide, with only 39% internet penetration, particularly affecting rural communities. High costs, inadequate infrastructure, and limited digital literacy hinder the widespread adoption of digital tools for climate action. Moreover, there is a critical shortage of in-country capacity to deploy and maintain climate technologies, limiting their potential for sustainable development. Despite these challenges, Africa has a unique opportunity to harness digital platforms, geospatial tools, and IKSs to enhance climate education and adaptation strategies. Successful models, such as Rwanda’s Green School Initiative and Ethiopia’s Climate Resilient Schools, demonstrate that integrating local knowledge with digital tools can significantly improve climate literacy and action.

The key recommendations are that African nations can enhance climate resilience and empower their youth by prioritizing digital inclusion, investing in climate education, and fostering multi-stakeholder collaboration. A strategic emphasis on leveraging indigenous knowledge, scaling up best practices, and implementing robust evaluation mechanisms will ensure the long-term success of climate education initiatives. Sustainable digital transformation and climate resilience efforts can bridge the digital divide while enabling communities to proactively mitigate and adapt to climate change challenges.

To strengthen climate resilience through technology, governments should prioritize investments in affordable and sustainable internet infrastructure, particularly in rural and underserved areas. Strengthening public–private partnerships can reduce the cost of mobile data and digital devices, making them more accessible to marginalized communities. Innovative financing models, such as subsidies and microfinancing, can support small-scale farmers and rural entrepreneurs in adopting digital tools.

Integrating digital literacy and climate change education into national education policies is essential to equip youth with the necessary knowledge and skills. Expanding training programmes for educators will enhance their capacity to teach others about climate-related digital tools and geospatial technologies effectively. Localized e-learning platforms should offer interactive, multilingual content tailored to diverse learning needs.

Incorporating traditional ecological knowledge into educational curricula can foster culturally relevant climate solutions. Community-driven initiatives should be supported to preserve and integrate indigenous knowledge into digital platforms, while participatory approaches should engage local communities in co-developing climate adaptation strategies.

Youth leadership and participation in climate governance should be promoted through policies that support youth-led innovation hubs focused on technology-driven climate solutions. Governments should create inclusive decision-making spaces for young people to contribute to climate policy development and provide capacity-building programmes to equip them with entrepreneurial and technical skills for green economy initiatives.

Scaling up best practices, such as Rwanda’s Climate-Smart Agriculture and Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy, can be achieved through strengthened regional collaborations that facilitate knowledge-sharing and technology transfer. Incentives should encourage institutions to adopt innovative climate education models integrating digital tools and participatory learning approaches.

Finally, implementing robust monitoring and evaluation systems is critical. Standardized frameworks should measure the effectiveness of climate change education programmes in fostering behavioural and attitudinal change, while participatory approaches ensure continuous feedback from students, educators, and communities. Aligning evaluation mechanisms with global sustainability goals, such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals, will help track progress in climate education and technology integration.

To further explore the impact of climate change education (CCE) in African contexts, future research could construct case studies focusing on diverse geographical, cultural, and socioeconomic settings. For example, comparative case studies could examine urban versus rural CCE programmes, assessing how digital infrastructure and indigenous knowledge integration influence outcomes. Longitudinal studies tracking behavioural changes and skill development among youth over time would also provide valuable insights. Additionally, participatory action research involving local communities could co-develop and evaluate CCE frameworks, ensuring culturally relevant and sustainable solutions. These approaches would deepen the understanding of CCE’s effectiveness and scalability across Africa.