Understanding the Determinants of Electric Vehicle Range: A Multi-Dimensional Survey

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) play a critical role in the transition to sustainable transportation. Despite significant advancements in technology, EVs continue to face major challenges, particularly in terms of limited range, high costs, and insufficient charging infrastructure. This paper presents a comprehensive review that systematically categorizes the multifaceted factors influencing EV range into technical, environmental, user-related, economic, policy, and cultural dimensions. The aim is to offer a holistic view of how these elements interact to shape EV performance, adoption, and usage. Notably, advancements in battery capacity, charging time, vehicle weight, and aerodynamics are identified as key factors that significantly enhance EV range. Environmental factors such as temperature and terrain are shown to drastically impact energy consumption, with cold climates leading to up to a 50% reduction in range. Furthermore, user behaviors, driving patterns, and economic factors like battery costs, charging infrastructure availability, and electricity prices play a crucial role in determining EV efficiency. This review shows the importance of supportive policies, societal attitudes, and infrastructural developments in promoting the widespread adoption of EVs, making it an innovative and timely contribution to the field.

1. Introduction

Electric vehicles (EVs) represent a transformative shift in transportation, primarily powered by electrical energy stored in battery packs. This energy is converted to mechanical energy by electric motors to drive the vehicle. EV technology offers significant benefits, including reduced emissions, improved energy efficiency, and decreased dependence on fossil fuels. The transportation industry is the largest producer of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs), with road transport contributing approximately 70% of these emissions [1]. Studies indicate that globally, transportation is the second-largest emitter, with CO₂ emissions from this industry constituting about 20.44% [2]. In an environment where oil supplies are becoming increasingly scarce and carbon emissions are increasing, finding sustainable, non-polluting fuel solutions is imperative for future economic development. The use of EVs is expected to revolutionize the transportation industry, aligning with global efforts to significantly reduce emissions. According to the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), the widespread use of EVs will drastically cut GHGs more effectively than conventional vehicles [3]. Electrified transportation also addresses critical issues, such as air pollution, oil import dependence, and climate change [4].

Despite these improvements, EVs still face significant challenges, not only because of the lack of room for improvement in battery capacity, electric drive efficiency, and other technical issues but also due to high costs, limited range, and insufficient charging infrastructure [5]. The existing research tends to focus on technical aspects such as battery capacity while ignoring the combined effects of user behavior, environmental factors, and psychological barriers, such as range anxiety [6]. Range anxiety, caused by concerns about insufficient range and long charging times, remains a major barrier to consumer adoption of EVs, especially in cold climates where battery performance is affected.

In response to these challenges, CATL’s third-generation Kirin battery system offers an energy density of up to 255 Wh/kg, and the lithium iron phosphate system reaches 160 Wh/kg, with Cell-to-Chassis technology potentially enabling a driving range exceeding 1000 km [7]. However, environmental constraints prevent this from being fully achievable. Battery recycling and reuse systems, which reduce costs and environmental impact, have been proposed, but large-scale implementation is limited by system construction and cost [8]. Additionally, BYD’s Super E platform features flash-charging technology, achieving 2 km of range in 1 s and 400 km in 5 min, which could alleviate battery life concerns, though it is not yet widely available. Regarding charging infrastructure, Zeng et al. [9] developed a model to optimize charging station site selection, reducing mileage anxiety and improving travel efficiency. The US government has also adopted the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Standards and Requirements to promote charging infrastructure, though issues with inconsistent pricing remain unresolved [10].

The range of EVs is recognized to be influenced by technical factors [11], environmental factors [12], user-related factors [13], economic factors [5], policy factors [14], and cultural factors [15], among others. This survey systematically examines the various factors influencing EV range, with a focus on these multi-dimensional aspects, aiming to provide a comprehensive review and outlook for the future development of EVs. The introduction of these factors is structured in order of frequency, from the more commonly discussed factors to the less frequently discussed ones.

Section 2, Section 3, Section 4, Section 5, Section 6 and Section 7 survey the factors influencing the single-charge range of EVs, considering technical, environmental, user-related, economic, policy, and cultural factors. Section 7 offers a summary and future perspectives on the multi-dimensional factors, while Section 8 concludes the paper.

In this work, a multi-source data collection process was used to evaluate factors affecting EV range and charging time. The main types of EVs include battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). However, the focus of this study is on BEVs. The emphasis on BEVs stems from their fully electric nature, which makes them particularly sensitive to factors impacting range and charging time. Unlike PHEVs and HEVs, which rely on both electric and internal combustion engines, BEVs operate solely on battery power, making efficient range and optimized charging crucial to their viability. Thus, understanding the determinants of range and charging in BEVs is essential for advancing sustainable, all-electric transportation.

Table 1. Summary of the sources of the different data used in this paper.

Factors	Key Data Source
Technical factors	Academic papers [16,17,18,19,20,21]
	Official websites of major EV brands [22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30]
Environmental factors	Academic papers and industry reports [31,32,33,34,35]
User-related factors	Survey conducted by authors,
	Academic papers and industry reports [36,37,38,39]
Economic factors	Reports from government and industry [40,41,42]
Policy factors	Various government publications and reports [43,44,45,46,47]
Cultural factors	Academic and industry studies [48,49,50]

summarizes the key data sources used in this study.

2. Technical Factors

The technical factors influencing EV range include battery capacity, charging time, vehicle weight, aerodynamics, and driving efficiency. These factors do not operate independently but rather interact with each other, affecting overall performance. Battery capacity directly impacts range: higher capacity equals longer range, but it also increases vehicle weight, which raises energy consumption and partially offsets the range advantage. For example, in a rapid acceleration test, a 1500 kg vehicle consumes 4% more energy than a 1000 kg vehicle. Additionally, heavier vehicles extend deceleration distance, increasing energy consumption. Battery capacity also affects charging time: larger batteries store more energy and take longer to charge at the same power level. Different battery types, such as lithium-ion, have varying charging times due to their energy densities [51]. However, frequent fast charging accelerates battery degradation, reducing range over time by diminishing energy storage capacity.

2.1. Battery Capacity

Battery capacity in EVs refers to the amount of electric energy that the battery can store and is typically measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh). The battery capacity directly influences the driving range of the vehicle; the higher the battery capacity, the longer the vehicle can travel on a single charge. Several factors influence battery capacity, which in turn impacts the range of an EV, and it can be explained in the following aspects.

Energy density indicates the amount of energy that can be stored in a battery for a given volume or weight. Higher energy density allows for greater battery capacity, thereby extending the EV’s range. State of charge (SOC) is a crucial factor when assessing energy density in real time, as it reflects how much usable energy is available at any given moment. Optimizing parameters such as particle size, electrode surface area, porosity, electrode thickness, and collector size can enhance battery performance [52]. Xiao et al. [16] highlight that improving these parameters significantly boosts the energy density of lithium-ion batteries, contributing to enhanced battery capacity and longer driving ranges. Efficiency loss occurs during energy storage and release from the battery, with larger capacity batteries typically offering higher efficiency and longer range. Frequent charging and deep discharging can degrade battery health, reducing efficiency and range over time [17]. The energy management system (EMS) is important in optimizing energy usage and managing battery status, with larger batteries allowing for greater flexibility. Advanced EMS technologies, as discussed by Capasso and Veneri [18], significantly improve energy management and range optimization.

In this study, the combined charging load test cycle (CLTC) range is used. The CLTC range of an EV represents the estimated distance a vehicle can travel on a single charge, based on testing across various driving conditions, including city, highway, and combined scenarios. The CLTC range is chosen for this survey because it is commonly displayed by most EV brands and facilitates consistent comparisons across models. Figure 1 shows a clear positive correlation between battery capacity and EV range, with larger batteries extending driving distances. However, the relationship is not perfectly linear, as factors like vehicle weight and aerodynamics also impact range. Most EVs cluster around 50–90 kWh capacities and 400–700 km ranges, while high-end models exceed 100 kWh and 700 km, catering to long-distance travelers. Lower-capacity models with ranges below 300 km are optimized for urban commuting. A comprehensive approach to battery capacity, energy management, and vehicle design is essential for optimizing range.

According to the formula, range equals battery capacity multiplied by energy efficiency divided by energy consumption. Battery degradation leads to capacity loss, which directly results in a shorter range. Battery degradation is influenced by multiple factors, including charging method, temperature, depth of discharge (DoD), and other conditions. Battery capacity gradually decreases with use, leading to less energy being stored on a single charge [51,53]. Although fast charging shortens charging times, it leads to high-power charging that accelerates lithium-ion plating on the anode surface, increasing internal resistance and heat production, which results in rapid capacity degradation. In contrast, low-power charging reduces battery stress and results in higher long-term capacity retention. It has been shown that after 10 years, daily battery capacity using 60 kW fast charging is reduced by 22% compared to 1.8 kW slow charging [54]. Additionally, as the DoD decreases from 100% to 20%, the number of NMC battery cycles increases from 300 to 2000. Increased electrolyte viscosity at low temperatures reduces lithium-ion mobility, resulting in a reduction in usable capacity (e.g., up to 50% loss of range at −10 °C). Further, cockpit and battery heating consume additional energy, which further reduces the range. High temperatures accelerate side reactions, electrolyte decomposition, and SEI film thickening, leading to an irreversible loss of capacity [55].

Previous studies have mainly focused on capacity degradation but have not considered power degradation as a potential source of poor performance [56]. As EV batteries degrade, their power capability also declines, which leads to longer charging times. Optimized charging strategies and enhanced thermal management can significantly slow down capacity degradation and extend the real-world range of EVs. In the future, combining technological innovations (e.g., high-temperature-resistant materials) with user education will be essential to comprehensively improve battery life and the overall user experience.

2.2. Charging Time

Charging technology plays a significant role in the wide introduction of EVs. The time required to charge an EV battery depends on several factors, including the type of charging technology and the battery’s SOC. Conventional EV charging methods, such as constant current (CC), constant voltage (CV), and trickle charging, have evolved with advanced technologies like CC/CV for faster charging. Pulse and negative pulse charging further reduce charging times. Direct current (DC) fast-charging stations offer shorter charging times compared to alternating current (AC) stations. Sarker et al. [57] use M/G/S/K queuing theory to model DC fast-charging operations, showing that limiting the requested SOC during peak demand increases energy throughput and revenue while reducing EV wait times. Specific data provided by [58] show that when charging in the 20–80% SOC interval, the average energy loss is about 13.53%. In contrast, in the 80–100% SOC interval, the energy loss exceeds 20%. This indicates that when the battery is charged above 80% SOC, the energy loss is almost twice as high as in the 20–80% SOC range.

Figure 2 compares the range and charging times of various EV models using (a) DC fast charging and (b) AC slow charging. For DC charging, the trend shows that models with longer ranges typically require more time to reach a substantial charge; however, this relationship is not strictly linear. Some models stand out by offering high ranges with relatively short DC charging times. Most models have DC charging times clustered around 25–32 min. In contrast, AC charging times are generally longer for the same range. While longer AC charging times might be a drawback for long-distance travel, they are suitable for scenarios where overnight or home charging is feasible. Figure 2b reveals a positive correlation between range and AC charging time (10% to 100% SOC), with most models clustered around 8–12 h. Models optimized for urban use tend to have shorter ranges but are less impacted by the slower AC charging.

2.3. EV Weight

The weight of an EV is a critical factor that impacts its range, performance, and overall energy efficiency. The distance traveled per charge depends on the number of batteries and the total weight of the vehicle [20]. Historically, the average car weight decreased in the 1980s with the introduction of lighter materials. However, safety standards eventually led to an increase in vehicle weight.

The weight of an EV directly influences its energy consumption. Heavier vehicles require more energy to accelerate and maintain speed, leading to increased battery usage and reduced range. Berjoza and Jurgena [59] demonstrate that for every 100 kg reduction in vehicle weight, the range can increase by 10–11%. Additionally, battery costs, wear, and tear decrease by approximately 20% with such weight reductions. Vehicle weight affects both rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag. At low and medium speeds, rolling resistance, which increases with weight, is the dominant force, while at higher speeds, aerodynamic drag becomes more significant. Reducing weight minimizes both forces, improving energy efficiency. Proper load distribution is also crucial, as uneven weight can lead to imbalanced handling and higher energy consumption. Alonso et al. [19] emphasize the need to consider mass-related subsystems in EV design to optimize both weight reduction and distribution for improved performance.

The use of lightweight materials like aluminum, carbon fiber, and composites significantly reduces EV weight, enhancing range and energy efficiency. Examples include the hybrid body structures of the Cadillac CT6 and Buick GL8, which combine high-strength steel and aluminum. Nicoletti et al. [21] show that these materials lower vehicle weight, though their cost and manufacturing impact must be considered. Advanced models, such as those by Wiedemann et al. [60] and Nicoletti et al. [21], estimate vehicle weight and energy consumption, aiding in the design of energy-efficient EVs. These models help in designing EVs that are both energy-efficient and feasible in terms of packaging and structural integrity. Figure 3 shows a positive correlation between vehicle weight and range for recent EV models. Heavier vehicles, particularly those around 2400 kg like the W3 and W5 models, exhibit shorter ranges due to increased energy consumption, highlighting the impact of weight on energy efficiency. Most EVs fall within the 1600–2500 kg range, with heavier models demonstrating lower efficiency.

3. Environmental Factors

Although the optimization of vehicle technical parameters has significantly improved the range, the actual performance of EVs is still highly dependent on external environmental conditions. For example, fluctuations in battery performance at extreme temperatures and the impact of terrain fluctuations on energy consumption need to be taken into account. The following will explore how environmental factors work together with vehicle technology to influence range.

3.1. Temperature

Temperature conditions significantly affect the energy consumption of EVs, thereby influencing their range [31]. Studies have shown that weather variables affecting energy consumption include ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, air density, wind speed and direction, and minimum visibility [61]. Ambient temperature significantly impacts EV range, with colder conditions increasing energy consumption due to reduced battery efficiency and the need for cabin and battery heating. In winter, energy consumption rises by about 34%, and vehicle range can decrease by up to 28% compared to summer [12]. High temperatures also strain batteries, requiring energy-intensive cooling measures, further affecting range.

Most past studies have overlooked environmental factors, particularly ambient temperature, despite its significant impact on EV energy consumption. Reyes et al. [62] showed that EV range is highly dependent on temperature, with colder temperatures reducing battery performance. Steinstraeter et al. [36], through field tests on the BMW i3 and Tesla Model 3, found that cabin heating can reduce the range by up to 31.9% under low-temperature conditions, and limited energy recovery can further reduce the range by 21.7%. Under the combined influence, the range can be reduced by up to 50%. Kambly and Bradley [63] pointed out that to maintain internal thermal comfort in cold weather, the energy consumption of air conditioning systems can reduce the range of electric vehicles by 35% to 50%. In addition, Xu et al. [64] found in a field test in Tianjin that the energy consumption of the air conditioner, when it was turned on, increased by 47.48% compared to when it was turned off in a low-temperature environment, while in a high-temperature environment, the increase was 17.12%. This indicates that the air conditioning system has a significant impact on energy consumption under extreme temperatures. Lindgren et al. [65] further explored the limitations imposed by extreme temperatures. Fetene et al. [66] demonstrated the non-linear effects of speed, acceleration, and temperature on energy consumption, while Liu et al. [67] highlighted how temperature affected battery efficiency and the performance of auxiliary systems, such as heating and cooling, further affecting the range of EVs. Geotab Inc., one of the world’s largest telematics companies, conducted an in-depth study analyzing 5.2 million trips of 4200 EVs, finding that the optimal temperature for EV performance is 21.5 °C [34]. At this temperature, the actual range exceeds the rated range by an average of 15%. In extremely cold weather, range can decrease by up to 50%, primarily due to the energy required to keep the driver and battery at a comfortable temperature. In ref. [34], it illustrated the relationship between ambient temperature and the real-world driving range of EVs as a percentage of their rated range. It indicates that EVs perform optimally between 10 °C and 32 °C. In this temperature range, the real-world range remains above 100%, meaning EVs can exceed their rated range under these conditions. This suggests that moderate climates, where energy demand for heating or cooling systems is minimized, allow EVs to operate with greater efficiency.

3.2. Terrain

Terrain is one of the most significant factors affecting EV energy consumption and, consequently, range [68]. Studies show that terrain impacts energy use, with methods developed to provide more accurate range predictions. Neaimeh et al. [32] created a model for improved range estimates by considering terrain and traffic conditions, while Li et al. [33] identified key factors, such as terrain and climate, affecting consumption. Long et al. [69] studied probabilistic EV charging loads in mountainous cities to predict future demands.

Terrain significantly influences EV range, particularly in regions with varying elevations, such as mountainous and hilly terrains. Travesset et al. [70] found that while EVs show higher energy efficiency in hilly areas compared to plains, their range decreases significantly in mountainous regions due to elevation changes. Among factors affecting driving conditions, road slope plays a crucial role in energy consumption. Liu et al. [71] demonstrated that positive slopes increase energy consumption, while negative slopes enhance energy recovery. For example, an 8% uphill slope results in approximately 81 Wh energy consumption, whereas a −8% downhill slope leads to about 8 Wh. Though energy recovery during downhill driving offsets some energy used uphill, the net effect often leads to higher overall consumption, reducing the vehicle’s range.

Plains and urban terrains are typically flat, positively affecting EV range. Driving on flat terrain results in stable and low energy consumption, mainly overcoming rolling and air resistance, consuming less energy, and extending range. In urban environments, although the terrain is flat, complex traffic conditions and frequent stops can increase energy consumption. Generally, the urban driving range is 20–30% higher than the highway driving range. For example, an EV with an urban range of 300 miles (around 482 km) may have a highway range of about 225 miles (around 362 km) [35].

On highways, driving at a stable speed can improve energy efficiency, reducing energy consumption from frequent acceleration and deceleration. However, high-speed driving increases air resistance; for every 10 km/h increase in speed, EV energy consumption increases by about 15%. Air resistance significantly impacts energy consumption at high speeds. Terrain changes, such as occasional slopes and long flat stretches, also affect range during long drives. Overall, long-distance highway driving on flat terrain can provide better range performance. Wager et al. [72] showed discrepancies between actual range and manufacturers’ claims under highway conditions. Special terrains like deserts, snowy roads, and muddy conditions increase rolling resistance and reduce range, while extreme temperatures, particularly in deserts and icy regions, negatively impact battery performance. Climate factors like precipitation can increase energy use by 5–10% due to reduced road friction.

4. User-Related Factors

This section examines how user driving habits and behaviors impact EV range. A survey was conducted on 79 participants from 15 regions (Shenzhen, Guangzhou, Zhongshan, Zhuhai, Foshan, Yunfu, Zhenjiang, Nanjing, Beijing, Hangzhou, Maoming, Chongqing, Changsha, Yangzhou, and Wuhan in China), covering different city sizes and economic development levels. Respondents, aged 18–70, were asked about their reasons for not choosing EVs and preferred air conditioning settings while driving. The survey involved 42 men and 37 women participants. Regarding driving experience, 34% had 5 years or fewer, while 35% had over 16 years of driving experience. The remaining participants were distributed among those with 6–10 years (19%) and 11–15 years (11%) of driving experience.

For the main reasons for not using EVs, the participants highlighted limited charging stations (88%), long charging times (79%), and range anxiety (57%). These concerns are particularly relevant for users with high-range demands or unpredictable schedules. While advancements in battery technology and charging infrastructure are improving, many users remain hesitant, doubting EVs’ ability to meet range needs in conditions like heavy traffic or extreme temperatures. Figure 4 shows the preferred air conditioning temperature settings from the conducted survey. Most users prefer a temperature range of 22 °C to 24 °C, with 16.5%, 20.3%, and 15.2% selecting this range. Few users set their air conditioning below 20 °C or above 25 °C, indicating a preference for moderate cooling to maintain driving comfort. Air conditioning settings significantly impact EV range, especially in warmer climates where frequent use can reduce range. Educating users on energy-efficient settings and improving air conditioning system efficiency, including features like pre-conditioning, can enhance range consistency. Research shows that heating can reduce EV range by up to 31.9%, and cold conditions can cause a combined range reduction of up to 50% [36].

Commuting time is a crucial consideration in daily life, influencing travel choices and is closely related to EV range. Differences in commuting times across cities of different sizes provide important references for designing EV range. Figure 5 compares average one-way commuting times across countries. Denmark and Sweden have shorter average times (around 0.3 h), thanks to efficient public transportation and compact urban layouts, while China and Germany report the longest times (around 0.6 h). Driving speed greatly affects EV energy consumption, with higher speeds causing greater air resistance and reduced efficiency. Data from the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers show 52% of EV trips occur at 30 km/h or lower, and 88% at 50 km/h or lower, with moderate speeds improving range [73]. Aggressive behaviors, like rapid acceleration and hard braking, also increase energy use, while smooth driving and regenerative braking enhance efficiency [13,74,75]. Additionally, maintaining optimal tire pressure can reduce rolling resistance and improve range [76].

Range anxiety, or the fear of running out of battery before reaching the destination, influences driving habits, leading users to drive conservatively and plan routes around charging stations. Charging anxiety, driven by inadequate infrastructure and long wait times, exacerbates this issue [37]. For users with tight schedules, even 30–60 min charging times can be too long. In contrast, gasoline vehicles, despite potentially lower ranges, offer reliable range, faster refueling, and minimal range anxiety due to widespread stations and less impact from cold weather. A reliable charging network can meet 85–90% of travel needs even with EVs having 400–500 km range, though users often prefer longer ranges for reassurance [77]. Studies suggest experienced EV users are less sensitive to range concerns, though a range buffer may still provide peace of mind [38]. Critical range situations increase sensitivity, and accurate range estimates with real-time charging data can reduce anxiety and promote confident driving [73]. Charging needs vary significantly, and some EV owners may experience charging anxiety [78].

Figure 5. Average one-way commuting time in some representative countries and regions (data source from [79]).

Figure 5. Average one-way commuting time in some representative countries and regions (data source from [79]).

For the global charging demand distribution, it is found that 54.4% occurred during work hours, 28.9% in the evening, and 16.7% at night. The evening peak (82%) stems from users charging after work, potentially stressing electricity grids. Encouraging nighttime charging could ease grid pressure. For users driving under 30 km daily, owning a second vehicle, or with EVs having 300–400 km range, charging every two to three days is common [39]. Users’ charging habits affect EV battery life and range. To avoid overcharging and deep discharging, proper scheduling of charging times and frequencies is crucial. EV manufacturers can improve energy efficiency through software updates. In China, the State Grid’s ‘Online State Grid’ app allows users to set charging targets and times, optimizing charging during peak periods and reducing costs while enhancing power resource efficiency.

5. Economic Factors

User-related factors, such as driving behavior and charging habits, significantly impact the real-world range and efficiency of EVs. However, economic factors, including battery costs, charging infrastructure availability, and regional electricity prices, are equally crucial in shaping EV adoption and practicality. As battery prices decrease and charging networks expand, the affordability and appeal of EVs increase, making them more competitive with traditional vehicles. Additionally, regional electricity pricing further influences consumer decisions and the broader introduction of EVs. Understanding these economic factors is key to evaluating the long-term sustainability and growth of electric transportation [80].

5.1. Battery Cost

Battery costs are a key economic factor that significantly impact the overall cost and use rate of EVs. Although battery prices have been decreasing over the past decade, they still constitute a large portion of the total cost of EVs. Putra et al. [81] indicate that battery costs account for about 30–40% of the total cost of a vehicle. Such high costs are primarily due to expensive raw materials, complex manufacturing processes, and advanced technologies required to ensure safety and efficiency.

Figure 6 illustrates the relationship between estimated EV battery pack costs (in CNY/kWh, using 2023 constant dollars) [40] and the worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure (WLTP) electric range (in km) [41] over time, comparing trends in China and Europe from 2015 to 2023. Between 2010 and 2020, costs fell from 1000 CNY/kWh to 200 CNY/kWh due to increased production and improved materials. From 2020 to 2023, innovations like ‘cell-to-pack’ designs and lower lithium prices further reduced costs to 133 CNY/kWh. With emerging technologies, such as solid-state and cobalt-free batteries, costs are expected to drop to 100 CNY/kWh by 2030, enabling larger EV battery capacities and extended range at lower prices. As battery costs decline, the electric range for EVs has generally increased, as seen in the red (China) and blue (Europe) lines. This suggests that reduced costs allow manufacturers to either increase battery capacity or improve efficiency, enhancing the vehicle’s range. However, range improvements vary slightly between China and Europe, potentially due to regional differences in vehicle design and consumer preferences. The inverse relationship between battery cost and range shows that as costs drop, EV range increases. Battery cost reduction is a critical factor in making EVs more viable for long-distance travel, thus boosting their appeal to a broader market.

Figure 7 compares the battery price index across China, North America, and Europe from 2020 to 2023, using China as the baseline (indexed at 100) [42]. China’s battery costs were the lowest due to large-scale production and efficient supply chains. In North America and Europe, the costs remained higher due to stricter safety standards and higher labor and raw material costs. North America saw the index peak in 2021 at around 140, suggesting a temporary rise in costs before declining to approximately 120 by 2023. Europe showed even higher relative costs compared to China, starting at about 180 in 2020. Although there was a steady decline to just over 130 by 2023, Europe still had the highest battery costs among the regions, potentially due to differences in production capacity or supply chain logistics. Despite regional differences, the cost gap is narrowing, but China’s lower costs enable more affordable long-range EVs compared to the USA and Europe. In the future, further advancements in battery technology and production efficiency are expected to continue lowering battery costs, driving the sustainable development of EVs.

5.2. Availability of Charging Infrastructure

The density and distribution of charging stations significantly impact EV introduction, as insufficient infrastructure leads to range anxiety. The ‘chicken-and-egg’ problem between limited range and sparse charging stations exacerbates this issue. High geographical coverage of charging infrastructure, including cities, rural areas, and highways, allows drivers to better plan routes and fully utilize EV range, reducing concerns over finding charging stations during long-distance travel [82].

China’s aggressive promotion of charging infrastructure has helped reduce range anxiety, though development still lags behind EV growth, hindering widespread adoption [83]. By March 2024, public charging stations in China reached 2.91 million, signaling a high-growth phase that will decrease reliance on single-charge range and further alleviate range anxiety among drivers. Figure 8 highlights regional differences in China’s charging infrastructure [83]. East and South China, especially Guangdong, Shanghai, and Zhejiang, have the highest concentration of charging piles, supporting long-distance EV travel. North and Southwest China have moderate coverage, with urban areas like Beijing and Chongqing well equipped but rural areas lacking sufficient infrastructure, limiting intercity travel. Northwest China has the fewest charging stations, restricting EV use to urban centers and making long-distance travel difficult due to the sparse availability of charging facilities. Driven by strong policies, Europe’s charging station network has expanded rapidly, growing by around 50,000 stations per quarter since early 2022, with a 50% average annual growth over the past three years. Europe now ranks second globally in charging station numbers, after China. In 2022, 60% of the EU’s public charging stations were concentrated in the Netherlands, France, and Germany, with the UK adding about 82,000 stations. These four countries dominate the region’s charging infrastructure.

Figure 9 illustrates the uneven distribution of charging points across US states, impacting EV usability and range [84]. California leads with nearly half of national EV sales and high EV penetration, driven by extensive charging infrastructure and renewable energy adoption. In contrast, states like Virginia and Maryland have fewer charging points, limiting EV range and convenience, especially for long-distance travel. This reflects the fragmented and regionally varied pace of EV introduction in the US compared to the EU and China. Southeast Asia is rapidly developing EV infrastructure, bypassing the use of conventional vehicles. In Malaysia, over 2000 charging stations were operational by January 2024, with 60% concentrated in Greater Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. Similarly, Indonesia had 846 stations, mostly on Java, by September 2023. Thailand had 8702 charging stations by the same date, maintaining a favorable car-to-charger ratio of 10:1. Charging infrastructure in the region is unevenly distributed, with metropolitan areas having the highest concentration.

5.3. Electricity Prices

Electricity prices significantly influence the cost-effectiveness and usability of EVs. While EV range depends on technical factors like battery capacity, charging costs, shaped by regional electricity prices, affect how frequently drivers recharge and the cost per trip. EVs are generally more cost-effective than traditional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, especially in regions with abundant renewable energy, which typically have lower electricity prices. In contrast, areas that rely on fossil fuels often face higher electricity costs, impacting EV operating expenses.

The data from 80 charging stations in 18 Chinese cities show relatively low and consistent prices, averaging 0.15–0.16 CNY/kWh. Lower electricity costs incentivize drivers to recharge more frequently, reducing concerns about cost and encouraging long-distance travel, thereby increasing the practical range of EVs. The wide variation in US EV charging costs, ranging from 0.21 to 0.56 CNY/kWh, may deter frequent recharging and long-distance trips [85].

Figure 10 illustrates the average EV charging costs in CNY/kWh across some representative countries and regions [85,86]. Among these, China has the lowest average charging cost at approximately 0.16 CNY/kWh, while the Nordic region has the highest at 0.5 CNY/kWh. These differences in charging costs are influenced by varying energy prices, the mix of energy sources, and regional government policies regarding EV infrastructure.

Although not directly shown in the figure, the relationship between charging costs and EV range can be inferred. In regions with higher costs, like the Nordic region, consumers may prefer longer-range EVs to reduce charging frequency and operational costs, making them more attractive despite higher upfront prices. Conversely, in regions like China with lower charging costs, shorter-range, affordable EVs are more feasible, as charging expenses are less of a concern, encouraging broader introduction in price-sensitive markets. For future trends, using renewable energy for EV charging can mitigate the impact of electricity price fluctuations. Compared to fossil fuels, solar, wind, and other renewable energy sources typically offer more stable and predictable prices. Integrating renewable energy with EV charging infrastructure can reduce operating costs and the environmental impact of EVs.

6. Policy Factors

Although reducing battery costs and improving charging convenience can promote the development of EVs, this process often relies on government policy guidance and support. For example, subsidies can directly alleviate users’ concerns about high battery costs, while infrastructure investment requires long-term planning at the policy level. The following section will systematically explain how policies shape the range demand and market pattern of EVs. Government policies play a pivotal role in shaping the EV landscape, including influencing how EV range is developed and adopted by consumers. These policies, ranging from subsidies and tax incentives to infrastructure investments, directly affect the demand for certain EV ranges, and the overall cost-effectiveness of developing and purchasing EVs with extended ranges.

6.1. Government Incentives

One of the most significant ways policy affects EV range is through government subsidies and incentives that encourage the development and purchase of EVs. In many countries, subsidies are structured in a way that encourages automakers to focus on producing long-range vehicles. For example, policies in China and Europe often provide higher incentives for EVs with greater range, because longer-range vehicles are considered more practical and able to meet the needs of urban and rural drivers. To reduce the initial cost of EVs and make them more affordable for consumers, government incentives and subsidies are crucial. These incentives include tax credits, rebates, and grants for purchasing EVs and installing home charging stations.

Table 2. Comparison of EV promotion policies, EV sales policies, fuel economy, emission limits, and purchase subsidies and tax reductions/eligibility criteria across six countries [43,44,45].

Key Aspects	Country
	China	US	Japan	Germany	Norway
EV Sales/Stock	Zero-emission vehicle (ZEV): 20% by 2025 and reach 100% by 2035	ZEV: 3.3 million by 2025, and 100% sales by 2050	BEV and PHEV: 20–30% by 2035 and 100% by 2050	BEV and PHEV: 20–30% by 2035 and 100% by 2050	ZEV: 100% sales share by 2025
Fuel Economy	25 km/L	24.5 km/L	24.5 km/L	-	-
Emission	117 CO2 g/km	52.82 CO2 g/km	122 CO2 g/km	95 CO2 g/km	95 CO2 g/km
Purchase Subsidy Tax Exemption and Eligibility Criteria	Vehicle purchase tax exemption for 2024–2025, with the exemption amount not exceeding around 4300 CNY per new energy passenger vehicle. Half of the vehicle purchase tax for 2026–2027, with the tax reduction amount not exceeding around CNY 2100 per new energy passenger vehicle.	Provide 1 billion CNY between now and 2031 for heavy-duty vehicle programs. Tax credits of up to 40,000 CNY per vehicle for vehicles with 15 kWh or more of capacity from approved manufacturers.	Subsidy cap amount up to around 5900 CNY from the governors.		25% VAT will be applied to the purchase price of around 45,500 CNY and above.

compares the EV promotion policies, EV sales policies, fuel economy, emission limits, and purchase subsidies and tax reductions/eligibility criteria across five countries, including China and the United States [43,44,45]. Meanwhile, the Austrian government announced in 2023 that EVs are exempt from standard consumption tax, motor-related insurance tax, and in-kind benefits tax. Additionally, company vehicles that are electric are exempt from tax and VAT [46].

Emission standards and fuel economy regulations significantly impact EV range. From Table 2, governments set stringent emission targets, like the EU’s CO₂ limits, compelling automakers to enhance vehicle efficiency. For example, the EU’s 95 g/km CO₂ emission standard for new cars encourages the development of EVs with higher efficiency and longer ranges, as greater range lowers emissions per kilometer. In contrast, regions with less strict regulations may lead manufacturers to focus on other vehicle features, like speed or luxury, potentially at the cost of range. Hence, strict emission policies drive the push for longer EV ranges by emphasizing energy efficiency.

6.2. Infrastructure Investment

Another critical policy factor affecting EV range is government investment in charging infrastructure. The development of a robust charging network can directly influence the range requirements for EVs. In regions where fast-charging stations are widespread and accessible, the need for ultra-long-range EVs diminishes. Drivers can opt for vehicles with moderate ranges, knowing that they will have frequent opportunities to recharge during long trips. For instance, in countries like Norway, where government investment has resulted in a highly developed charging network, consumers feel comfortable purchasing EVs with shorter ranges because they have confidence in the availability of chargers. In contrast, in countries with sparse charging infrastructure, like some parts of the United States or Southeast Asia, policies that lag behind in infrastructure development lead to a greater demand for long-range EVs. Figure 11 compares the growth of publicly accessible light-duty vehicle charging points, separating slow chargers (left panel) and fast chargers (right panel) across regions from 2015 to 2023 [42]. The left panel reveals a steady increase in slow chargers, especially after 2020. China leads significantly, as seen in the large orange segments, representing most of the installations by 2023. Europe follows with consistent growth, while the United States and other regions have more modest increases, particularly after 2021. This suggests China’s emphasis on developing a broad network of slow chargers to support urban charging needs. In the right panel, fast chargers show exponential growth starting in 2020, with China leading the way. The rapid expansion of fast chargers in China indicates a focus on supporting longer-distance travel and reducing charging times. Europe and the United States contribute smaller shares but show an increasing trend.

As discussed in Section 5.2, the availability of charging stations is crucial for consumers considering EV purchases. Recently, many countries have increased support for charging infrastructure. In the UK, 300,000 public chargers will be installed by 2030. China has implemented subsidies for charging stations in regions, such as Guangdong, Shanghai, and Hunan. Shenzhen plans to install 43,000 fast-charging and 790,000 slow-charging stations by 2025, while Shanghai aims for 10,000 public chargers in 2024 [87]. Japan’s Green Growth Strategy targets 150,000 public charging stations by 2030, including 30,000 fast chargers [88]. Similarly, the US National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (NEVI) plans to build EV chargers across 75,000 miles of highways, aiming for 500,000 chargers by 2030.

7. Cultural Factors

Cultural factors play a significant role in shaping acceptance and preferences regarding EV range, influenced by societal values and environmental concerns.

7.1. Social Values

Cultural attitudes toward innovation and mobility heavily affect EV range expectations across regions. In technologically progressive societies, such as Japan, Norway, and Germany, EVs are often perceived as high-status, forward-thinking, and environmentally responsible products. As a result, consumers in these regions tend to demand EVs with extended ranges (typically over 400 km) to support intercity and rural travel without frequent recharging [48]. For example, the widespread highway travel culture in Norway encourages the adoption of long-range models, such as the Tesla Model Y and Audi Q8 e-tron. In contrast, in regions where EV adoption is more utilitarian—such as Southeast Asia or parts of Latin America—the emphasis is placed on affordability and practicality for short-distance urban commuting. Here, consumers show greater acceptance of lower-range EVs (under 250 km), provided charging costs are low and the vehicles fit daily mobility needs. For instance, in Thailand and Indonesia, small EVs like the Wuling Air EV have gained popularity due to compact design and cost-effectiveness, despite offering shorter ranges.

In many cultures, car ownership also serves as a social signal. In societies with a strong association between vehicles and social status, such as China and the United States, high-end long-range EVs (e.g., Tesla Model S and NIO ET7) are often viewed as luxury symbols, increasing consumer interest in extended range [89]. On the other hand, in societies where car ownership is viewed more as a functional asset, such as in the Netherlands or South Korea, range is not always the top priority. Consumers are more likely to weigh total cost of ownership and urban compatibility when selecting EVs. Furthermore, in high power distance cultures, where social hierarchies and traditional consumer habits are deeply rooted, openness to new technologies may be limited, delaying EV uptake regardless of range [49]. This suggests that marketing and policy approaches must be culturally tailored to promote range confidence and reduce psychological barriers.

7.2. Environmental Sustainability

The level of environmental concern also varies across cultures and directly affects perceptions of necessary EV range. In regions where environmental sustainability is prioritized, such as Northern Europe, Canada, and New Zealand, there is greater tolerance for shorter-range EVs, as consumers are motivated by emission reduction goals rather than convenience alone [90]. Buyers in these areas are more willing to compromise on range in favor of greener technology [50]. Conversely, in countries where environmental values are less prominent in public discourse—such as some oil-producing or rapidly industrializing nations—range anxiety tends to be more pronounced. This is especially true in areas with underdeveloped charging infrastructure, where consumers remain skeptical of EVs unless range meets or exceeds that of conventional vehicles. Media coverage and government messaging play a key role in shaping these perceptions. In markets where public discourse emphasizes EV benefits and infrastructure expansion—such as France and Sweden—consumers are more open to a wider spectrum of range offerings. Research has shown substantial cross-national differences in how EVs are reported in media, which in turn affects adoption patterns and consumer trust in EV range capabilities [91].

8. Summary and Future Perspectives

This section provides a comprehensive summary and future perspectives on the factors influencing EV range, each contributing to variations in EV performance under different conditions.

Table 3. Summary of each factor’s feature and its influence on EV range based on the analysis.

Factor	Feature/Influence on EV Range
Battery Capacity	Directly increases range with higher capacity, allowing for longer distances between charges.
Charging Time	Reduces downtime with fast-charging technology, alleviating range anxiety.
Weight	Lighter weight and better aerodynamics improve energy efficiency, extending range.
Temperature	Extreme temperatures reduce battery efficiency, leading to shorter range, but are mitigated by thermal management.
Terrain	Hilly or rough terrains increase energy consumption, but regenerative braking helps recover energy.
Driving Behavior	Eco-friendly driving extends range, while aggressive driving reduces efficiency.
Charging Infrastructure	Widespread, high-speed charging infrastructure reduces range anxiety and allows for long-distance travel.
Battery Cost	Lower battery costs enable more affordable long-range EVs.
Electricity Prices	Lower electricity prices reduce operational costs, promoting frequent charging.
Government Incentives	Financial incentives and subsidies reduce the cost burden on consumers, making long-range EVs more accessible.
Infrastructure Investment	Investment in charging infrastructure expands network coverage, making long-distance travel more feasible.
Social Values	Societal attitudes toward sustainability and modernity can drive demand for EVs with extended range.
Environmental Sustainability	Emphasis on reducing carbon footprint increases the preference for EVs.

offers a detailed breakdown of these features and their corresponding effects on EV range. Figure 12 presents a radar chart that evaluates the influence of each factor on EV range, based on the reviews in this work.

Battery capacity is directly linked to EV range: the higher the capacity, the longer the range. EVs typically range from 50 to 90 kWh, achieving 400–700 km, while high-end models exceed 100 kWh, offering 700+ km. Battery energy density, charge state, and energy management systems also affect range, making battery capacity the most crucial factor, scoring 10. Charging time impacts user experience and range; DC fast charging reduces time, easing range anxiety, but charging time itself is not a direct determinant of range, earning an 8. Vehicle weight affects energy consumption, with heavier vehicles draining more power, reducing range. Weight influences rolling and air resistance but is less critical than battery capacity, so it scores 8.

Temperature impacts EV range significantly. Cold weather reduces battery efficiency, requiring extra energy for cabin and battery heating, reducing range by up to 50%. High temperatures also affect energy use for cooling. Although thermal management mitigates these effects, the impact is medium to high, scoring 7. Terrain fluctuations directly impact energy consumption, especially in mountainous areas where climbing increases energy use. While energy recovery during downhill driving compensates somewhat, it still reduces overall range, so it scores 6. Driving behavior, such as speed and aggressive driving modes, increases energy consumption. Setting air conditioning to lower temperatures and using intelligent driving modes also contribute to energy loss, earning 7.

Battery cost influences the affordability of larger batteries, affecting vehicle endurance. High battery costs limit the widespread use of large-capacity batteries but will be reduced with advances in solid-state and cobalt-free batteries, which boosts endurance. Thus, it scores 8. Charging infrastructure significantly impacts range anxiety. In areas with dense charging stations, users opt for medium-range models, while sparse infrastructure makes long-range models more desirable. The score for this factor is 9. Electricity prices, while indirectly affecting range by influencing charging behavior and cost, are less impactful on range itself, so it is assigned a score of 6.

Government incentives and infrastructure investments are key drivers of EV adoption. Incentives, such as tax credits and subsidies, reduce the upfront costs of EVs, while infrastructure investments increase charging station availability, alleviating range anxiety. These factors have a strong impact, earning a score of 9. Social values shape consumer attitudes toward EVs, with strong public support for sustainability in certain societies. These factors influence EV adoption, but their impact varies regionally, so they are given a score of 8. Environmental sustainability is a significant motivator for EV adoption, especially in regions focused on reducing emissions. It indirectly affects vehicle performance and adoption, earning a score of 8.

8.1. Technical Factors

Technological advancements will drive significant improvements in EV performance, especially in battery technology, charging systems, and vehicle design. Battery capacity is set to improve as solid-state and high-density batteries become mainstream, allowing for longer ranges and shorter charging times. Research into alternative materials, like lithium-sulfur and cobalt-free chemistries, will also reduce costs and increase accessibility. Charging technology will advance with ultra-fast charging (over 350 kW) becoming more common, potentially reducing charging times to under 10 min for an 80% charge. Wireless charging could also expand, enabling convenient, cable-free charging at parking spots and even while driving on specially equipped roads. In terms of weight and aerodynamics, the use of lightweight materials such as carbon fiber composites will help reduce vehicle weight, thereby enhancing range. Intelligent energy management systems powered by artificial intelligence (AI) will optimize energy use based on driving patterns, route, and conditions. Autonomous driving could also enhance efficiency by minimizing unnecessary acceleration and braking.

Table 4. Summary of technological advancements and their impact on EV range and performance.

Factor	Feature/Influence on EV Range
Solid-State Batteries	Improve energy density, significantly increase the range of EVs, and reduce charging time.
Sodium-Ion and Cobalt-Free Batteries	Make long-range EVs more affordable and accessible to a broader market.
Vehicle to Grid (V2G)	Reduce reliance on large battery packs and optimize energy use for extended range.
Autonomous Driving	Optimize driving patterns for maximum energy efficiency and extend EV range.
Wireless Charging	Allow EVs to charge while parked or in motion and reduce the need for large battery capacity.
ZEV Policies	Accelerate the development of long-range EVs and promote widespread infrastructure.
Recycling and Second-Life Batteries	Lower production costs and improve sustainability.
Renewable Energy Integration	Reduce environmental impact and potentially lower operational costs.
AI in Energy Management	Optimize energy usage in real time, extending EV range and efficiency.

summarizes the technological advancements and their impact on EV range and performance mentioned in this section.

8.2. Environmental Factors

Technological advancements are set to reduce the impact of temperature and terrain on EV range. Future EV batteries, with innovations like solid-state designs, will be more resilient to extreme temperatures, minimizing range loss in hot or cold climates. Advanced heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, including high-efficiency heat pumps and pre-conditioning features, will lower climate control energy costs by focusing heating and cooling where needed. In hilly regions, improved regenerative braking systems and energy-efficient drive technologies will better capture energy on downhill slopes and optimize power usage on uneven terrain. Additionally, infrastructure enhancements, such as climate-adaptive charging stations, will further help EVs maintain range in challenging environments.

8.3. User-Related Factors

In terms of the user-related factor, driving habits can substantially impact the efficiency of EVs. Eco-friendly driving, characterized by smooth acceleration, steady speeds, and minimal use of air conditioning, maximizes range. Conversely, aggressive driving behaviors such as rapid acceleration and frequent braking increase energy consumption, reducing the overall range. As EVs become more widely used, user behavior will continue to evolve, influenced by technological advancements and education on energy efficiency. As autonomous driving technology matures, EVs will optimize driving patterns for energy efficiency, extending range. Enhanced in-car systems providing real-time range feedback based on driving habits and route conditions will also help users manage energy consumption more effectively. In terms of infrastructure, the increasing availability of fast-charging stations will reduce range anxiety, encouraging users to travel longer distances with greater confidence. Additionally, smart charging technologies will help drivers plan their trips and charge during off-peak hours, reducing electricity costs and grid pressure.

8.4. Economic Factors

The cost of EVs will continue to decrease, driven by improvements in battery manufacturing processes and economies of scale. Battery costs will continue to decrease. By 2030, battery costs could fall to under 100 CNY/kWh, making EVs cheaper than internal combustion engine vehicles in many markets. This reduction will facilitate the production of EVs with higher range at lower costs. For the charging infrastructure, the growing investment in public and private charging infrastructure, especially in underserved regions, will reduce range anxiety and make long-distance travel more feasible. The focus will shift from increasing vehicle range to optimizing the availability and convenience of charging infrastructure. In terms of electricity prices, as renewable energy sources (solar and wind) increasingly dominate power grids, the cost of charging EVs will become more stable and possibly lower in many regions. This trend will reduce the overall cost of operating an EV, making them even more attractive compared to gasoline-powered vehicles.

8.5. Policy Factors

Government policies will drive EV adoption, with increasing regulations for zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) and stricter efficiency standards to meet carbon neutrality goals. Incentives for EV buyers and manufacturers will encourage advancements in range and affordability. Public investment in charging infrastructure will improve accessibility, especially in rural areas, reducing range anxiety and supporting long-distance travel. As EV use grows, international standards for charging protocols, grid integration, and battery recycling will simplify cross-border travel. In the short term, policies should focus on accelerating adoption, expanding charging infrastructure, and reducing range anxiety through subsidies and public education. Long-term policies should build a sustainable EV ecosystem by integrating renewable energy with charging infrastructure, standardizing charging protocols, and advancing battery recycling. International standards should be developed to ensure a global EV ecosystem. Regional policies should address local conditions, focusing on energy-efficient vehicles and renewable energy integration in environmentally aware areas while building charging infrastructure in underserved regions. Governments should collaborate with local industries to align policies with regional economic and consumer needs.

8.6. Cultural Factors

Growing environmental awareness will increase cultural acceptance of EVs, positioning them as symbols of sustainability and technological sophistication. In urban areas, convenience and access to charging may outweigh range needs, while rural areas will likely favor longer-range EVs until infrastructure expands. With green initiatives and emission reduction goals in cities, car-sharing and EV rentals will become more popular. Additionally, EVs will increasingly serve as status symbols for environmental commitment, enhancing appeal among consumers who value sustainability.

9. Conclusions

EVs are central to sustainable transportation, addressing GHG emissions and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. However, challenges persist, particularly concerning range and charging infrastructure. This survey reviews the multi-dimensional factors influencing EV range, categorizing them into technical, environmental, user-related, economic, policy, and cultural aspects. Key factors identified include battery capacity, advancements in charging technology, and vehicle design optimization, which collectively enhance range. Environmental influences, such as temperature fluctuations and terrain, have demonstrated significant effects on energy consumption. User behaviors, including eco-friendly driving practices, also contribute to range extension. From an economic perspective, decreasing battery costs and expanding charging infrastructure are crucial to improving the feasibility and accessibility of EVs. Policy and cultural factors, such as government incentives and increasing environmental awareness, play a vital role in promoting EV adoption and fostering continued technological innovation. Future research could focus on examining the impact of expanding charging infrastructure on consumer adoption and range anxiety, investigating how battery size and vehicle weight affect energy consumption and range, evaluating the effectiveness of government incentives in boosting EV adoption and range preferences, and studying how driving behavior influences EV range.