Effect of Street Asymmetry, Albedo, and Shading on Pedestrian Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot Desert Climates
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Urban Canyon Studies
1.2. Literature Review
2. Methodology
2.1. Study Context and Selected Area Description
2.1.1. Defining the Selection Criteria
- Northwest—southeast orientations are highly recommended for these climate areas [70].
- The presence of arcades (covered sidewalks) on both sides is strongly recommended within Algerian urban planning regulations specifically for main streets.
2.1.2. Zoning Division
2.2. Field Measurement and Collecting Data
2.3. Microclimate ENVI-Met Software
2.3.1. ENVI-Met Settings and Details of Input Data
2.3.2. ENVI-Met Output Data
- First: obtain the average values to assess the impact of the designed scenarios on the entire study area.
- Second: obtain receptor values defined to assess the impact of scenarios on pedestrian areas within four principal points—(A) the southwest sidewalk below the arcades; (B); southwest sidewalk outside the arcades; (C) northeast sidewalk outside the arcades; (D) northeast sidewalk below the arcades; and (E) center of the street (for comparison).
- Third: determine the values for each grid unit within a representative section of the street to draw the spatiotemporal distribution of the scenarios’ impact.
2.4. ENVI-Met Validation
2.5. PET and RayMan Model to Assess the OTC
2.6. Baseline Model Assessment
2.7. Mitigation Scenarios
- Scenario 1 (SC1): This features an asymmetric profile, where the northeast side represents the tallest buildings’ side of the boulevard and the southwest takes the mean height.
- Scenario 2 (SC2): Inversion of the asymmetric sides of the scenario 1 (SC1).
- Scenario 3 (SC3): Utilization of cool pavement. Thus, the road is stamped by light concrete pavement with an albedo of 0.5 and emissivity of 0.9, whereas the sidewalks are covered by light concrete pavement with an albedo of 0.8 and emissivity of 0.9.
- Scenario 4 (SC4): A horizontal canopy has been designed to cover the sidewalks outside the arcades, covering the surface beyond the arcades.
- Scenario 5 (SC5): Implementation of Ficus Retusa, which is a commonly used tree species in urban arrangements in the region [50]. These trees, about 12 m in height (modeled by Albero), have been aligned on both sides of the boulevard within the sidewalks outside the arcades.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Scenarios Effect in Thermal Conditions of the Study Area
3.2. Scenarios Effect in OTC of Pedestrian Areas
3.3. Spatiotemporal Distribution of PET
3.4. Findings and Recommendations
- Arcades on both sides of ‘Emir Abdelkader Boulevard’ provided optimal conditions throughout the daytime hours compared to adjacent areas. During peak hours, the difference in PET values between the boulevard’s middle area and the SWS and NES in SC0, reached 5.3 °C and 2.1 °C, respectively. This design element was investigated in two previous studies and provided effective results in enhancing summer human-thermal conditions [37,86]. Unlike urban shading canopies, arcades benefit from the building structure as additional vertical protection from direct solar radiation and maintain lower temperatures within themselves during long daytime hours. It should be noted that the effectiveness of arcades depends on their width. Therefore, the addition of horizontal shading in SC4 (with an enlargement of arcade width from 4 m to 6 m) improved PET reduction within 2 m from the façade’s edge by up to 2.4 °C. Accordingly, this strategy is a valuable tool for urban designers to enhance the pedestrian OTC, although it is essential to consider the required visibility and openness of the street. The width of arcades should not impart a feeling of enclosure.
Strategy | Study Findings and Design Preferences |
---|---|
Asymmetry |
|
Design preference: According to Qaid and Ossen (2015), an asymmetrical profile obstructing the western sun in the latter half of the day is more desirable than the opposite profile obstructing the eastern sun [44]. Therefore, it is recommended to have an asymmetrical profile with an SWS > NES orientation. | |
High-albedo |
|
Design preference: Implementing cool paving on pedestrian areas under and outside arcades and incorporating shading canopies for the areas outside arcades, while excluding the use of cool paving on the road. | |
Shading |
|
Design preference: The implementation of horizontal shading on NES and tree shading on SWS (based on the best results from the modeled scenarios). |
- The horizontal shading implemented in the study can be considered as (i) an additional expansion for arcades and (ii) an alternative strategy for arcades in their reconstruction (in urban rehabilitation operations). Considering the summer and winter requirements, horizontal shading can be used as a temporary solution for summer conditions. In this regard, the movable vertical screen developed by Swaid and Hoffman (1990) can be simulated [46]. A movable horizontal canopy can be installed as an extension of arcades during the summer and adjusted as needed in other seasons. It crucial to emphasize that the results obtained regarding horizontal shading depend on the material and thickness of the used building material surface [18]. This study specifically utilized a concrete surface with a thickness of 0.2 m.
- Street trees have led to a significant reduction in Ta levels during the daytime hours, emphasizing the importance of greenery in mitigating urban heat island (UHI) effects [14,53,57,58,59,123]. Furthermore, comparing urban design elements at the pedestrian level, specifically outside the arcades (directly below the trees’ canopies and the horizontal shading surfaces), showed that horizontal shading achieved nearly optimal results of OTC. This result can be explained by (i) the flat concrete surface’s ability to reflect a higher amount of short-wave radiation and (ii) the density of ‘Ficus Retusa’ trees used on both sides, which traps a higher amount of long-wave radiation emitted from shaded ground surfaces [101]. Using trees on one street side can provide sufficient space for the dispersion of long-wave radiation throughout the pedestrian area. Overall, the results regarding the effect of tree shading at the pedestrian level indicate that a limited-scale assessment is necessary to make optimized decisions regarding the position, arrangement, and types of planted trees [53,54,55,56,112].
4. Limitations of the Study
5. Conclusions
- Asymmetrical streets provide an alternative flexible geometry that maintains street openness and ensures more adaptability in modifying pedestrian thermal conditions. Opposite asymmetric profiles show a disparity in improving PET values between morning and evening hours. It is recommended to arrange the evening improvement option for city cooling strategies.
- Using high-albedo paving coupled with shading strategies is recommendable. High-albedo ground surfaces contribute to enhancing PET, which is initially improved under shading canopies. Using cool pavements in areas that lack shade had no significant impact on pedestrian thermal comfort. Therefore, several studies reported its negative effect on thermal and visual comfort. A control of the sky view factor is necessary when considering such materials.
- Adopting localized shading canopies is one of the most effective strategies for mitigating outdoor heat stress. Within the design options considered, each option offers some characteristics that should be taken into consideration:
- -
- Arcades provide a crucial shading strategy, offering a mix of horizontal and vertical shading at the pedestrian level. Sub-areas below arcades on both sides offer better thermal conditions on the street throughout the day. Arcades’ effectiveness depends on their depth. However, excessive depth should be avoided to prevent a sense of enclosure.
- -
- Building-mounted horizontal shading provides a good alternative to arcade canopies in urban rehabilitation processes. It can also serve as an additional depth for them within specific seasonal settings. The effectiveness of this strategy depends on the canopy material, which may exceed the efficiency of tree shading.
- -
- Single-sided tree planting is preferable for street design. When using trees (such as “Ficus Retusa” with large canopies) on both sides, the higher radiation levels occurring between tree shadows in the center of the street should be considered, as it can reduce the climatic performance of trees at the pedestrian level.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
MBE | Mean Bias Error |
N-E | Northeast |
NES | Northeast Side |
OTC | Outdoor Thermal Comfort |
PET | Physiological Equivalent Temperature |
RH | Relative Humidity |
RMSE | Root Mean Square Error |
R² | Coefficient of determination |
S-W | Southwest |
SWS | Southwest Side |
Ta | Air temperature |
Tmrt | Mean radiant temperature |
Va | Air velocity |
UHI | Urban Heat Island |
CFD | Computational Fluid Dynamics |
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Zone 1 | Zone 2 | Zone 3 | Scenarios | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SC0 | SC1 | SC2 | SC3 | SC4 | SC5 | ||||
Model location | Biskra (34°48′ N; 5°44′ E) | ||||||||
Domain size (m): | |||||||||
X Direction | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
y Direction | 116 | 304 | 360 | 304 | 304 | 304 | 304 | 304 | 304 |
Z Direction | 30 | 40 | 50 | 30 | 50 | 50 | 30 | 30 | 30 |
Spatial resolution (X, Y, Z) | 2 m × 2 m × 2 m (in Z direction, lowest grid box is split into 5 sub-cells) | ||||||||
Model rotation | 315° | ||||||||
Total simulation time | 48 h | ||||||||
Date of simulation | 7 and 8 August 2021 | ||||||||
Meteorological inputs | Full forcing (CSV file) | ||||||||
Building material | Wall: hollow block concrete; Roof: cast dense concrete | ||||||||
Road soil | Asphalt. | Asphalt. | Asphalt. | Asphalt. | Asphalt. | Asphalt. | Stamped light concrete | Asphalt. | Asphalt. |
Sidewalk’s soil | Brick yellow stone | Brick yellow stone | Brick yellow stone | Brick yellow stone | Brick yellow stone | Brick yellow stone | Concrete pavement light | Brick yellow stone | Brick yellow stone |
Alignment trees | New deciduous Trees: Spherical (15 m); Palm Trees: medium (15 m); Ficus Retusa Trees: medium (15 m) | / | / | / | / | / | Ficus Retusa Trees: medium (15 m) |
Emir Abdelkader Boulevard | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indices | Zone 1 | Zone 2 | Zone 3 | |||
RMSE | 0.91 | 2.26% | 0.84 | 2.10% | 0.74 | 1.38% |
MBE | −0.83 | −2.07% | −0.78 | −1.95% | −0.69 | −1.71% |
R² | 0.9928 | 0.9923 | 0.9953 |
PET (°C) | Thermal Sensitivity | Grade of Thermal Stress |
---|---|---|
>42.0 | Very hot | Extreme heat stress |
37.1–42.0 | Hot | Strong heat stress |
28.1–37.0 | Warm | Moderate heat stress |
26.1–28.0 | Slightly warm | Slight heat stress |
17.1–26.0 | Neutral | No thermal stress |
13.1–17.0 | Slightly cool | Slight cold stress |
8.1–13.0 | Cool | Moderate cold stress |
6.1–8 | Cold | Strong cold stress |
<6.0 | Very cold | Extreme cold stress |
Plan View of the Reference Scenario (SC0) | Proposed Scenarios | ||
---|---|---|---|
3D View | Section | ||
Scenario 1 | |||
Scenario 2 | |||
Scenario 3 | |||
Scenario 4 | |||
Scenario 5 | |||
•→Receptors |
Strategy | Arcades | Asymmetric Profile | High Albedo | Horizontal Shading | Shading by Trees | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Position | SWS | NES | SWS > NES | NES > SWS | sidewalk | road | SWS | NES | SWS | NES |
Preference choice | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ | ✓ | ✕ | ✕ | ✓ | ✓ | ✕ |
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Share and Cite
Necira, H.; Matallah, M.E.; Bouzaher, S.; Mahar, W.A.; Ahriz, A. Effect of Street Asymmetry, Albedo, and Shading on Pedestrian Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot Desert Climates. Sustainability 2024, 16, 1291. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031291
Necira H, Matallah ME, Bouzaher S, Mahar WA, Ahriz A. Effect of Street Asymmetry, Albedo, and Shading on Pedestrian Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot Desert Climates. Sustainability. 2024; 16(3):1291. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031291
Chicago/Turabian StyleNecira, Hakima, Mohamed Elhadi Matallah, Soumia Bouzaher, Waqas Ahmed Mahar, and Atef Ahriz. 2024. "Effect of Street Asymmetry, Albedo, and Shading on Pedestrian Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Hot Desert Climates" Sustainability 16, no. 3: 1291. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031291