Driving the Ecological Transition of Agriculture through Voluntary Certification of Environmental Impacts: An Exploratory Literature Review on the Olive-Oil Sector
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Climate Change
3. Organic Farming
4. Life-Cycle Approach for Environmental Issues Assessment
4.1. Background
4.2. The Basic Concept of the LCA
- Economic input–output (EIO)—the estimation of inventory data and the GHG emissions from a variety of commercial activities; the EIO-based LCA uses a top–down method. The EIO-based technique, which often relies on EIO databases that group certain sectors into a generic sector, assesses inventory data at a rougher granularity. If we use a traditional process-based LCA for comparison, the EIO-based LCA is superior due to its capacity to comprehensively gather data from an inventory of GHG emissions via transactions in several industries [60];
- Process-based approach—the process-based LCA employs a bottom–up methodology to gather pertinent inventory data. The inventory data obtained from this method can be more accurate than the data from an inventory calculated via the method based on EIO-. Although it is challenging to gather data from an inventory on all the required inputs (for example, financial and technical services) at the level of processes, the inventory that is based on processes typically leads to system truncations [60];
- Hybrid approach or combined process—the EIO-based LCA and the process-based LCA can be combined to create a hybrid LCA. The EIO-based hybrid, tiered hybrid, and hybrid integrated LCA are the three subcategories of the hybrid LCA [61]. By combining truncation of the system boundary in a method that is process based with the database of EIO, it is thought that the environmental consequences can be quantified by a hybrid LCA more thoroughly than an EIO-based or process-based approach. The environmental inventories of economic and process-based systems are connected by this method. The integrated hybrid LCA inventory uses, first, the data of processes and subsequently integrates data of the EIO via the connection of the downstream and upstream, where the data that are process specific are not accessible, using as a basis the premise that process-specific data are considered as more trustworthy and accurate compared to the data of the EIO [60]. In the literature, the hybrid LCA technique has been suggested as a way to either increase the accuracy of input–output analysis or decrease the error of truncation in the LCA process, which is defined as the error resulting from the “effect that is not included in the LCA system boundary” [62].
4.3. The Methodological Framework
4.4. LCA in the Agrifood Sector
5. Carbon Footprint
5.1. Estimation of the Carbon Footprint
- World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and World Resource Institute (WRI) Climate Change Protocol. There are two criteria:
- (a)
- An Accounting and Reporting Standard for the Product Life Cycle, and
- (b)
- Corporate Accounting and Reporting Standard: Guidelines for Value Chain (Tier III) Accounting and Reporting. It covers the quantification of GHG reductions resulting from the application of mitigation strategies in its project protocol and offers sector-specific and generic accounting tools. The majority of GHG accounting standards, including ISO 14064 parts 1 [89] and 2 [50,90], are based on it;
- ISO 14064 (Parts 1 and 2): this is a global standard for establishing limits, calculating GHG emissions, and reducing them. It also offers a guideline for organizing efforts to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions [89];
- British Standard Institution (BSI) Publicly Available Specifications-2050 (PAS 2050 [91]): this defines the criteria for evaluating the life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of products and services;
- ISO 14025 [92]: This is a guideline for LCA implementation;
5.2. Carbon-Footprint Tools and Software
5.2.1. AGRECALC
5.2.2. The Cool Farm Tool
5.2.3. The Farm Carbon Toolkit
5.2.4. The Ex Ante Carbon Balance Tool (EX-ACT)
5.2.5. COMET-Farm
5.2.6. UBB Agro-Carbon Emissions Calculator
5.2.7. OpenLCA 2.0.3
5.3. Carbon-Footprint Certification
5.4. Standards of Carbon Labels
- Life Cycle Assessment: although country-specific carbon-labeling requirements differ, the Life Cycle Assessment forms the basis of the fundamental carbon-footprint estimate. There are three different kinds of LCA: input-output LCA (top–down approach), combined process LCA, and process LCA (bottom–up approach, the Hybrid approach). The input–output LCA (top–down method) is the strategy that is most frequently utilized among them;
- Standard 01—Publicly Available Specification (PAS): the predominant standard is PAS 2050, which was the first GHG emissions calculation standard for goods and services around the globe [114]. Initiating a uniform evaluation guide for GHG assessment at the product level is the aim of PAS2050. In general, PAS 2050 acknowledges two categories of carbon-footprint accounting techniques. The first strategy is known as the business-to-business strategy because it covers all phases of production, from the “cradle” (raw materials) through the “point of sale” (gate). The “raw material”, “production,” and “distribution to company clients” are some of these steps. The second strategy is referred to as “business to customer” and includes the whole supply chain until the product’s life ends. As a result, we also refer to it as a “cradle to grave” strategy [115];
- Standard 02—Greenhouse Gas Protocol (GHG Protocol): the World Business Council for Sustainable Development and the World Resources Institute first formed the GHG Protocol in 1998; the most recent version was released in 2011. The initial iteration of PAS 2050 and the ISO standards for LCA serve as the foundation for the GHG Protocol, a commercial method for labeling carbon. The GHG Protocol Product-Level Standard and the GHG Protocol Corporate Standard are two sets of standards for evaluating greenhouse gases [60].
5.5. Examples of Carbon-Footprint Labels
5.5.1. Carbon-Neutral Certification
5.5.2. Carbon-Neutral Product Certification
5.5.3. Carbon Reduction Label
5.5.4. CarbonCare
5.5.5. CarbonFree® Certified
5.6. Olive-Oil Carbon Footprint
6. Water Footprint
6.1. Water-Footprint Assessment
- Setting goals and scope: where is the largest WF location? What parts of the WF are unsustainable? Where can WF be cut back on?
- Water-footprint accounting: What does the value chain’s green, blue, and grey WF represent?
- Water-footprint sustainability assessment: Is the WF socially just, economically effective, and environmentally sustainable?
- Water-footprint response formulation: How can WF be decreased in operations, the value chain, the sector, and the basin? Where should one start working?
6.2. Certification for Water Footprint
6.3. Water-Footprint Label
6.3.1. AENOR
6.3.2. China Water Conservation Certification
6.3.3. Smart Approved WaterMark (SAWM)
6.3.4. WaterSense
6.4. Olive and Oil Production Water Footprint
7. Biodiversity
7.1. The Three Biodiversity Components
7.1.1. Diversity of the Genetic Component
7.1.2. Population/Species Diversity
7.1.3. Community/Ecosystem Component Diversity
7.2. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
- Provisioning services are the physical benefits humans receive from ecosystems e.g., supply of water, food, wood, fibers, and fuels;
- Regulating services represent the positive effects gained by regulating ecosystem procedures, e.g., regulating the fertility of soils, the quality of air, pollination of crops, and flood control;
- Supporting services are essential for producing every other ecosystem service, e.g., when living spaces are provided to plants and animals, when diversity of species is allowed, and when genetic diversity is maintained;
- Cultural services are intangible positive effects humans get from ecosystems, e.g., for engineering and aesthetic stimulus, spiritual happiness, and cultural identity.
7.3. Biodiversity Conservation and Agriculture
7.4. Measuring the Effect of Farming Practices on Biodiversity
7.5. Biodiversity Certification
7.6. Biodiversity Labels
7.6.1. Sustainably Grown
7.6.2. Nordic Swan Ecolabel
- International laws and treaties must be complied with by manufacturers;
- A neutral third party verifies that the business and its products adhere to the criteria;
- The raw-material supply chain must be traceable from the extraction site to the finished product.
7.6.3. High Environmental Value (HVE)
7.6.4. Rainforest Alliance
7.6.5. LEAF
7.6.6. Bird Friendly
7.6.7. Olivares Vivos
- The measurement of the preoperational level of biodiversity on the farm, through censuses of birds, pollinating insects, and herbaceous cover of the crop;
- The preparation and implementation of an action plan for the recovery of biodiversity;
- The subsequent measurement of biodiversity indicators, after the implementation of the action plan (Guia-de-certificacion_mayo23.pdf, https://www.olivaresvivos.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Guia-de-certificacion_mayo23.pdf, olivaresvivos.com, accessed on 9 December 2023).
8. Environmental Product Declaration for Olive Oil (EPD)
8.1. EPD® System
- Machine-readable EPD: an EPD that has been converted into a machine-readable format contains some of the information from the original EPD. The data is kept in an independent database maintained by the International EPD® System in an XML file format. This database may be utilized for many applications and will provide new chances for the use of the communication of the ecological efficiency of products;
- ECO EPDs from the ECO Platform: ECO EPDs are EN 15804-compliant EPDs that have been issued by recognized members of the ECO Platform EPD Program;
- Precertified EPD: during the creation of a PCR for a novel produce class, the precertified EPD is the first step to releasing the environmental data about a product.
8.2. Olive EPDs
8.2.1. “GranFruttato” Extra Virgin Olive Oil Monini S.p.A. Environmental Product Declaration (EPD®)
8.2.2. “Bios” Extra Virgin Olive Oil Monini S.p.A. Environmental Product Declaration (EPD®)
8.2.3. Borges Extra Virgin Olive Oil Environmental Product Declaration (EPD®)
9. The Environmental Footprint of the Olive
10. Limitations
11. Conclusions and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Approach | Data Collection Methodology | Advantage | Source |
---|---|---|---|
Economic input–output | Top–down method | Can collect environmental emissions inventory data through transactions across industries. Instead of physical goods, monetary transactions between economic sectors are used. Direct emissions and resource use from within each sector are identified and accumulated as the sector’s necessary inputs. Comprehensively traces the supply chain by resolving the infinite and circular nature of transactions between sectors The data from inventories are collected at the level of the whole economy. It demonstrates relationships that are indirect and related to feedback between processes and sectors. | [62] |
[63] | |||
[64,65] | |||
Process-based approach | Bottom–up method | More accurate data Can involve both direct emissions to the environment and upstream emissions in the supply processes for each process. The supply chain is truncated when individual flows become seemingly insignificant. Includes system-boundary choices and is constrained by inventory-collection resources. | [61] |
[64] | |||
[66] | |||
Hybrid approach or combined process | Process-based and EIO-based method | Can more thoroughly quantify the environmental consequences. High accuracy of input–output analysis. Low truncation error. Process data are collected separately. | [62] |
[63] | |||
[67] |
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Rezazga, A.; Ruiz, C.; Montanaro, G.; Falcone, G.; Koubouris, G. Driving the Ecological Transition of Agriculture through Voluntary Certification of Environmental Impacts: An Exploratory Literature Review on the Olive-Oil Sector. Sustainability 2024, 16, 1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031227
Rezazga A, Ruiz C, Montanaro G, Falcone G, Koubouris G. Driving the Ecological Transition of Agriculture through Voluntary Certification of Environmental Impacts: An Exploratory Literature Review on the Olive-Oil Sector. Sustainability. 2024; 16(3):1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031227
Chicago/Turabian StyleRezazga, Aya, Carlos Ruiz, Giuseppe Montanaro, Giacomo Falcone, and Georgios Koubouris. 2024. "Driving the Ecological Transition of Agriculture through Voluntary Certification of Environmental Impacts: An Exploratory Literature Review on the Olive-Oil Sector" Sustainability 16, no. 3: 1227. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16031227