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Article

The Concept of Utilizing Waste Generated During the Production of Crispbread for the Production of Corn-Based Snacks

by
Ewa Gondek
1,*,
Anna Kamińska-Dwórznicka
1,
Mateusz Stasiak
2 and
Ewa Ostrowska-Ligęza
3
1
Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Science, ul Nowoursynowska 159C, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland
2
Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, ul. Doświadczalna 4, 20-290 Lublin, Poland
3
Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Science, ul Nowoursynowska 159C, 02-776 Warszawa, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 10947; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162410947
Submission received: 28 October 2024 / Revised: 10 December 2024 / Accepted: 11 December 2024 / Published: 13 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Waste and Recycling)

Abstract

:
During the production of crispbread, waste is generated, which, from its nutritional point of view, is a full-value food product. These are mechanically damaged slices that are not commercially available and are rejected at the sorting stage. The concept of its development was to use it to produce extruded corn snacks. Waste pieces of whole meal wheat crispbread were used for this research, and the final snack was produced using an extrusion method. The investigation of the final snack included the determination of water activity, geometric density, pycnometric density determined in a helium pycnometer, porosity, the water solubility index, WSI, the water adsorption index, WAI, sorption properties, and instrumental texture, as well as a sensory analysis. It was shown that the addition of ground crispbread caused a slight increase in density and a decrease in open porosity. A decrease in water content and water absorption coefficients (WAI) and water solubility (WSI) was observed. Texture studies including mechanical and acoustic texture determinants showed that a small addition of ground crispbread improves the texture features (the most beneficial was found with an addition of 25%). It has been shown that it is possible to rationally manage waste generated during the production of crispbread. A product with favorable physical properties and high sensory acceptability was obtained. The technology described in the paper makes bread production more sustainable and generates less waste.

1. Introduction

Extrusion is a process in which a loose or doughy raw material is subjected to the combined action of pressure and heat with simultaneous mechanical shearing. In the final stage of the process, the material is forced through the die opening, which allows it to be given a shape and a new structure [1,2,3]. A characteristic feature of the extrusion process is a very short processing time, which makes it a cheaper alternative to traditional food production technologies. Numerous studies on the transformation of nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, and vitamins have shown that losses of valuable ingredients during extrusion processing are much smaller compared to traditional technologies [4,5,6,7,8]. The possibility of regulating parameters such as temperature, pressure, or screw rotation speed and the selection of construction elements of the device, in particular, screw modules, provides great opportunities for creating the properties of the final product [1,2,8,9]. An important advantage of extrusion is the possibility of using raw materials that cannot be used in traditional technologies or even waste raw materials for the production of food that are valuable from a nutritional point of view and attractive to the consumer [9,10]. The literature describes many cases of applications of the extrusion process for the management of waste products [11]. Probably most research concerns the use of waste generated during the processing of vegetables and fruits. Fruit pomace and peel from various fruits, including apples, pears, cranberries, numerous citrus fruits, grapes, berries, mangoes, pineapples, and many others were processed in the extrusion process to obtain valuable snack products [12,13,14,15,16,17] that were studied in extrusion applications. Vegetable by-products like carrot pomace [18], tomato pomace [19], cauliflower trimming, and asparagus residues were also examined [11]. Also, wastes from the milling industry such as grits and other small fractions of bran, hull, husks, or pods from wheat, oat, corn, rice, rye, amaranth, and others are widely used in extrusion processing [9,13,20,21,22,23,24]. Bakery products are one of the most frequently wasted foodstuffs [25,26]. Dymchenko et al. [26] report that in the case of traditional bread, up to 20% of the production is waste. The management of waste from bakery products is a serious problem for most bread producers. The most discussed strategy in the literature for recycling bakery waste is fermentation because bread waste is a good feedstock for microorganisms [26]. Most often, bread waste is crushed to obtain “breadcrumbs”, which are then used in breading preparations. The possibilities of using extrusion as a tool for managing bread waste were shown by Samray et al. [27]. Using various extrusion parameters, they produced snacks based on shredded bread waste. Studies of snacks obtained from breadcrumbs have shown that they are characterized by good functional properties and a high content of resistant starch. These studies confirmed that breadcrumbs are a promising raw material in the extrusion cooking process. The aim of the research was to assess the possibility of using waste from the production of crispbread for the production of corn snacks and to assess the physical and sensory properties of the obtained product with a varied addition of crispbread waste.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Snack Preparation

The research was carried out in cooperation with the local manufacturer. Waste pieces of whole meal wheat crispbread were used for the research, and the final snack was produced using the extrusion method.
Mixtures of corn grits (granulation 500–750 µm, Ol-corn, Sadłowo, Poland) and crushed crispbread (addition of 10, 25, and 35%) were prepared; the reference sample was corn crisps without any additives.
Pieces of waste crispbread were ground in a KAHEPO mill on a 2 mm diameter sieve and mixed with corn grits. The mixtures were moistened with water with salt added (natural white fine-grained non-iodized rock salt. Salt Mine in Kłodawa, Poland) until the mixture moisture content was 16% (and the salt concentration in the mixture was about 1%) and then, it was fed to the extruder.
Extrusion was carried out in a single-screw device TS-45 (ZMCh Metalchem, Gliwice, Poland). A screw L/D = 12, typical for the production of directly expanded products, was used. The inner wall of the extruder cylinder was grooved 5/3 mm. The extruder feeding was 18–19 kg/h. The temperature in the extruder sections was 110 °C (first zone); 150 °C (second zone); and 127.7 °C (head temperature), and the rotational speed of the working element (screw) was at the level of 100 rpm.
A 16 mm/0.8 mm slit die was used. The material was cut using a high-speed knife mounted at the die (knife rotation speed 60 s−1).
After the extrusion cooking, the snacks were cooled down to room temperature and dried in an air oven at 40 °C for 24 h.

2.2. Moisture Content and Water Activity

Water content was assessed using a standard drying to constant weight procedure [28]. Water activity was measured using a HigroLab apparatus (Rotronic AG, Bassersdorf, Switzerland) with an accuracy of ±0.001 at a temperature of 23 ± 1 °C. Four replicates for all snack samples were performed for water content and water activity.

2.3. Density and Porosity

The apparent density was measured as the ratio of the sample mass determined by an analytical balance to the volume calculated from the dimensions measured with a caliper. The particle density was measured using a helium Stereopycnometer from Quantachrome Instruments, (Boynton Beach, FL, USA). The open porosity was calculated based on the apparent and particle density.

2.4. Expansion Index

The expansion coefficient was determined based on the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the extruder nozzle gap and the cross-sectional area of the crisp sample. Measurements were performed for 10 samples of each variant of snacks.

2.5. Water Solubility Index (WSI) and Water Adsorption Index (WAI)

The WAI and WSI were measured using the method of Anderson et al. [29]. The ground extrudate was suspended in distilled water at room temperature and centrifuged at 250 s1 for 10 min. The WSI was the weight of dry solids in the supernatant expressed as a percentage of the initial weight of the sample. The WAI was calculated as the weight of gel obtained after removal of the supernatant per unit weight of dry solids. Four replicates for each sample were performed for all measurements.

2.6. Moisture Sorption Properties

Water sorption measurements were determined using the dynamic method in a hygrostat in an environment with RH = 75.3% (saturated NaCl solution) [30]. Before testing, the samples were dehydrated. They were dried (70 °C, 24 h) and then stored for 1 month in an anhydrous environment. The dehydrated samples were placed above a saturated NaCl solution, and their mass was automatically recorded (PW-Win 2004 software, Radwag, Radom, Poland) every minute for up to 72 h. The kinetics of water sorption curves were described by the solution of the second Fick’s law [31].
(ut − ue)/(uo − ue)=Aexp(−Kt)
K = Deff/((L/2)2)
where u—water content (kg⁄100 kg d.m.); subscripts o and e—initial and equilibrium; t—time (min); A—shape factor; K—coefficient related to water diffusion (min)−1); L—thickness of material (m); and Deff—effective moisture diffusivity (m2·min−1).
To assess whether the model describes the experimental results well, the determination coefficient (R2), reduced chi-squared statistic (χ2), and root mean square error (RMSE) were used. The χ2 and RMSE were calculated as follows:
RMSE = √[(∑(i=1)N(up − uexp)2)/N]
χ2 = (∑_i=1N(up − uexp)2)/(N − n)
where u—water content; subscripts p and exp—predicted and experimental moisture content; N is the number of observations; and n is the number of constants in the model equation.

2.7. Texture Evaluation

A comprehensive instrumental texture assessment was performed based on a combination of mechanical and acoustic measurements. The mechanical properties were investigated using a TA-HD plus texturometer (Stable Micro System, Godalming, UK) with a 750 kg loading cell using the bending–breaking test. Based on the force–time relationships recorded during crunching, the following was determined: maximum force, area under the maximum force curve, and the number of force peaks.
Between the head of the TA HD plus Texture Analyser and the bending tip, a piezoelectric accelerometer was installed in a specially designed adapter to measure vibrations emitted by the deformed material. Based on preliminary studies, a piezoelectric sensor 4381 (Bruel & Kjaer, Nærum, Denmark) was used. An integral amplifier and acoustic background filters were used to measure the vibration emitted by the analyzed product in a frequency range of 0.1–18 kHz. The AE signal was recorded at a sampling frequency of 44.1 kHz using an analog–digital processing card type 9112 by Adlink Technology Inc. (Taoyuan, Taiwan). Signal filtering was performed using a high-pass filter with a rectangular window. The filter suppressed sounds below 0.1 kHz. Most of the vibrations coming from the testing machine were recorded at this frequency. Descriptors of acoustic emission in the time domain (single AE event energy, amplitude, pulse duration, and number of AE events in the time unit) were determined at a discrimination level of 500 mV. Analyses were carried out in 20 replications [31].
Since texture can be defined as a combination of acoustic and mechanical properties, the following equation was used to determine the crunchiness index (CI) [32]:
CI = NAE/W
where CI—crunchiness index (mJ−1); NAE—average number of acoustic events (−); W—average work of penetration (mJ).

2.8. Sensory Evaluation

The sensory analysis of the snacks was carried out by a group of 50 semi-trained panelists using scaling methods (point scale, 1–9 points).

2.9. Statistical Analysis

The obtained results were subjected to statistical analysis using an ANOVA method at α = 0.05 in STATISTICA 13 (TIBCO, Palo Alto, CA, USA). Homogenous groups were determined using the Tukey test.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Water Activity

Water activity is a very important parameter informing about the state of water in food. It is largely responsible for microbiological stability but also the physical and chemical properties of food products. It has also been shown that water activity has a significant impact on the sensory evaluation and, in particular, has a large contribution to shaping texture features such as crispness or crunchiness [33,34,35]. Table 1 shows the average water activity and water content of the tested crisps. The addition of the waste crispbread in the maximum analyzed dose caused a slight decrease in water content but did not affect the water activity of the tested crispbreads. All tested snacks were characterized by low water activity and water content, which is typical of brittle and crunchy extruded products based on cereals. Similar values were found in the case of crispbread [34,36], corn flakes and wheat bran flakes, snacks [31,32,35], breakfast extrudates with various compositions [37], co-extruded snacks [38], corn vegetable snacks [39], and many other products. According to the literature data, such water activity corresponds to water in the material, which is close to the capacity of the monolayer, which ensures optimal storage stability of the products [30,31,33].

3.2. WAI and WSI

According to the literature data, the WSI is a measure of the degradation of high-molecular-weight biopolymers and their transformation into easily digestible water-soluble forms and therefore is a measure of the digestibility of the product [29,39,40,41]. The WSI values of the tested crisps ranged from 31.44 to 32.79% (Table 1), and there was no effect of the addition of waste crispbread on the WSI value. The obtained solubility coefficients (WSI) of the tested products indicate their good digestibility, comparable to other cereal snacks described in the literature. Similar ranges of WSI coefficients were obtained for extrudates of corn broccoli [42], extruded crispbread [36], sorghum crisp [43], corn crisps with the addition of buckwheat [44], or extrudates with the addition of dried leaves of Moldavian dragonhead leaves [45]. Lower WSI values are typical for foods that require thermal processing before consumption products such as pasta. The water absorption index, WAI, is a measure of the absorption capacity and retention of water by the analyzed samples. The WAI depends largely on the extrusion processing temperature used. The values of this parameter were similar to the literature data [41]. The addition of waste crispbread caused a small but statistically significant decrease in the WAI.

3.3. Sorption Properties

Extrudates are porous products that absorb moisture from the environment. The water activity and water content of the extrudates during storage are determined by their sorption properties subjected to the structure and chemical composition of the final product [31,32,35].
The sorption properties were tested using the dynamic method. The water vapor sorption kinetics curves (Figure 1) were described by the Fick unsteady diffusion equation [46]. Table 2 presents the constants of this equation and the parameters describing the fit of the Fick model to the experimental data. High R2 values (nearing 1), and lower χ2 and RMSE values indicate that the model has a good fit to the experimental data.
Based on the Fick equation, the effective water diffusion coefficient and the equilibrium water content corresponding to an infinitely long storage time were determined (Table 2). The effective water diffusion coefficient was in the range of 4.06–4.49 × 10−9. Similar values of the water diffusion coefficient are available in the literature [30]. In the case of the analyzed snacks, the addition of waste from the production of crispbread resulted in a reduction in the material’s ability to absorb water. The effective water diffusion coefficient and equilibrium humidity decreased with the increase in the addition of ground crispbread (Table 2). This means a better stability of physical characteristics, especially textural characteristics, during product storage.
The results of the sorption tests correlated with the WAI observations discussed earlier. The observed tendency may result from the lower expansion of crisps with the addition of waste crispbread (Table 1).

3.4. Density and Porosity

Geometric and pycnometric density, as well as the porosity of cereal snacks, are important parameters from the point of view of their packaging and storage. They also significantly affect the texture of extrudates. The value of these parameters depends on both the composition and the production technology used, in particular, the pressure and temperature parameters. The pycnometric and geometric density values and the porosity of the tested snacks, calculated on their basis, indicate that a relatively well-expanded product was obtained. The densities of the tested crisps are similar to those of extruded crispbread and other extruded products obtained from starch raw materials [34,36,37,38]. Numerous studies have shown that the addition of ingredients rich in fiber significantly affects the degree of product expansion and leads to a product with a lower porosity and higher geometric density [6,9,10,12,37]. These observations were confirmed in the present study. The addition of whole grain waste crispbread (which is rich in fiber) increased the fiber content in snacks. It resulted in a lower expansion index and higher density. A decrease in open porosity was also observed (Figure 2).

3.5. Texture Properties

The obtained breaking curves were characterized by an irregular shape typical of brittle and crunchy cereal products. The irregularity and jaggedness of the mechanical characteristics of this type of product reflect the desired textural features [31,34,47,48]. The jaggedness of curves is described in the literature by the number of force peaks (Table 3). The crisp, delicate texture of the product is manifested by a large number of small force peaks. The curves obtained in this study were consistent with those presented in the literature, determined during the deformation of extrudates [34,36,47,48]. Table 3 also shows the maximum force and compression work, which can be interpreted as an indicator of the product’s hardness. According to the literature, these parameters correlate with the sensory perceived hardness of the product [47,48]. The addition of waste crispbread resulted in an increase in the number of force peaks and an increase in hardness (both expressed as work and maximum force) (Figure 3).
The acoustic emission recorded during material cracking was discrete. These were a series of short pulses with a duration of 77–78 µs. The number of acoustic events, as well as the maximum energy of these events, increased with the increase in the addition of waste crispbread. According to the literature, of all AE descriptors, the number of acoustic events is the most important from the point of view of crispness, while maximum energy is more often associated with hardness. Similar values of the acoustic parameters of extruded cereal-based products were also obtained in other works. Gondek et al. [31,35] and Lewicki et al. investigated breakfast cereals [32], Chanvier at al. [37] corn snacks, and Jakubczyk et al. and Gondek et al. crispy bread [34,36]. An analysis of the recorded acoustic signals in the frequency domain showed that, regardless of the recipe used, there were characteristic frequency bands that contained increased acoustic energy. These frequencies were low in the range of 5–10 kHz (Figure 4). The authors of other works examining cereal products found that acoustic energy dominated in a similar frequency range [31,32,34,37].
The assessment of product crispness should be based on measurements of mechanical and acoustic properties simultaneously. Lewicki et al. [32] proposed an integrated crispness index that includes both the hardness of the product and the number of brittle cracks. Acoustic activity expressed in terms of energy and the number of acoustic peaks was the highest in the case of the product with the maximum analyzed addition of crispbread, but with the increase in the addition of waste crispbread, the hardness of the product also increased. As a result, the crunchiness index reached its maximum value in the sample with 25% crispbread added (Figure 5).

3.6. Sensory Properties

Sensory evaluation was carried out with the participation of final-year food technology students. They assessed the four basic quality characteristics of crisps (taste, smell, appearance, and texture) and made an overall assessment of the product quality. The panelists used a nine-point linear scale with boundary terms of good–bad (poor). The taste and smell of the tested crisps did not differ significantly according to the panelists. The texture, appearance, and general quality of the crisps with the addition of 25% and 35% waste crispbread were rated higher than the control sample and the sample with the addition of 10% waste crispbread (Figure 6).

4. Conclusions

It has been shown that solutions are possible that will make the production of crispbread more sustainable and, in particular, generate less waste. This can be achieved by using extrusion, which allows for the use of mechanically damaged pieces of crispbread to produce crisp snacks. The snacks with the addition of waste crispbread had good physical and functional properties, very good textural features, and were highly rated in sensory tests.
The addition of waste crispbread had a beneficial effect on some important physical properties; it limited the material’s water absorption and had a positive effect on the texture. A beneficial effect on textural features, which are very important in the case of this type of product, was found in both instrumental (mechanical and vibroacoustic) and sensory tests.
The only unfavorable change was a slightly lower expansion index of crisps with the addition of waste crispbread, which resulted in a slight increase in density and a decrease in porosity. However, it is important that it did not affect the texture, which is the most important sensory feature in this type of product.
Based on the conducted research, it seems that from the point of view of the quality of snacks, the optimal dose of waste crispbread added should not exceed 25%. An increase in the amount added above 25% resulted in unfavorable changes in texture, which resulted in a lower value of the integrated crunchiness factor.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.G., A.K.-D. and M.S.; methodology, E.G.; software, A.K.-D.; validation, M.S.; formal analysis, M.S.; investigation, M.S; data curation, E.G. and E.O.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, E.G. and A.K.-D.; writing—review and editing, A.K.-D., E.G. and M.S., supervision, E.O.-L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data generated or analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks to Justyna Gauze for the help with the experiment implementation.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Water sorption curves of investigated snack.
Figure 1. Water sorption curves of investigated snack.
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Figure 2. The density and porosity of the investigated snacks. Mean values followed by the same small letter do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
Figure 2. The density and porosity of the investigated snacks. Mean values followed by the same small letter do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
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Figure 3. An example deformation curve of the tested crisps.
Figure 3. An example deformation curve of the tested crisps.
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Figure 4. Averaged EA spectral characteristics.
Figure 4. Averaged EA spectral characteristics.
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Figure 5. Integrated crunchiness index of investigated snacks. Mean values followed by the same small letter do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
Figure 5. Integrated crunchiness index of investigated snacks. Mean values followed by the same small letter do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
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Figure 6. Sensory evaluation of the investigated snacks.
Figure 6. Sensory evaluation of the investigated snacks.
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Table 1. Selected chemical and functional properties of crisps.
Table 1. Selected chemical and functional properties of crisps.
Probe IDWater
Content [%]
Water ActivityWSI [%]WAI [%]Expansion Index
P05.84 ± 0.04 a0.347 ± 0.004 a32.79 ± 2.08 a7.41 ± 0.45 a5.23 ± 0.25 a
P105.77 ± 0.09 ab0.322± 0.002 a32.12 ± 2.88 a6.89 ± 0.25 ab4.92 ± 0.41 ab
P255.75 ± 0.09 ab0.309 ± 0.006 a31.87 ± 2.94 a6.56 ± 0.30 bc5.01 ± 0.37 ab
P355.65 ± 0.07 b0.313 ± 0.001 a31.44 ± 2.80 a5.93 ± 0.36 c4.78 ± 0.36 b
Mean values followed by the same small letter (in columns) do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
Table 2. Constants of the Fick equation and the parameters describing the fit of the Fick model to the experimental data.
Table 2. Constants of the Fick equation and the parameters describing the fit of the Fick model to the experimental data.
ConstantP0P10P25P35
Ue24.7 a22.8 b21.5 b18.99 c
Deff4.49 × 10−9 a4.34 × 10−9 ab4.06 × 10−9 b4.33 × 10−9 ab
R20.970.990.990.98
χ23.12 × 10−34.74 × 10−41.02 × 10−41.11 × 10−3
RMS4.992.962.113.29
Mean values followed by the same small letter (in rows) do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
Table 3. Textural parameters of investigated snacks.
Table 3. Textural parameters of investigated snacks.
DescriptorP0P10P25P35
Fmax, N15.12 ± 3.12 a16.45 ± 2.28 ab17.12 ± 4.12 ab19.6 ± 4.17 b
Number of force peaks12.23 ± 5.19 a15.63 ± 3.67 a20.65 ± 4.79 ab21.65 ± 3.19 b
Work. mJ18.23 ± 2.63 a24.05 ± 3.93 b27.55 ± 5.91 b33.15 ± 4.01 c
Total number of AE events312 ± 65 a451 ± 47 b549 ± 39 c553 ± 41 c
Amplitude EA, mV312 ± 45 a298 ± 25 a299 ± 65 a324 ± 67 a
Time, µs77 ± 1 a78 ± 1 a77 ± 2 a77 ± 1 a
Max energy of ac. event, pJ326 ± 19 a378 ± 29 b395 ± 36 b452 ± 32 bc
Mean values followed by the same small letter (in rows) do not differ significantly at α = 0.05.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Gondek, E.; Kamińska-Dwórznicka, A.; Stasiak, M.; Ostrowska-Ligęza, E. The Concept of Utilizing Waste Generated During the Production of Crispbread for the Production of Corn-Based Snacks. Sustainability 2024, 16, 10947. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162410947

AMA Style

Gondek E, Kamińska-Dwórznicka A, Stasiak M, Ostrowska-Ligęza E. The Concept of Utilizing Waste Generated During the Production of Crispbread for the Production of Corn-Based Snacks. Sustainability. 2024; 16(24):10947. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162410947

Chicago/Turabian Style

Gondek, Ewa, Anna Kamińska-Dwórznicka, Mateusz Stasiak, and Ewa Ostrowska-Ligęza. 2024. "The Concept of Utilizing Waste Generated During the Production of Crispbread for the Production of Corn-Based Snacks" Sustainability 16, no. 24: 10947. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162410947

APA Style

Gondek, E., Kamińska-Dwórznicka, A., Stasiak, M., & Ostrowska-Ligęza, E. (2024). The Concept of Utilizing Waste Generated During the Production of Crispbread for the Production of Corn-Based Snacks. Sustainability, 16(24), 10947. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162410947

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