Review of Economic, Technical and Environmental Aspects of Electric Vehicles

Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) have seen significant advancements and mainstream adoption, prompting in-depth analysis of their economic, technical, and environmental impacts. Economically, while EVs offer lower operational costs than internal combustion engine vehicles, challenges remain, particularly for urban users reliant on public charging stations and the potential implementation of new road taxes to offset declining fuel tax revenues. Technically, electric motors in EVs have fewer moving parts, but battery management and cybersecurity complexities pose new risks. Transitioning from Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) to Lithium-Iron-Phosphate (LFP) batteries reflects efforts to enhance thermal stability and mitigate fire hazards. Environmentally, lithium extraction for batteries has profound ecological impacts, including for water consumption and pollution. Battery production and the carbon footprint of the entire lifecycle remain pressing concerns, with battery recycling and second-life applications as crucial mitigation strategies. Smart integration of EVs with the energy infrastructure introduces challenges like grid stability and opportunities, such as smart, intelligent, innovative charging solutions and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology. Future research should develop economic models to forecast long-term impacts, advance battery technology, enhance cybersecurity, and conduct comprehensive environmental assessments to optimise the benefits of electromobility, addressing the multidimensional challenges and opportunities presented by EVs.

1. Introduction

Electric cars, also known as EVs, have been around since the mid-19th century, going through advancements during that time. However, in today’s world, they have become more common and widely used. This technology has evolved, spread, and gained a user base. As a result, there are now questions and concerns about how they operate and impact our lives. We have looked into the importance of these issues, focusing on the economic, technical, and environmental aspects of using such vehicles.

Economic factors are often cited as a reason for switching to electric vehicles [1,2]. This is important to consider if you fall into the group of users who will benefit financially from this switch.

The technical side of things is just as crucial–understanding any limitations or risks involved in operating cars is essential. It is also worth noting the advantages that can come with switching to electric vehicles, like how effective charging management can positively affect the power grid.

Lastly, but equally critical, is the impact of electric mobility. This is an issue with many facets to consider. This article delves into elements such as lithium extraction and reducing CO₂ emissions.

2. Economic Aspects

When considering buying a car, one key factor to think about is the cost per 100 km, which is approximately 40% lower than that of a traditional gasoline car when using public charging stations. This difference is illustrated in Figure 1 [3]. More savings can be made by charging the vehicle at home, although this practice is not yet widespread. The high prices of gasoline lead drivers to look for ways to save money through efficient engines, hybrid technologies (which combine electric and traditional engines) and electric cars. In some countries, over half of the fuel price consists of taxes like VAT, excise duty, and fuel taxes, contributing around 10% to the government’s revenue [4]. On the other hand, only VAT applies to electricity costs. Consequently, as electric cars become more popular than cars with internal combustion engines, new road taxes or additional fees are expected to be introduced to cover the costs associated with charging these vehicles. Technically speaking, implementing billing could pose a challenge. However, it could work smoothly, as the vehicle’s power system can track energy consumption through the household electricity bill for billing purposes. Currently, this solution has not been put into practice yet. This should be taken into account alongside the expected decreases in battery prices.

Governments in countries are noticing a decrease in tax revenue from fuel prices due to the rise of electric vehicles [5]. For example, the Icelandic government has introduced a fee starting on 1 January 2024, based on the distance travelled by electric and hybrid vehicles. This results in operational costs for electric cars, reducing their profitability.

The above points assume that the vehicle is charged using home setups like a user’s garage. However, many city dwellers cannot access personal charging stations and must rely on publicly available solutions [6]. This scenario has been reflected in the charts displayed in Figure 1.

A key aspect often highlighted by users is that electric vehicles generally have operating costs compared to internal combustion engines. This is mainly because electric motors have a more reliable design with fewer mechanical parts that can wear out over time. Unfortunately, these cost estimates often overlook the need for battery replacement after driving a number of kilometres or when the battery warranty expires after a specific period of time. The cost of battery packs makes up around 30% of the value of a new vehicle, which greatly affects the overall expenses over the lifespan of an electric car [7].

These details are organised in

Table 1. Parameter compilation for the analysed alternatives for EV [8].

Variant	Car Cost in Euros	Monthly Maintenance Cost in Euros	Battery Replacement Frequency [Years]	Battery Cost in Euros	Energy Price in Euros	Energy Consumption per 1 km [kWh]	Annual Mileage [km]
1	47,505	35	8	11,764	0.49	0.15	25,000
2	47,505	35	8	11,764	0.18	0.15	25,000
3	41,153	35	8	11,764	0.49	0.15	25,000
4	41,153	35	8	11,764	0.18	0.15	25,000

and

Table 2. Parameter compilation for the gasoline car [9].

Car Cost in Euros	Monthly Maintenance Cost in Euros	Energy Price in Euros	Energy Consumption per 1 km [kWh]	Annual Mileage [km]
29,976	70	1.63	0.068	25,000

for two class B cars chosen from the Hyundai lineup. This company provides cars from the model series in traditional gasoline and electric variants.

A summary of the parameters that have been used for modelling the use of the internal combustion engine in daily operation are shown in Table 2.

Both vehicles analysed above belong to the same equipment group and are priced at a promotional price according to the distributor at the data acquisition time. A significant difference in price can be observed, to the disadvantage of the electric vehicle. Versions 1 and 2 take into account the distributor price, while 3 and 4, the cost of the electric vehicle, takes into account the government subsidy. Versions 1 and 3 assume more expensive charging from public charging stations, while 2 and 4 assume the ability to top up at home, which makes this option cheaper. In addition, the manufacturer guarantees an 8-year or 160,000 km [8] battery life, which is also included in the calculations. As shown, savings can be made by assuming home charging, but this is a rare option in large cities. The results are summarised in the characteristics in Figure 1.

As evident, the practical choice, which makes financial sense, is to charge the car at home or another source with cheaper energy. This option shows an economic impact. While the need for battery replacement may have an effect overall, it is a solution worth considering. Charging the car at public stations is definitely less favourable.

It is important to note another vehicle downside that has surfaced in recent years. The potential risk of being unable to replace the battery is not due to technical issues, but because it is unavailable. This situation could lead to buying a new car after just six years of use.

As previously mentioned, regular vehicle maintenance frequency is crucial for routine upkeep and handling breakdowns. This aspect depends on the number of parts needing replacement and inspection. Electric vehicles excel in this aspect. More on this topic will be explored in the chapter.

The upcoming section will delve into a technical perspective of the charging process. However, starting this process necessitates having access to charging stations. From one perspective, it is important to have charging readily accessible and efficient. However, this can pose challenges for a few reasons. Firstly, charging vehicles typically takes longer than refuelling with gasoline. Additionally, the process of recharging traction batteries puts a load on the power grid. As the number of charging stations increases, there is a rise in power demand, which may be difficult to meet. In some situations, fast chargers could face power limitations, leading to extended charging times and reduced station availability. Many research teams are investigating this issue [10,11,12]. Countries like Germany and the UK have already taken steps to regulate charging power in cases.

3. Technical Aspects

The automotive branch of electromobility has been growing rapidly in recent years [13,14]. The foreseeable benefits of such a transportation transformation are a reduction in both greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels, and support for global environmental efforts. Understanding the elements that affect electric vehicles’ functionality, safety and integration is key to fully understanding their potential and the challenges still facing their manufacturers.

Learning about the technical aspects of electromobility is essential. Safety considerations related to the use of electric vehicles, such as fire and shock hazards, require special attention. The high energy density of lithium-ion batteries creates safety challenges for electric vehicles in daily use and emergency situations.

In order to make rational and efficient use of available technical resources, it is important to explore opportunities and solutions leading to the use of traction batteries as energy storage components in smart grids [15]. In addition, it is worth exploring and developing the concept of reusing batteries, the so-called “second life,” which can be used in stationary energy storage systems after they have reached the end of their life in electric vehicles. This approach extends the life of batteries, supports the stability of power grids, and enables efficient energy management.

3.1. Mechanical Complexity

The key difference between internal combustion and electric vehicles lies in the energy source and the drive mechanism. These factors affect the potential for failure and maintenance schedules. When comparing the complexity and reliability of electric cars with traditional internal combustion engine vehicles, the technical aspects cited below should be carefully considered.

The most distinctive feature and difference between the vehicles is their complexity. Electric vehicles use electric motors as a source of propulsion, characterised by a simpler design than internal combustion engines [16]. Electric engines have fewer moving parts and do not contain components such as fuel injectors, turbochargers, compressors, particle filters, dual mass wheels, EGR valves, starters or alternators. This means less risk of mechanical failure and lower maintenance requirements. In addition, internal combustion engine vehicles have complex transmissions with multiple gears [17]. On the opposite side is most EVs, which have simpler drivetrains, usually limited to single-speed transmissions, which are naturally less complex than those used in gasoline-powered cars [18,19].

Another complex and often overlooked system is the combustion and exhaust systems, which are complex and subject to harsh operating conditions. Added to this is often the catalytic converter and afterburning system installed to reduce harmful emissions. Cooling systems in combustion vehicles must manage the levels of heat generated during the combustion process, which requires more sophisticated cooling mechanisms [20]. Propulsion cooling systems in electric vehicles are simpler compared to those used in traditional cars, as electric motors produce less heat. However, providing adequate cooling for batteries remains critical for safety and durability, often requiring advanced solutions to maintain efficiency and safety. The above information has been summarised in

Table 3. Technical comparison of internal combustion and electric vehicles.

Aspect	Internal Combustion Vehicles	Electric Vehicles
Energy source	Fossil fuels	Electricity
Drive mechanism	Internal combustion engine	Electric motor
complexity	High	Low
Failure risk	Higher risk due to more components	Lower risk due to fewer components
Maintenance requirements	Higher due to complex systems	Lower due to simpler design
Transmission	Complex with multiple gears	Simpler, usually single-speed transmissions
Combustion systems	Complex with catalytic converters and exhaust systems	Less complex, no emissions systems required
Cooling systems	Requires sophisticated cooling mechanisms	Simpler, but battery cooling is critical
Moving parts	More moving parts	Fewer moving parts
Emissions	Produces harmful emissions, requires afterburning systems	Zero direct emissions
Energy efficiency	Lower efficiency due to energy loss as heat	Higher efficiency in energy conversion
Noise level	Higher noise levels	Lower noise levels
Refuelling/Charging	Quick refuelling at gas stations	Longer charging times, potential for solar-powered charging stations

.

3.2. Energy Source

Electric vehicles come equipped with a battery management system (BMS) that oversees various parameters like charge status, temperature and cell voltage [21]. The process of charging an EV involves using management systems, which are more intricate compared to traditional fuel systems but simpler in terms of mechanics.

The power source has undergone a significant shift in the realm of differences between conventional internal combustion engine cars and electric vehicles. Electric cars now utilise battery packs instead of relying on a tank full of gasoline. This shift has brought about changes in the market landscape. Several years ago, NMC (nickel cobalt manganese) technology was dominant due to the competitive range of capabilities it offered for electric vehicles [22,23]. However, as development progressed, concerns arose regarding increased fire risks associated with capacity batteries. This issue is linked to the batteries’ proportions of key chemical elements. To enhance energy density, a higher nickel content is necessary. This comes at the cost of reduced cell stability and increased safety hazards. Despite these challenges, many vehicles using battery packs operate on roads. However, thanks to the investments that have been made and advancements in producing Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) cells along with their increasing use across sectors, the industry can now develop vehicles with extended ranges using this safer technology [24]. A comparison of the characteristics of these technologies is presented in the

Table 4. Parameter compilation for the analysed alternatives for EV [25,26].

Parameter	LFP (LiFePO4)	NMC (LiNiMnCoO2)
Nominal Voltage	3.2–3.3 V per cell	3.6–3.7 V per cell
Energy Density	90–160 Wh/kg	140–200 Wh/kg
Power Density	250–670 W/kg	150–315 W/kg
Cycle Life	>2000 cycles (up to 5000–10,000)	~2000 cycles
Charge Time	1–4 h	1–3 h
Operating Temperature	−20 °C to 60 °C	−20 °C to 55 °C
Self-Discharge Rate	1–3% per month	1–2% per month
Depth of Discharge (DoD)	80–98%	80–90%
Safety	Very safe, low risk of thermal runaway	Moderate risk of thermal runaway
Efficiency	92% round-trip efficiency	85–90% round-trip efficiency

.

Due to technical limitations and the need to use metals such as lithium, nickel or cobalt in the current generation of batteries, alternative technologies are being developed to replace it in the future. Two of the most promising of these are sodium-ion and solid-state batteries.

Sodium-ion batteries are of particular interest due to the availability of the charge medium sodium and their environmental friendliness [27]. Unfortunately, the cycling life and working currents are significantly lower than those of lithium-ion batteries [28]. Ongoing work means that it can be expected that they will primarily be used as main energy storage [29].

In the case of solid-state batteries, using a solid electrolyte is expected to provide benefits such as higher energy density, greater safety and longer life [30]. This type of electrolyte encapsulated in ceramic or a special polymer reduces the possibility of dendrite formation, which contributes to the possibility of achieving higher operating currents and wider temperature ranges [31]. This technology is being explicitly considered for use in transport tasks.

Both of these technologies still need to undergo intensive research and development before they can be brought to market. However, factors such as safety and environmental protection can be expected to support and promote their development.

3.3. Fire Hazard

When comparing the fire hazards associated with nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) and lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) batteries, it is important to consider factors such as their chemical composition, thermal properties and response to uncontrolled temperature rise–a phenomenon popularly called “Thermal Runaway” (TR) [32].

Recent studies have shown safety differences between the two cells. Below, we describe the characteristics and elements affecting their flammability.

One of the key aspects is the lower explosive limit (LFL). Studies show that LFP batteries have a lower limit than NMC chemistries and are at 6.2% and 7.9%, respectively [33]. This means that LFP batteries can reach a flammable concentration of gases in a smaller space than NMC batteries, potentially posing a higher risk of ignition. Another important factor is the type of gas released from the cells during gassing. While there are similarities in their composition, there are also some differences between the two technologies. In terms of gas composition, LFP batteries tend to release hydrogen, while NMC batteries release more carbon monoxide. Both are flammable, but hydrogen is particularly explosive. Moreover, at high temperatures, NMC cathodes can emit oxygen, which can lead to sustained combustion.

Research indicates that state of charge (SOC) plays a role in the cells’ failure behaviour. Ignition risk varies with the level of charge for both battery types, with higher SOC levels resulting in more intense gassing. At low SOC levels, LFP batteries are more toxic, while NMC batteries show higher toxicity at higher levels [34,35].

In addition, factors related to manufacturing technology and cell composition, including chemical stability, must be considered. LFP batteries are often considered safer due to their stronger phosphorus-oxygen bonds compared to the cobalt-oxygen bonds in NMC batteries [36]. This makes LFPs more stable under extreme conditions [37,38].

Thermal stability is also analysed in the context of fire hazards. This parameter is better for LFPs. They can withstand higher temperatures before failure [39,40].

Both types of cells use flammable organic electrolytes. During TR, these electrolytes decompose, releasing flammable gases. The electrolyte’s specific composition can affect the released gases’ flammability.

Lithium cells have a stabilising layer known as SEI (Solid Electrolyte Interphase); damage to it can significantly affect its structure.

The SEI layer, which forms at the anode, can disintegrate at elevated temperatures, releasing heat and contributing to the TR phenomenon. The stability of this layer can differ between NMC and LFP batteries.

In summary, both NMC and LFP batteries pose a fire risk despite having different characteristics. The overall safety of a battery system depends not only on the chemical composition, but also on the cell design, battery management systems and safety features built into the final product.

Continued research deepens our understanding of these complex systems and their impact on safety.

3.4. Cybersecurity

In addition to traditional security measures, cyber security should also be examined. Some may argue that with the current level of digitisation, threats in this area have already been identified for internal combustion vehicles, and nothing has changed here. Unfortunately, this approach should be considered far from the truth. This is due to the much higher level of integration of electric vehicles with the digital world [41].

The first important issue is that electric vehicles generally have more advanced connectivity features and rely more heavily on software, which creates additional attack vectors compared to traditional vehicles. This includes vulnerabilities in infotainment systems, “over-the-air” updates and vehicle-to-network communications. Their electronic control units (ECUs) manage key functions such as acceleration, braking and steering. Increased connectivity and reliance on digital systems expose them to potential hacking attempts that can compromise vehicle control. Attackers can exploit security vulnerabilities that arise even accidentally to manipulate vehicle functions remotely, posing a serious threat to driver and passenger safety [42,43,44].

From the press, we learn that some electric cars, through software updates, have gained better range, allowing their owners to move away from danger zones or improve recovery performance [43]. While such OTA (Over-The-Air) (version 3) updates provide convenience and allow for rapid deployment of security improvements and fixes, they also introduce new sources of danger. Cybercriminals could potentially intercept or manipulate these updates to introduce malware or disrupt the security of vehicle systems. It is also possible that due to an error or human oversight, a new version could contain potentially dangerous functionality.

Many electric cars include more advanced AI and autonomous driving features, which can create additional cybersecurity challenges not typically found in traditional vehicles.

As electric vehicles and their charging infrastructure become increasingly integrated with digital networks and IT systems, the risk of cyberattacks is growing. The consequences of such attacks can be severe, affecting both users’ personal data and the direct operation of vehicles and the power grid. Electric vehicles collect and transmit large amounts of data on vehicle performance, location and driver behaviour. Their collection raises privacy concerns regarding potential unauthorised access or misuse of sensitive information, which can pose a direct threat to vehicle users.

Also, the EV charging ecosystem introduces new cybersecurity challenges that are not present in traditional vehicles. Charging stations and their networks can be the target of attacks that can affect vehicle functionality or allow unauthorised access to many functions [45]. Public EV charging stations are increasingly becoming targets of cyberattacks. Vulnerabilities in charging station software or hardware can allow attackers to manipulate charging processes, potentially damaging batteries or posing a security risk. They can also steal user data, including payment information and charging habits. Another scenario that is quite likely and should really be considered is the disruption of charging services, causing inconvenience and potentially disabling EV owners [46]. Additionally, the various payment methods used for these devices (e.g., mobile apps and RFID cards) create additional points of vulnerability to financial fraud and data theft.

Turning to one of the most important components of an electric vehicle, the battery, it is important to highlight potential vulnerabilities in battery management systems (BMS). Electric vehicles rely on these complex systems, which are crucial for performance, efficiency and safety.

Cybercriminals may try to exploit vulnerabilities in the BMS to cause battery failure, which could lead to safety risks for vehicle users. These systems monitor and manage battery parameters such as temperature, voltage and current, making them crucial to the safe operation of electric vehicles. These systems can become targets for hackers, leading to security threats not present in traditional vehicles. Unauthorised access to the BMS, which plays a key role in controlling and monitoring the battery’s performance, safety, and longevity, can result in various hazards [47]. These threats mainly include manipulating battery charging/discharging processes, potentially leading to battery damage and fire. It is also possible to interfere with vehicle functionality by altering power delivery algorithms, affecting user comfort and, in extreme cases, posing serious threats to the safety and lives of vehicle passengers and bystanders.

Functionalities that seem incredibly helpful can also be hazardous for users and bystanders in extreme cases. This pertains to threats associated with remote access. Many electric vehicles offer advanced remote access features via mobile applications, which can introduce security vulnerabilities if not adequately protected. While some modern traditional cars also have these features, they are more common and integral to the operation of electric vehicles.

Given the significant impact of cybersecurity on vehicle users and their surroundings, it is crucial to consider work directions related to prevention and countermeasures.

Implementing strong cybersecurity measures at the early stages of developing electric vehicle infrastructure and charging systems is paramount. This includes secure communication protocols, encryption, and regular security audits. Additionally, real-time monitoring systems for electric vehicles and charging infrastructure should be established to detect potential security breaches, along with the rapid deployment of security patches and updates. In parallel, developing common secure technologies based on open protocols and fostering collaboration among electric vehicle manufacturers, charging infrastructure providers, and cybersecurity experts to share threat information and best practices are necessary. An overarching regulator should be involved to ensure the creation of comprehensive cybersecurity regulations and standards specific to the electric vehicle ecosystem, providing a baseline level of security across the industry. Steps in this direction have been taken, as evidenced by documents from the USA [48].

As is commonly known, humans are often the weakest link in the security system. Therefore, it is essential to develop programs to educate electric vehicle owners about potential cybersecurity threats and best practices for maintaining vehicle and data security.

3.5. Impact on the Energy System

Since electric vehicles constitute a crucial part of a larger system, it is essential to consider issues related to the necessary infrastructure. Currently, many power grids are not suited to handle the high loads generated by the simultaneous charging of numerous electric vehicles. In particular, the instability of renewable energy sources and outdated transmission infrastructure poses significant challenges that must be addressed to integrate EVs with the power grid fully.

The increasing adoption of electric vehicles will necessitate the installation of charging stations. These stations should be capable of providing both fast and regular charging modes, with currents tailored to the type of battery [49,50]. Depending on the development and adaptation of the power grid for compatibility with electric vehicles, there could also be an opportunity to use traction batteries as local energy storage units in the network [51,52].

Expanding the electric vehicle charging infrastructure involves modernising or, if necessary, building new connections to the distribution and transmission networks and generation units [53]. One of the main negative effects of charging electric vehicles may be the increased load on power lines and their increasing peak load, leading to a significant increase in electricity consumption, especially during peak hours. It is then that many vehicles are expected to charge in parallel at the same time [54]. This can cause power outages and failures. Developing a network of electric vehicle charging stations, especially fast ones, will have particularly negative consequences [55]. Concentrating them in one place, such as office building parking lots, park-and-ride facilities or shopping centres, can lead to local spikes in electricity demand, requiring infrastructure resistant to such phenomena. When designing such systems, both local installations and the readiness of components located further away from the energy demand source should be considered. The developing charging station network can also significantly affect the quality of energy [56]. Although this problem seems remote now, given the current policies of many countries and the European Union strongly favouring this solution, it could become significant in the next few years. Uncoordinated and unmanaged EV charging can cause various power quality problems. These include voltage stability and voltage drops and imbalances in the distribution network, especially when charging is concentrated in specific areas such as residential areas or commercial parking lots. Overloading of transmission lines can lead to increased power losses in the distribution system [57,58]. Considerations should also include phenomena such as voltage asymmetry in three-phase systems and harmonic distortion. These can cause incorrect operation of protective devices such as circuit breakers that react to exceeding a threshold temperature. With high harmonic content, protection devices can operate prematurely. In the case of a single charger, this effect is generally negligible. However, entire parking lots filled with chargers emitting higher harmonics into the power system can pose a serious risk to the safety of people and equipment [59]. Consideration should be given to the skin effect–the excessive heating of conductors with high harmonic content in the current signal–which becomes significant above 250 Hz. A three-phase, four-wire system can lead to high thermal losses and current flow in the neutral wire. These phenomena can cause electric shock, increasing the risk of ignition and insulation damage by raising the temperature of the conductors in the installation. The additional load associated with EV charging can overload distribution transformers, shortening their lifespan and increasing the risk of failure [60]. Transformers are susceptible to excessive heating due to losses in the core and windings resulting from eddy currents and higher harmonics, potentially leading to overheating and destruction [61]. Implementing innovative charging solutions can help distribute the load more evenly, reduce peak demand and mitigate the impact on the distribution network. These solutions may include time-of-day charging pricing, demand response programs, and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) capabilities. Smartly managed parking facilities can provide economic benefits by optimising charging times for lower electricity prices and by providing ancillary services to the grid, such as frequency regulation [62]. This approach can increase the profitability of parking operators and reduce overall energy costs. Vehicle-to-grid technology enables bidirectional energy exchange between electric vehicles and the power grid. Vehicles equipped with traction batteries can not only draw energy from the grid for charging, but also feed energy back into the grid when needed. This application allows fleets of electric vehicles to serve as distributed energy storage units capable of supporting the power grid during peak hours. Of course, this requires technical readiness and legislative and billing readiness to make vehicle users interested in this additional service. Due to the intensive development of renewable energy sources, including photovoltaics, the effect of excess power in the network is becoming an increasingly relevant problem [63]. This is caused by the sun’s daily rhythm and the energy demand cycle. These two characteristics are not synchronised. When solar panels produce the most energy during the peak period of sunlight, demand in the network often decreases. This situation can lead to a reduction in generating capacity, which leads to the waste of renewable energy. Effective management of electric vehicle charging can help solve this problem. Traction batteries can store excess energy generated from renewable sources such as solar and wind energy [64]. This energy can then be used during periods of low production and high demand, which helps stabilise the network and ensure continuity of power supply. This can benefit drivers, who can pay lower charging costs, and energy producers because it reduces the load on the system, balances generation, and balances the network. As mentioned earlier, charging many electric vehicles, especially simultaneously, can worsen the energy balance during peak hours, causing additional loads on the system. By implementing V2G technology and providing system services, traction batteries can be used to manage peak energy demand. This avoids additional loads on the grid and actively reduces the increased demand by supplying the grid during critical hours [65]. This can help reduce the costs of activating additional, often less efficient sources.

In the event of a power grid failure, traction batteries can serve as an emergency power source, which can be crucial for maintaining the continuity of energy supply to critical consumers such as hospitals, data centres and communication infrastructure. When a power outage occurs, these systems must operate without interruption, and traction batteries can provide an immediate power supply in emergency situations [66].

Using traction batteries as a backup energy source also provides greater flexibility and resilience to energy systems. Intelligent management of these resources allows them to be quickly activated in the event of a failure, and V2G technology enables seamless switching between grid power and energy stored in electric vehicles [67]. As a result, even in emergency situations, critical services can be maintained, increasing the overall stability and security of the energy infrastructure. In the context of changing climate conditions and growing challenges related to energy supply reliability, traction batteries offer significant potential to ensure the continuity of power supply in critical sectors. In addition to their role as backup energy sources, they can improve the balance of renewable energy use, thus supporting more sustainable and efficient energy.

3.6. Battery Second Life

Another undoubtedly important aspect that needs to be addressed is what happens to traction batteries after their primary role has ended [68]. Recycling issues will be discussed in a separate section, while this section will focus on technical solutions. Typically, a traction battery is considered worn out when its capacity drops to 70–80% of its initial capacity. The continued use of such a battery in the car involves risks and inconveniences that must be considered. Among the destructive phenomena occurring in the cells, the following are worth mentioning:

• As lithium-ion batteries age, changes occur at the material level, affecting their performance. One of these is the degradation of the SEI layer [69]. This layer forms on the anode during initial cycles and is passivating in nature. It helps protect it by preventing the continuous degradation of the electrolyte. Over time, however, this layer becomes thicker and more resistant. As it ages, it increases the charge transfer resistance, making it more difficult for lithium ions to move between electrodes during charge/discharge cycles. This results in lower power output and higher internal temperatures. The higher resistance also causes more pronounced voltage drops under load conditions, reducing overall usable capacitance and accelerating degradation.
• Another process that contributes to anode degradation is plating the anode with a layer of lithium [70]. The metallic lithium is deposited on the surface of the anode instead of penetrating it during charging cycles. This behaviour can result from excessively high operating currents or operations at low temperatures. Lithium coating can lead to the formation of dendrites, which are needle-like structures that grow through the electrolyte toward the cathode [71]. Dendrites can break through the separation material between the electrodes, causing internal short circuits that can result in catastrophic failures, such as uncontrolled overheating, leading to a fire. An additional effect of lithium film formation on the anode is the loss of this element from being able to actively participate in the energy storage process, leading to a reduction in capacity. Dendrite formation can also affect the voltage profiles of such damaged cells, which can affect the operation of the BMS, including the correct determination of the state of charge, which creates additional risks [72].

The above-mentioned processes are a natural threat to lithium cells. The possibility of their occurrence should be taken into account, and as mentioned earlier, it is extremely important to ensure the best possible working conditions to minimise the risk of such damage. The wearing down of batteries naturally affects their continued safe operation in cars. The most important of these are:

• Reduced vehicle range: A used battery has a reduced capacity, meaning the vehicle cannot travel the same distance on a single charge as before. This can result in more frequent charging, which is inconvenient for the user.
• Reduced charging and discharging capacity: This is due to the battery management system limiting operating currents. The increased internal resistance of the battery leads to higher losses of energy converted into heat, which further negatively affects the temperature of the energy storage. As a result, worn batteries may provide less energy, affecting vehicle performance. The car may be less dynamic, and acceleration may be reduced, affecting the overall driving experience. Charging may also be slower for the above reasons, further affecting the comfort of electric vehicles.
• Increased risk of failure: Batteries that have reached their wear limits in EVs are more prone to failure and may unexpectedly stop working, leading to unforeseen situations on the road, such as a sudden loss of power.

Considering these factors, the concept of the second life of electric vehicle batteries is being developed [73]. It assumes the reuse of used batteries that, despite wearing out, still have significant capacity and utility. Once removed from the vehicle, they can be reused in stationary energy storage systems, where their parameters are suitable for less demanding applications than powering a car. In this case, reduced charging and discharging parameters will not pose as much risk as in stationary applications. The requirements for stationary energy storage, such as hourly discharge and charging times, and building in air-conditioned containers, even provide an ideal environment for their continued operation.

Stationary energy storage systems store electricity for use during peak demand or during power outages. These systems can be installed in homes, commercial buildings and more extensive energy systems. Therefore, batteries from electric vehicles can serve as components of such storage systems, enabling efficient use of their remaining capacity and extending their life cycle [74,75].

Not all batteries from electric vehicles are suitable for reuse in stationary energy storage systems. Sometimes they are integrated into the vehicle chassis, making it impractical or impossible to remove them without significant modifications. Problems also arise when determining the condition of the cells, different module designs and lack of standardisation, as described in [76]. In such cases, batteries must be recycled to recover valuable materials, such as lithium, cobalt and nickel.

It is also necessary to carefully analyse, if possible, both the operating conditions of the battery intended for second-life application and their technical characteristics. If any irregularities are detected, recycling them to maintain the highest safety standards is also advisable.

A potential solution to some of the problems discussed earlier is developing and implementing standards and regulations for electric vehicles, their design, communication and technological requirements. This could be key to managing their technical aspects and ensuring effective integration with existing energy and transportation systems. Establishing charging standards, such as CHAdeMO or CCS, is essential to ensure interoperability between different types of EVs and charging infrastructure. Different standards can lead to compatibility problems, reducing user convenience and infrastructure efficiency. Standardisation enables faster development of charging infrastructure and gives users confidence that their vehicles can be charged at any charging point, regardless of the car model, and can interact with additional services through appropriate protocols.

Regulation and standardisation in these areas support the development of the electric vehicle market and contribute to environmental protection by promoting sustainable and efficient energy use. Standards and regulations will become the basis for the seamless integration of electric vehicles into energy and transportation systems, benefiting users and society.

4. Environmental Aspects

Another aspect worth discussing in the context of the use of electric vehicles is their impact on the environment and the environmental impact on the vehicles themselves. Due to the fact that all the energy needed to propel the vehicle is stored in a battery that is extremely sensitive to temperature changes, this is where this chapter will begin.

4.1. Temperature Dependence

Temperature has a significant impact on battery life, operational performance and safety. It directly affects their available capacity, affecting vehicle range [77]. It should be noted that both reduced and elevated temperatures translate into battery operating parameters. High temperatures can significantly shorten battery life due to processes that accelerate chemical degradation; they can also cause an increased risk of overheating, which can be exacerbated in hot weather and when the vehicle is heavily used. These factors can lead to a serviceable power system shutdown, failure, or in extreme cases, ignition, posing serious health and life risks. A temperature management system is necessary to maintain optimal operating conditions, but it may not be sufficient in extreme cases. An interesting phenomenon resulting from elevated temperatures is improved short-term performance. Such conditions can increase the conductivity of ions in the battery, which improves short-term performance. Reduced temperatures, on the other hand, contribute to reduced capacity, negatively affecting vehicle range. They also result in the need for slower charging, as chemical reactions in the battery occur more slowly; in extreme cases, charging may be impossible without adequate battery heating. Both elevated and reduced temperatures lead to increased energy consumption by the battery conditioning system, further reducing the vehicle’s range. The thermal phenomenon in question also directly affects the vehicle itself, which in turn affects battery performance. In hot weather, vehicles are conditioned, and in cold weather, they are heated, drawing energy from the traction battery. At the same time, the range of the vehicle is reduced. Examples of characteristics of the effect of temperature on available battery capacity are summarised in the

Table 5. Initial Voltage drop and final capacity as a function of temperature [78].

Temperature [°C]	Initial Voltage Drop [%]	Final Capacity [%]
60	0	104
20	0	100
−10	5	88
−20	10	63

.

As you can see, at the temperature of −20° Celsius occurring in Poland, the battery loses about 30% of its capacity; this remains the same for the amount of reduced range. For −10°, about 88% of the nominal capacity is available. Battery life is also affected by battery overheating, leading to faster wear of elements involved in electrochemical reactions. The optimum operating temperature of a battery pack is within the range of 0–20° Celsius, which means that such packs must be cooled in summer and during intensive operation while being heated in winter. The conditions under which the vehicle is operated therefore have a significant impact.

4.2. Lithium Acquisition

Lithium is an important and main material used in producing lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles. In the context of the global transition to this mode of transportation, the availability of this element is a key factor influencing the development of this technology [79]. Current lithium reserves are spread out over different regions around the world. The largest deposits are in countries such as Chile, Australia and China. Chile’s deposits, particularly in the Salar de Atacama region, are among the richest in the world. On the other hand, Australia is one of the leading exporters of lithium extracted from spodumene minerals. China, although it has significant reserves, is also a leader in the processing and production of materials used to make chemical cells.

Experts point out that the current rate of growth in the production and sale of electric vehicles is resulting in a significant increase in demand for lithium. The International Energy Agency (IEA) forecasts that by 2030, the number of electric vehicles worldwide could increase to over 300 million, significantly increasing the demand for raw materials needed for batteries [80].

One of the challenges related to the availability of lithium is the potential shortage of the raw material. Appropriate investments and technological measures are key to ensuring an adequate supply of the element in the future. In addition, recycling of lithium-ion batteries can play an important role in reducing pressure on primary sources of raw materials.

The extraction of cell components significantly impacts the environment, which is evident in numerous negative ecological changes and poses challenges in protecting ecosystems, water resources and climate [81,82].

Lithium extraction is associated with consuming very large quantities of water in areas that often suffer from water shortages, affecting local communities and ecosystems. In regions such as the Salar de Atacama in Chile, the extraction process involves pumping brine from beneath the earth’s surface into huge ponds where evaporation occurs. Excessive water consumption worsens the availability of this key resource for farmers and residents and alters the region’s hydrology.

In addition, the lithium extraction process leads to the emission of harmful chemicals during processing, with the risk of spills and surface and groundwater contamination. Improper waste management can lead to soil degradation and environmental pollution, seriously threatening local ecosystems and biodiversity.

Another negative effect of the process is that it contributes to greenhouse gas emissions. Mining and processing operations are energy intensive, and the energy used often comes from fossil fuels. As a result, they can contribute to global warming and climate change, which has far-reaching consequences for the entire planet.

It should also be remembered that the process is highly harmful to the people working on it due to air emissions caused by dust and gases. Dust-containing chemicals can cause respiratory and other health problems in humans [83].

Furthermore, the impact of lithium mining on the landscape is significant. Extensive mining operations alter the appearance of regions, leading to soil erosion, degradation of agricultural land, and reduction of natural habitats for plants and animals. This affects biodiversity and can have long-term consequences for ecosystem stability.

Lithium mining varies significantly depending on the source of the raw material and the extraction method, meaning the exact amount of rock material needed to obtain one kilogram or ton of pure lithium can differ. For example, mining spodumene with lithium oxide (Li₂O) content, typically around 6–7%, can yield approximately 7–8 kg of lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) from one ton of spodumene. Therefore, to obtain 1 kg of pure lithium, about 2.5–3 tons of spodumene must be processed.

Lithium can also be extracted from brine. Lithium is extracted from saline groundwater found in places like Salar de Atacama in Chile. The lithium content in brine ranges from about 200–1000 mg/L, requiring a large amount of water to purify and concentrate the lithium. This process is more efficient than spodumene mining, and to obtain 1 ton of lithium carbonate from brine, about 500–1000 tons of brine need to be evaporated and processed [84].

4.3. CO₂ Emissions

At this point, it is necessary to mention the research conducted on the issue of how electric and internal combustion vehicles equalise in terms of CO₂ emissions, taking into account the production process of the battery [85,86,87]. The results clearly show the origin of the source of energy has an extremely strong influence in favour of renewable sources and the frequency of the number of kilometres driven per year. For example, using an electric car for 15,000 km powered by electricity produced in the European mix of 353 gCO₂/kWh will equalise with combustion after about 6 years; the same vehicle covering 7500 km per year will achieve this result after more than 11 years [88,89].

4.4. Recycling

In this section on mining, it is necessary to mention the recycling of already extracted lithium contained in spent cells. This method is becoming increasingly popular, but the recycling potential of lithium-ion batteries is still less than that of mining from primary raw materials. Recycling can theoretically recover up to 95% of the lithium content from batteries, but this process is technologically complex and costly. It is also affected by the cell technology, mainly the materials used, due to the required processes and an important parameter: profitability. Batteries containing both lithium and cobalt are much more attractive for recycling, with cobalt providing additional motivation.

Generally, lithium-ion cell recycling technologies can be divided into three categories [80,90,91]:

• Pyrometallurgy: High-temperature processes are used for smelting metals, which are then separated. This method is usually employed to recover cobalt, nickel, and copper.
• Hydrometallurgy: Chemical processes using aqueous solutions to recover metals. It is more energy-efficient than pyrometallurgy, though more complex in terms of the purification of final products.
• Mechanical Methods: Recovery of materials through mechanical crushing and separation. These are preliminary steps for further chemical treatment.

Below is a brief summary of cell recycling categorised by composition [92]:

• Lithium-Cobalt Oxide (LCO) Cells: The cathode contains cobalt, and the anode contains graphite. Cobalt is a valuable material, so the priority in recycling these cells is recovering cobalt. The process involves dissolving the active materials in acids (e.g., acid leaching) and separating cobalt from other metals. Hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical methods are often used for this purpose.
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) Cells: The cathode contains lithium, iron, and phosphorus, and the anode contains graphite. These cells do not contain cobalt, making their recycling less financially lucrative. Hydrometallurgical techniques are used to recover lithium, iron, and phosphorus. Though the recovery process is less complex, the lower-cost materials result in less economic motivation for recycling.
• Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt Oxide (NMC) Cells: The cathode contains nickel, manganese, and cobalt, and the anode contains graphite. Like LCO, these cells are valuable due to their cobalt and nickel content. Pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes are used to recover these metals. Due to the complex composition, the separation processes must be more advanced to recover all the valuable materials effectively.
• Lithium Titanate (LTO) Cells: The cathode is varied, and the anode contains titanium oxide. These cells are less common, and their recycling is less developed. Recovering titanium is technologically feasible, but the economic viability of this process is still under investigation. Mechanical and hydrometallurgical methods are used for separation and recovery.
• Lithium-Polymer (LiPo) Cells: The cathode can be similar to LCO, NMC, or others, and the anode contains graphite. Recycling processes depend on the specific cathode composition. These cells often require additional steps to separate polymer materials, making the process more complex. Hybrid approaches combining different recycling techniques are thus employed.

4.5. Consequences of the Fire

Another essential aspect related to the environmental impact is fires involving traction batteries and their extinguishing. During the fire of such a vehicle, several dangerous phenomena occur, posing risks to the health of rescuers, road users, and the natural environment [93,94,95].

One of the main risks during an electric vehicle fire is the phenomenon of so-called thermal runaway of the battery. It involves an exponential increase in its temperature and can lead to damage, fire, or even explosion. This process results from a series of chemical reactions inside the cells that drive each other. Lithium-ion batteries can generate their own oxygen during thermal decomposition, making the presence of a fire in the battery self-sustaining and extremely difficult to extinguish [96,97,98].

Water normally used to extinguish fires can lead to additional hazards when lithium-ion batteries burn. Contact between water and hot lithium components can cause a violent chemical reaction, resulting in the ejection of hot gases and burning fragments, increasing the risk of fire spread and posing an immediate danger to rescuers and bystanders. However, the use of water in the correct manner and in the correct amounts is necessary to cool and control the temperature of the battery to prevent further thermal runaway. Specialised fire extinguishing agents such as chemical powders, inert gases (such as nitrogen) and cooling materials like sand are often used to control the extinguishing process better and cool the cells [98,99].

Another serious risk is the emissions of gases that can be released during a battery fire and can be highly toxic [100,101,102]. These emissions can include metal oxides, hydrofluoric acid, phosphorus, carbon particles and various organic chemicals. These substances are particularly dangerous to human health, causing respiratory irritation, breathing problems and even poisoning. As a result, firefighters must wear advanced personal protective equipment, including full-face respirators and specialised protective clothing [103].

Electric vehicle fires also pose a serious threat to the environment. In addition to the previously discussed gas emissions, there may be contamination of ground and surface water and soil with contaminated firefighting water. Therefore, after the fire is extinguished, it is necessary to properly secure the site and take measures to neutralise and remove contaminated substances. In addition, long-term monitoring of the site may be needed to assess the extended environmental impact. The extinguishing process and the resulting negative safety and environmental consequences are complicated by the reactive nature of lithium metals and their compounds. This means that the possibility of re-ignition must always be considered even after the initial fire has been extinguished. Therefore, prolonged observation and control of the fire site are usually required to prevent secondary ignitions and explosions. As demonstrated, the production and use of lithium traction batteries are not without environmental impacts. The problem is a multifaceted challenge that the scientific community and industry must address. Electric vehicles have gained frequent mention as a potential solution to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, particularly CO₂. It is itself considered the main culprit of climate change. Traditional vehicles with internal combustion engines emit CO₂ as a byproduct of burning fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Because EVs use battery-powered electric motors, they do not release this gas while driving. They also bring the benefits of no direct NOx and particulate emissions, improving air quality in the cities where they are mostly used.

The total carbon footprint of electric vehicles is shaped by several factors, such as the production of the vehicle, the production of the battery and the sources of electricity used for charging. Manufacturing the traction battery is an energy-intensive process that leads to CO₂ emissions. Battery production itself is one of the most emission-intensive steps in the life cycle of an electric vehicle. The process requires high-tech steps, such as synthesising cathode and anode materials, electrolytes and complex assembly. Battery-producing countries such as China and South Korea often use energy generated from fossil fuels, significantly increasing the associated carbon footprint [104,105,106].

The emissions of the compound mentioned in the previous paragraph associated with electric vehicles relate to the production of batteries and the generation of energy needed to charge them. The energy mix used in a region is crucial to an electric vehicle’s carbon footprint. In it, one can distinguish:

• Renewable Energy Sources: Wind, solar and hydroelectric energy do not emit CO₂ during generation, making electric vehicles charged from such sources have a much smaller carbon footprint.
• Nuclear Power: Nuclear power also does not emit CO₂ during generation, although it comes with other challenges, such as radioactive waste management.
• Fossil Fuels: Energy generated from coal, oil or natural gas is associated with high CO₂ emissions, reducing the environmental benefits of electric vehicles.

The long-term environmental benefits of electric vehicles can only be fully realised by decarbonising the energy sector [107].

While electric vehicles offer many benefits in terms of reduced CO₂ emissions and improved air quality, it is important to consider the emissions associated with their production and electricity generation. Battery production is an energy-intensive process, often conducted using non-renewable sources. In addition, the emissions associated with power generation depend on the local energy mix. In the context of sustainability, it is imperative to both develop battery production technologies with a smaller carbon footprint and transition to renewable energy sources. Only this approach will maximise the environmental benefits of electric vehicles.

5. Discussion

The analysis and review of the knowledge presented provide insight into aspects of electric vehicle production and operation, particularly focusing on economic, technical and environmental factors. The findings are consistent with the existing literature, placing them in the context of technological advances and implications of electromobility.

The study confirms the benefits of electric vehicles, especially in terms of lower costs per kilometre and reduced operating expenses. The challenge, however, is access to home charging for urban residents, leading to reliance on more expensive public stations, as pointed out in previous studies.

There is a new concern about introducing road taxes for electric vehicles to compensate for declining fuel tax revenues. This coincides with projections by the International Energy Agency (IEA) suggesting that governments must seek alternative revenue streams as EV adoption increases. These measures could affect the projected benefits, underscoring the importance of future policy decisions that may consider EV adoption.

On another note, simplifying mechanical systems in EVs, resulting from fewer moving engine parts and the absence of traditional combustion and exhaust systems, indicates reduced maintenance needs. The focus on examining battery management systems and addressing emerging cybersecurity challenges reflects the increasing digitisation of the industry. It is interesting to see how cyber-security concerns align with research findings [18] that show increased vulnerability to attacks.

The article also examines the shift from nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) to lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) batteries, highlighting the trade-offs between security and performance. This reflects current industry trends to increase stability and reduce fire hazards, as described in [16]. Nevertheless, comparing flammability levels underscores the need for advances in battery technology to reduce risk effectively.

The environmental assessment sheds light on the issue of the impact of lithium mining, confirming concerns [89] about water consumption and pollution. Moreover, the carbon footprint associated with battery production, as mentioned in the report [108], suggests that manufacturing processes are still environmentally burdensome despite reductions in vehicle emissions. Thus, integrating sustainable recycling techniques and practices, as discussed in [89], is key to sustaining industry growth.

The idea of giving used batteries a second life holds promise for reducing overall environmental impact. This approach, supported by research [72], improves resource efficiency by converting batteries into energy storage solutions.

The study also discusses how electric vehicles (EVs) can affect energy infrastructure, pointing to grid stability issues and the importance of using smart charging solutions. These findings agree with research on the role of EVs in modern energy systems. As mentioned in a related study, implementing vehicle to grid (V2G) technology can help stabilise the grid and create revenue streams for EV owners.

Future work should focus on areas such as:

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Developing economic models that can accurately predict long-term costs and benefits, including the potential impact of government taxes.

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Advancing battery technology to improve safety, reduce costs and minimise environmental damage.

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Strengthening cyber-security measures as electric vehicles are integrated into infrastructure.

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Conducting life cycle assessments (LCAs) to evaluate the overall environmental impact of EVs from material extraction to recycling.

This review provides an understanding of the multifaceted impact of electric vehicles, reinforcing many findings from previous research while also highlighting new challenges and opportunities. Advances in EV technology, infrastructure development and policy creation will affect their integration into society in the future. Going forward, it is important for research and policy initiatives to find a balance between economic, technical and environmental goals in order to increase and fully exploit the benefits of electromobility.