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Article

Effect of Silver Nanoparticles and Vermicompost on the Control of Longidorus elongatus (De Man, 1876) in Miscanthus × Giganteus and Its Growth and Development

by
Andrzej Skwiercz
1,
Tatyana Stefanovska
2,
Olexander Zhukov
3,
Anita Zapałowska
4 and
Adam Masłoń
5,*
1
Department of Plant Protection, The National Institute of Horticultural Research, Konstytucji 3 Maja 1/3, 96-100 Skierniewice, Poland
2
Department of Entomology, Integrated Pest Management and Plant Quarantine, The National University of Life and Environmental Sciences, Heroyiv Oborony, 15, 03041 Kyiv, Ukraine
3
Department of Botany and Horticulture, Bogdan Khmelnytskyi Melitopol State Pedagogical University, 72318 Melitopol, Ukraine
4
Department of Agriculture and Waste Management, Collegium of Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, St. Ćwiklinskiej 1a, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
5
Department of Environmental Engineering and Chemistry, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(18), 8093; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188093
Submission received: 4 August 2024 / Revised: 27 August 2024 / Accepted: 14 September 2024 / Published: 16 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainability in Circular Bioeconomy)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Miscanthus × giganteus biomass plays a crucial role in producing renewable energy and bio-based products, supporting global sustainability objectives. However, its introduction into the European Union has made it susceptible to the ectoparasitic needle nematode Longidorus spp., which are known vectors of severe viral diseases. The aim of the presented research was to assess the effectiveness of the following soil amendments: vermicompost from Eisenia fetida and silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) applied to the soil with Miscanthus plants following artificial inoculation of Longidorus elongatus. A two-year experiment was conducted at the National Institute of Horticulture Research in Skierniewice using concrete rings filled with medium sandy soil amended with 10% peat. Treatments included: control (no amendments), vermicompost (4 L of E. fetida vermicompost), and Ag-NPs (60 mg/L soil). Each treatment was replicated four times. Application of both vermicompost and Ag-NPs positively influenced soil parameters and crop yield while suppressing nematode populations. Significant reductions in L. elongatus density were observed: vermicompost reduced nematode population by 80% and Ag-NPs by 90% compared to the control (15%).

1. Introduction

Miscanthus × giganteus is a C4 perennial grass distinguished by its high biomass production and relatively low resource requirements, making it a valuable candidate for reducing carbon footprints [1]. Its biomass is widely used for energy conversion [2]. Recently, Miscanthus × giganteus has been recognized as an effective agent in phytotechnology, capable of producing high-quality biomass while enhancing soil quality [3,4]. This grass can be cultivated on marginal, deteriorated, or trace-element-contaminated lands from various anthropogenic sources [5,6,7]. Additionally, Miscanthus × giganteus can be grown on closed landfills [8].
The extensive root network of Miscanthus helps stabilize soil and prevent erosion, which is particularly beneficial on closed landfills where soil movement and erosion are significant concerns. By anchoring the soil, Miscanthus × giganteus contributes to long-term site stability and reduces the risk of spreading landfill contaminants. This stabilization keeps harmful substances contained, thereby minimizing environmental impact and enhancing the safety of the surrounding area [9]. Furthermore, Miscanthus × giganteus has proven to be highly effective in phytoremediation, successfully stabilizing soil around closed coal, lead, zinc, and cadmium mines, as well as cleaning up land used for municipal waste treatment, shipbuilding, iron and steel production, and oil refineries [10,11,12].
However, plant-parasitic nematodes pose a significant threat to global food security [13,14,15]. These nematodes can cause severe crop damage through direct feeding and by transmitting plant viruses [16]. Two notable plant viruses transmitted by nematodes are norovirus (NEPO) and tobravirus (TOBRA). NEPO is vectored exclusively by nematodes from the genera Xiphinema and Longidorus, while TOBRA is transmitted by nematodes from the genera Trichodorus and Paratrichodorus. Among plant-parasitic nematodes, the needle nematodes of the Longidoridae family are the largest group of virus vectors. This family includes nematodes that transmit several significant plant viruses, such as raspberry ringspot virus (RRSV), tomato black ring virus (TBRV) Scottish strain, and spoon leaf virus [17,18,19].
Longidorus spp. are known to feed on a wide range of grasses, as well as annual and perennial crops, and weeds. This genus is particularly destructive to corn, which, like Miscanthus × giganteus, belongs to the Poaceae family. Longidorus spp. are ectoparasitic, typically found in sandy soils, and use a needle-like stylet for feeding. They thrive in cool, damp conditions and are among the longest nematodes. L. elongatus in particular causes distinctive swelling or galling at the root tips, severely affecting the fibrous root system. Economic damage can occur with as few as one nematode per 100 cubic centimeters of soil, and populations of 25 nematodes per 100 cubic centimeters can lead to significant damage.
Several plant-parasitic nematodes, including Longidorus spp. and Xiphinema spp., have been found in the rhizosphere of Miscanthus × giganteus, acting as virus vectors [20,21,22,23]. Recent studies conducted in Kosakowo, Poland (54°37′02.00″ N 18°26′05.10″ E) have confirmed that L. elongatus (De Man, 1876) inhabits the roots of Miscanthus × giganteus with a high population density of 4000 individuals per 100 cubic centimeters of soil. Managing L. elongatus is challenging, as adults can survive without food for extended periods, making crop rotation an inadequate management strategy. Therefore, utilizing non-host crops such as soybean and sugar beet for rotation can be an effective strategy for controlling these nematodes [24].
Organic amendments of various types have been shown to effectively inhibit a range of plant-parasitic nematodes, including root-knot nematodes, cyst nematodes, root lesion and stem nematodes, and dagger nematodes, while also improving soil health. The re-duction in nematode populations through the use of vermicompost is largely attributed to the presence of beneficial bacteria. These bacteria, abundant in vermicompost and associated with earthworms, play a crucial role in nematode suppression [25,26]. Metagenomic studies of bacteria in the guts of common earthworms, such as Perionyx excavatus and Eisenia fetida, have identified Proteobacteria and Firmicutes as the predominant bacterial groups involved in the degradation process [27].
Recently, nano-enabled soil amendments have gained considerable attention for their potential in sustainable crop production and plant disease management. Nanotechnology offers several advantages, including the enhancement of soil and plant health through microbiome improvement, integration of nanoparticles into plant systems for better agricultural management, and increased crop resilience and efficiency. Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) have emerged as particularly effective in boosting crop productivity and plant protection [28]. They have demonstrated effectiveness against common plant diseases [29] and plant-parasitic nematodes, including root-knot nematodes such as Meloidogyne spp. [30]. The potential of Ag-NPs to control other nematode groups is a growing area of re-search.
This study is the first to investigate the nematocidal activity of Ag-NPs against L. elongatus in soil cultivated with Miscanthus × giganteus. We hypothesize that the application of Ag-NPs or E. fetida will effectively control L. elongatus and enhance the growth and biomass productivity of Miscanthus × giganteus.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experiment Design

The experiment was conducted in 2021–2022 at the National Institute of Horticultural Research in Skierniewice in Poland (51 96′15″ N, 20 13′69″ E). Twelve concrete circles with a diameter of 150 cm and a depth of 60 cm were filled with medium sandy soil that had been lying fallow for the past two years and to which 20 L of nematode-free peat soil was added (Figure 1). The experiment was provided in four replications and had three treatments:
  • Control (only water was added);
  • 1 L of solutions of Ag-NPs (dose 60 mg per 1 L soil);
  • 20 L of vermicompost (Ve) produced by E. fetida with 150–200 earthworms.
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Figure 1. The concrete circles with Miscanthus × giganteus.
Figure 1. The concrete circles with Miscanthus × giganteus.
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Five rhizomes of Miscanthus × giganteus were planted at a depth of 10 cm within the twelve circles in March 2021.
Two weeks later, to each circle, a total of 200 specimens of L. elongatus (Table 1) (equal numbers of males and females) in a water solution were inoculated into the area around the root system as the initial population (Pi). The specimens of L. elongatus (Figure 2) were isolated two days prior to the experiment being set up from the 2 ha Miscanthus × giganteus plantation near Kosakowo. Final population of L. elongatus (Pf) and multiplication factor (R) was calculated on 30 October 2022. The descriptive statistics and ANOVA were calculated in STATISTICA 13.3 (Statsoft, Tulsa, OK, USA).

2.2. Silver Nanoparticles Application

Silver nanoparticles (37 ppm) were purchased from Alter Medica (Zywiec, Poland) and ap-plied to the soil at a dose of 60 mg per 1 L of soil.
Ag-NPs, or silver nanoparticles, are classified as nanomaterials with dimensions ranging from 1 to 100 nm. They demonstrate enhanced capacity and a higher surface area-to-volume ratio compared to bulk silver. At the nanoscale, these materials exhibit distinct electrical, optical, and catalytic properties, which have prompted research and development of products for targeted drug delivery, diagnostics, detection, and imaging [31,32]. Notably, the remarkable antibacterial activity of Ag-NPs has drawn significant interest from researchers and industries alike. Ag-NPs have demonstrated antimicrobial effects against a wide range of infectious and pathogenic microorganisms, including multi-drug-resistant bacteria [33,34]. Ag-NPs exert antibacterial activity on various different bacterial types that include Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria [35].

2.3. Vermicompost Preparation

Vermicompost was produced using E. fetida and a mixture of shredded raw materials, including soil, peat, recycled paper, napkins, apples, and other organic waste. Throughout the composting process, the moisture content of the compost was regularly monitored, and water was added as necessary to maintain optimal conditions. The compost was kept in a specially designed sealed bin with a drain at the bottom to allow excess water to be drained off. The decomposition and formation of compost from this mixture occurred over the span of one month. The pH and salinity of the vermicompost samples were measured following the procedures outlined by Kabała and Karczewska [36]. The pH was determined in both water and KCl solutions using the potentiometric method. Salinity was assessed through electrical conductivity, while phosphorus and potassium levels were measured using the Egner–Riehm method. Magnesium was determined by the Schachtschabel method, and calcium and chlorine concentrations were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Total nitrogen was quantified by the Kjeldahl method, and total organic carbon was measured spectrophotometrically following oxidation. Ammonium (N-NH4) was analyzed with Nessler’s colorimetric method, and nitrate (N-NO3) was determined using a colorimetric method with phenol-2,4 disulfonic acid.
The chemical composition of the vermicompost used in the experiment is presented in Table 2.

2.4. Soil Analysis

Analysis of the soil was carried out according to the Polish Standard: PN-EN 12176:2004, PN-EN 13342:2002, PN-ISO 5656:2002, PBE-58 from 20.11.2015, PBE-58 from 20.11.2015, PN-R-04023:1996, PBE-24 ed. VI from 28.06.2007.

2.5. Nematode Isolation and Analysis

Soil samples were collected near the roots of Miscanthus × giganteus from a depth of 10 to 60 cm. Analysis of the nematode was carried out according to Skwiercz et al. [37]. Briefly, approximately 500 cm3 of collected soil sample was gently mixed and separated into 100 cm3 subsamples. The sediment suspension was transferred for centrifugation at 2000× g (RCF) for 3 min. The supernatant was discarded, and the precipitate was resuspended using 80 cm3 of 1 molar sucrose solution.
The tubes underwent a final centrifugation for 2 min at 2000× g (RCF). The supernatant, which contained the nematodes, was filtered through a 25 μm sieve and rinsed three times with water to eliminate sucrose from the nematode bodies. The collected nematodes were then moved to glass containers. To ensure the nematodes were thermally killed, a 6% formalin solution was applied at 90 °C, followed by fixation with an equal volume of water. The number of specimens (population density of Pf and Pf1) was calculated as follows: nematodes were isolated using a centrifugal method from 500 cm3 of soil taken from the root zone of Miscanthus (covering a soil volume of 100 L).
The isolated nematodes were transferred to a fixation container filled with an S1 solution, which consisted of 96% ethanol (20 cm3), glycerol (1 cm3), and distilled water (79 cm3). These containers were then placed in a desiccator with a thin layer of 96% ethanol before being moved to an incubator set at 40 °C. After 24 h in the desiccator, the nematodes in the S1 solution had S2 solution added (composed of 93 cm3 of 96% ethanol and 7 cm3 of glycerin), with a few drops of S2 added each hour over a period of 8 h. It was determined that the nematodes become saturated with glycerin after 24 h in the incubator.
To prepare the nematodes for observation on glass slides, those embedded in glycerin were placed on microscope slides with drops of anhydrous glycerin, following the paraffin ring technique. Morphological features were used for identifying the nematodes, utilizing a Carl Zeiss Jena A-Scope microscope along with the diagnostic keys from Brzeski [38] and Andrássy [39].
The nematode reproduction factor RF was calculated as follows: Rf = Pf/Pi-initial population density for soil under Miscanthus × giganteus infected by Longidorus spp. calculated in October 2022.

2.6. Miscanthus × Giganteus Traits Measurments

Plant traits: stem height, stem count, stem thickness, and weight were measured in October 2021 and 2022 in three variants: control, Ag-NPs, vermicompost.

3. Results and Discussion

Soil parameters were impacted by application of both amendments: vermicompost and Ag-NPs (Table 3).
Vermicomposting is a biotransformation process that converts organic waste into humus through the combined activities of microorganisms and earthworms. Earthworms play a crucial role by constantly turning, aerating, and fragmenting the waste, which leads to the bio-oxidation of the material. This process results in the creation of a homogeneous and stabilized humus, which is beneficial for plants and commonly used as manure in agriculture. The castings produced by earthworms are rich in nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium [40]. Species like Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus are especially the primary agents responsible for breaking down organic matter during vermicomposting [41]. Vermicompost can enhance soil fertility physically, chemically, and biologically [42].
The use of vermicompost led to an increase in the content of organic carbon, N-NO3, P2O5, potassium, and magnesium in the soil. Magnesium and potassium content increased as a result of the of silver nanoparticles’ application. Both soil amendments caused a decrease in N-NH4 content in the soil. The amendments stimulated an increase in the minimum plant height, which was especially evident in the second year of vegetation, and also stimulated the maximum stem width, which became statistically significant from the control in the second year of vegetation (Table 4).
As shown by other authors’ studies, the use of vermicompost reduces populations of free-living nematodes due to its harmful effects on these organisms. Gabour et al. [43] observed that vermicompost inhibits the populations of the plant-parasitic nematode Rotylenchulus reniformis. Similarly, Edwards et al. [44] found that vermicompost significantly reduces the number of galls caused by Meloidogyne hapla in tomato plants. These effects may be caused by several mechanisms: vermicompost can induce nematode mortality through the release of nematicidal substances, such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and nitrite [45]. Additionally, it promotes the growth of predatory fungi that attack nematode cysts [46] and increases the activity of rhizobacteria that produce toxic enzymes and toxins [47]. Furthermore, vermicompost indirectly supports populations of nematophagous microorganisms, bacteria, and fungi, which serve as food for predatory or omnivorous nematodes and arthropods, such as mites (H. calcuttaensis, T. putrescentiae), which selectively target plant-parasitic nematodes (Meloidogyne incognito, Anguina tritici, Heterodera mothi) [48].
The application of vermicompost stimulated an increase in the elongation of plant roots. The stimulating effect of silver was revealed only in the second year of the experiment. The application of vermicompost resulted in a statistically significant increase in both dry and wet yield of Miscanthus. The use of silver nanoparticles contributed to increased dry yield. The application of silver nanoparticles in the first year resulted in a 20.1% increase in wet yield and a 124.7% increase in dry yield (Table 5).
In the second year, this soil amendment increased the wet yield by 0.5% and the dry yield by 89.3%. The use of vermicompost in the first year resulted in a 20.2% increase in wet yield and a 125.4% increase in dry yield. In the second year, this preparation increased the wet yield by 17.9% and the dry yield by 104.7%.
The results of counting L. elongatus specimens in 500 cm3 of the tested soil for each treatment and replicate are presented in Table 6. Both amendments significantly impacted the population of L. elongatus in each study year compared to the control (Table 6). Under control conditions, the number of L. elongatus did not change in 2021 and showed an upward trend in 2022. The use of soil amendments significantly reduced the number of L. elongatus, and the effectiveness of their impact increased over time.
In response to the recent observation that the population density of L. elongatus in Miscanthus × giganteus significantly exceeded the economic threshold for monocotyledonous plants, to which this energy crop belongs, this study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of organic and nano-enabled metallic soil amendments. The goal was to reduce the population of this severe plant pathogen, improve soil parameters, and increase crop yield. This study demonstrated that the soil amendments vermicompost and Ag-NPs on L. elongatus had acceptable levels of nematicidal efficacy. Several earlier studies have highlighted the negative effects of Ag-NPs on earthworms and nematodes [49,50,51]. Several authors have reported about the significant effect of Ag-NPs on growth and reproduction in both organisms [52,53]. The current research’s results indicating a suppressive effect of silver nanoparticles treatment on L. elongatus plant parasites are in agreement with Dzięgielewska et al. [54]. Ag-NPs have recently shown potential efficacy as nematicides [55]. The most studied is an effect of Ag-NPs on root-knot nematodes, namely Meloidogyne spp. [56,57]. The nematicide potential of vermicompost made by E. fetida was evaluated for different plant-parasitic nematodes [58]. The mechanism of biocontrol properties of E. fetida is most likely due to the bacteria isolated from vermicompost exhibiting nematocidal properties [59]. The results of Tikoria et al. [60] showed that vermicompost, which alters the concentration of bioactive phyto-constituents, lowers oxidative stress and stimulates tomato plant growth and development, making it a promising biopesticide against M. incognita.
Nanomaterials are used widely to improve agricultural production by increasing plant growth parameters. Research shows the various effects of silver nanoparticles on plant cultivation. In studies on maize variety SY Talisman cultivation, Gorczyca et al. [61] noted that the application of silver nanoparticles at a concentration of 10 mg·L−1 to the soil reduces the accumulation of dry matter, especially roots, but does not show a negative effect on maize plants’ vegetative condition. Pallavi et al. [62] investigated the impact of silver nanoparticles on the growth of Triticum aestivum, Vigna sinensis, and Brassica juncea. The authors showed that the use of Ag-NPs changes the diversity of soil bacteria and is influenced by the plant species grown in this soil. Seif et al. [63] reported an increase in plant height of Borago officinalis L. from the application of Ag-NPs. In other studies, Sillen et al. [64] shown that 100 mg·kg−1 silver nanoparticles in soil increases maize biomass, and that this effect coincides with significant alterations in the bacterial communities in the rhizosphere. Our findings demonstrated that the use of Ag-NPs on M×g stimulated plant growth, particularly at the second year of growth, which shows the sustainability of long-term crop production. This is in line with several earlier studies that show the positive effect of Ag-NPs on different stages of plant growth. The use of Ag-NPs has increased effectiveness in promoting seed germination [65]. Our findings have shown that Miscanthus × giganteus yield is significantly improved after using Ag-NPs. This is in agreement with numerous investigations that have verified that Ag-NPs increased crop yield in a positive way while having little or no phototoxic effect on plant growth, along with inducing the secondary metabolites’ production [66].
Nanoparticles come in a wide range of sizes, shapes, and materials, and their effects on living organisms can differ significantly depending on these characteristics [67]. Silver nanoparticles were found to be the most toxic to the larvae of S. feltiae and H. bacteriophora. This toxicity increased with both the concentration of Ag-NPs and the duration of exposure [68,69,70]). Dzięgielewska et al. [54] studied the effect of nanoparticles on the biological activity of entomopathogenic and plant pathogenic nematodes. They showed that using nanoparticles in agriculture can increase the effectiveness of entomopathogenic nematodes in protecting plants from pests. On the other hand, this approach can also reduce the harmfulness of plant-parasitic nematodes. The plant-parasitic nematodes examined in their study included Xiphinema diversicaudatum, Ditylenchus dipsaci, and Heterodera schachtii. The greatest sensitivity to silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) was observed in X. diversicaudatum and D. dipsaci.
Vermicompost increases carbon and organic nitrogen levels as a result of its natural production process [71]. The activity of earthworms enhances microbial decomposition and nutrient mineralization, further contributing to the increase in N-NH4 content. Some studies have reported positive effects of vermicompost on nematodes [25,72]. Our findings clearly demonstrate that both vermicompost and silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) enhance soil characteristics, although their effects differ slightly.
Overall, both amendments in our experiment provided significant improvements to soil quality by increasing potassium and magnesium levels.

4. Conclusions

This study demonstrates that the use of silver nanoparticles and vermicompost significantly increases the yield of Miscanthus × giganteus plantations. These amendments directly improve soil properties, leading to an increase in plant biomass and organic carbon content. The increase in Miscanthus phytomass is attributed to morphological changes in the plants. Amendments increase the minimum plant height and maximum thickness. The application of silver nanoparticles and vermicompost leads to a decrease in the number of harmful nematodes L. elongatus (De Man, 1876). This effect may be due to the direct action of amendments, as well as improved soil conditions leading to increased plant immunity. Further research is needed to determine the contribution of these mechanisms to the increase in Miscanthus yields.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, investigation, and writing—original draft preparation, A.S.; methodology and investigation, T.S.; investigation and visualization, O.Z.; investigation, A.Z.; formal analysis, A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project is financed by the program NATO SPS MYP # G6094.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are only available upon request due to restrictions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Sustainability 16 08093 g002
Figure 2. L. elongatus head (A), tail (B), pharynx–intestine (C), and vulva (D) (10 μm).
Figure 2. L. elongatus head (A), tail (B), pharynx–intestine (C), and vulva (D) (10 μm).
Sustainability 16 08093 g002
Table 1. Morphometrics of L. elongatus population used in experiment. All measurements were conducted in um except for body length (mm) and in form: mean ± range.
Table 1. Morphometrics of L. elongatus population used in experiment. All measurements were conducted in um except for body length (mm) and in form: mean ± range.
Location: Kosakowo, Poland (54°37′02.00″ N 18°26′05.10″ E)
Host Plant: Miscantus × giganteus
CharacterFemale Male
n *5050
L5.25 ± 0.56 (4.88–6.80)5.15 ± 0.51 (4.29–5.94)
a97.5 ± 5.80 (89.4–109.4)101.2 ± 6.06 (95.3–108.3)
b12.6 ± 1.74 (10.8–18.2)11.8 ± 1.65 (9.3–13.4)
c112.5 ± 16.79 (96.2–160.0)94.3 ± 14.1 (82.3–110.2)
c’1.19 ± 0.10 (1.00–1.39)1.40 ± 0.19 (1.24–1.52)
V/Spicules length48.5 ± 1.8 (44.2–52.4)59 ± 2.1 (49–61)
Odontostylet length85.2 ± 6.1 (78–95)82.5 ± 5.7 (80–89)
Odontophore length65.6 ± 3.1 (59–73)68 ± 3.2 (67–69)
Total stylet length148.6 ± 43.5 (138–162)150.5 ± 43.6 (147–158)
Anterior end to guide ring32.0 ± 1.2 (30–34)32.8 ± 1.2 (31–34)
Pharyngeal bulb length113.4 ± 5.8 (104–122) 115 ± 5.9 (107–120)
Pharyngeal bulb width20.0 ± 2.0 (18–22)18.7 ± 1.8 (17–21)
Tail length47.0 ± 4.0 (42–56) 55.3 ± 4.7 (48–67)
Hyaline part of tail length11.3 ± 1.7 (9–15) 13.5 ± 2.0 (12–16)
Width at level of:
Lips14.5 ± 0.5 (14–15)14.8 ± 0.5 (14–15)
Guide ring22.5 ± 0.5 (22–23) 22 ± 0.5 (21–23)
Base of pharynx44.4 ± 1.7 (42–48) 43.5 ± 1.7 (41–48)
Vulva or mid-body53.7 ± 3.6 (49–61)50.8 ± 3.4 (45–54)
Anus39.6 ± 1.5 (37–43)39.5 ± 1.5 (36–43)
* n = number of nematodes; L = body length; in millimeters; a = ratio of body length to largest body width; b = ratio of body length to pharynx length from head to pharyngeal–intestinal junction; c = ratio of body length to tail length; c’ = ratio of tail length to body width at anus level; V = distance from anterior end to vulva expressed in percent of body length.
Table 2. Chemical properties of unmixed vermicompost used in the experiment.
Table 2. Chemical properties of unmixed vermicompost used in the experiment.
ParameterVermicompost (Imput)
pH-H2O7.17
pH-KCl7.0
Electrical conductivity (mS·cm−1)2.41
Nitrate (mg·kg−1)200
Ammonium (mg·kg−1)68.7
Phosphorus (mg·kg−1)617
Potassium (mg·kg−1)1795
Calcium (mg·kg−1)1410
Magnesium (mg·kg−1)369
Chlorine (mg·kg−1)189
Organic carbon (%)5.08
Total nitrogen (%)0.23
C/N ratio21/1
Table 3. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on the soil properties (2022).
Table 3. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on the soil properties (2022).
VariantProperties of Soil
SalinityN-NO3PKMgCaN-NH4Corg
[NaClg·L−1]Available form [mg·kg−1 Soil][%]
R2 = 0.78,
p < 0.001		R2 = 0.74,
p < 0.001		R2 = 0.59,
p < 0.007		R2 = 0.96,
p < 0.001		R2 = 0.84,
p < 0.001		R2 = 0.08,
p = 0.27		R2 = 0.73,
p < 0.001		R2 = 0.81,
p < 0.001
Control0.20 ± 0.0127.75 ± 1.71245.8 ± 8.787.8 ± 6.3147.5 ± 6.52212.5 ± 85.4477.5 ± 63.43.36 ± 0.04
Ve0.27 ± 0.02 *35.25 ± 2.22 *267.5 ± 6.5 *150.3 ± 4.6 *189.5 ± 8.8 *2351.8 ± 128.2325.8 ± 21.1 *3.73 ± 0.13 *
Ag-NPs0.22 ± 0.0128.50 ± 2.08247.5 ± 6.5120.5 ± 4.2 *188.0 ± 10.3 *2353.8 ± 171.9366.3 ± 12.5 *3.41 ± 0.09
n = 4, Mean ± SD, * Indicates a Statistically Significant Difference from the Control for p < 0.05.
Table 4. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on the Miscanthus × giganteus traits (n = 4, mean ± SD; * indicates a statistically significant difference from the control for p < 0.05).
Table 4. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on the Miscanthus × giganteus traits (n = 4, mean ± SD; * indicates a statistically significant difference from the control for p < 0.05).
VariantRR TraitStem Height [cm]Stem Thickness [cm]Root Length [cm]
202120222021202220212022
Control Mean95.0 ± 8.9172.5 ± 31.24.0 ± 0.66.2 ± 0.513.4 ± 1.615.2 ± 1.75
Ve105.0 ± 9.1185.0 ± 11.54.2 ± 0.47.6 ± 0.716.4 ± 1.8 *17.4 ± 2.02 *
Ag-NPs102.0 ± 8.2182.0 ± 19.84.7 ± 1.17.8 ± 0.514.8 ± 1.7316.8 ± 1.25 *
Control Minimum52.0 ± 7.386.0 ± 13.54.5 ± 0.56.3 ± 0.912.2 ± 1.5114.2 ± 1.27
Ve72.0 ± 7.5 *120.0 ± 9.1 *4.3 ± 0.27.1 ± 1.014.2 ± 1.53 *15.2 ± 1.78 *
Ag-NPs51.5 ± 7.2101.5 ± 4.1 *4.2 ± 0.17.1 ± 1.313.5 ± 1.1714.5 ± 1.06
Control Maximum187.5 ± 15.5210.0 ± 12.24.7 ± 0.26.1 ± 1.714.4 ± 1.6215.8 ± 1.65
Ve195.0 ± 26.1220.0 ± 10.85.4 ± 0.78.1 ± 0.4 *17.8 ± 1.77 *19.8 ± 2.46 *
Ag-NPs195.5 ± 16.5211.5 ± 13.45.5 ± 0.68.1 ± 0.3 *16.3 ± 1.63 *18.8 ± 1.96 *
Table 5. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on the Miscanthus × giganteus yield (n = 4, mean ± SD; * indicates a statistically significant difference from the control for p < 0.05; the effect of vermicompost and silver nanoparticles application was not statistically significantly different).
Table 5. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on the Miscanthus × giganteus yield (n = 4, mean ± SD; * indicates a statistically significant difference from the control for p < 0.05; the effect of vermicompost and silver nanoparticles application was not statistically significantly different).
Variant
F = 14.6
p < 0.001		Year
F = 133.8
p < 0.001		Wet Yield
[g·m−2]		Dry Yield
[g·m−2]
Control2021355.0 ± 42.0161.3 ± 8.5
2022967.5 ± 85.0452.5 ± 41.1
Ve2021431.3 ± 62.0 *361.3 ± 42.9 *
20221142.5 ± 123.4 *928.8 ± 124.9 *
Ag-NPs2021427.5 ± 61.8361.3 ± 8.5 *
2022975.0 ± 126.1855.0 ± 65.6 *
Table 6. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on L. elongatus (De Man, 1876).
Table 6. Effect of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) and vermicompost (Ve) on L. elongatus (De Man, 1876).
VariantL. elongatus
2021 (R2 = 0.95, p < 0.001)2022 (R2 = 0.99, p < 0.001)
PfRfPf1Rf1 *
Control198.8 ± 17.50.99 ± 0.09221.3 ± 8.51.11 ± 0.04
Ve80.1 ± 6.3 *0.40 ± 0.0340.1 ± 9.1 *0.20 ± 0.05
Ag-NPs75.0 ± 7.0 *0.38 ± 0.0452.1 ± 7.3 *0.26 ± 0.04
* Pf, population density; Rf, reproduction factor; Pf1, final population density; Rf1, final reproduction factor. N = 4, Mean ± SD, * indicates a statistically significant difference from the control for p < 0.05.
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Skwiercz, A.; Stefanovska, T.; Zhukov, O.; Zapałowska, A.; Masłoń, A. Effect of Silver Nanoparticles and Vermicompost on the Control of Longidorus elongatus (De Man, 1876) in Miscanthus × Giganteus and Its Growth and Development. Sustainability 2024, 16, 8093. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188093

AMA Style

Skwiercz A, Stefanovska T, Zhukov O, Zapałowska A, Masłoń A. Effect of Silver Nanoparticles and Vermicompost on the Control of Longidorus elongatus (De Man, 1876) in Miscanthus × Giganteus and Its Growth and Development. Sustainability. 2024; 16(18):8093. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188093

Chicago/Turabian Style

Skwiercz, Andrzej, Tatyana Stefanovska, Olexander Zhukov, Anita Zapałowska, and Adam Masłoń. 2024. "Effect of Silver Nanoparticles and Vermicompost on the Control of Longidorus elongatus (De Man, 1876) in Miscanthus × Giganteus and Its Growth and Development" Sustainability 16, no. 18: 8093. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188093

APA Style

Skwiercz, A., Stefanovska, T., Zhukov, O., Zapałowska, A., & Masłoń, A. (2024). Effect of Silver Nanoparticles and Vermicompost on the Control of Longidorus elongatus (De Man, 1876) in Miscanthus × Giganteus and Its Growth and Development. Sustainability, 16(18), 8093. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188093

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