Overcoming Barriers to Managing Urban Green Spaces in Metropolitan Areas: Prospects from a Case Study in an Emerging Economy

Abstract

Urban green spaces (UGS) are vital for the quality of life in cities. However, managing these spaces in metropolitan areas is increasingly challenging. There is a critical gap regarding the specific challenges and strategies employed by municipalities of varying sizes in emerging economies. Most existing research focuses on developed countries, leaving a void in understanding how these economies manage UGS under different constraints. This study delves into the challenges and strategies associated with managing UGS in the metropolitan region of São Paulo (MRSP), Brazil, comparing the experiences of the municipalities to provide empirical evidence that can inform policy making and urban planning practices in similar contexts. A structured questionnaire was distributed to environmental departments across 39 municipalities in MRSP. The survey included questions on population size, priority given to UGS, challenges faced and strategies adopted to overcome barriers. Chi-square tests were used to analyze the association between municipality size and the identified challenges and strategies. This study found that larger municipalities face significant barriers related to high population density and land use conflicts, which are less pronounced in smaller municipalities. However, strategies adopted to manage UGS were similar across all municipalities. Policy makers should focus on promoting vertical green spaces, expanding urban greening programs, and ensuring equitable resource allocation. Public–private partnerships and community involvement in planning processes are crucial for sustainable UGS management. Integrating UGS policies with broader urban development plans is essential for creating cohesive urban environments. Further research should conduct comparative studies across multiple metropolitan regions in different countries to provide a more comprehensive understanding of UGS management globally. This study integrates insights from urban ecology, landscape architecture, and public policy, emphasizing the interdisciplinary approach required for effective UGS management. The findings offer practical guidance for urban planners and landscape architects to design sustainable urban landscapes.

1. Introduction

Urban green spaces (UGS) are crucial for enhancing the quality of life in metropolitan areas, providing a range of environmental, social, and health benefits [1,2,3]. These spaces help mitigate urban heat islands, improve air quality, and offer recreational opportunities that contribute to the physical and mental well-being of urban residents [4,5]. As cities in emerging economies expand, managing these green spaces becomes increasingly challenging due to rapid urbanization, population growth, and competing land uses [6,7]. The effective management of UGS is essential for sustainable urban development, yet it remains a complex issue that requires careful consideration of various socio-economic and environmental factors [8].

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of community involvement and innovative management strategies in overcoming these barriers. For instance, Liu and Russo [9] advocate for integrating green infrastructure into urban planning to enhance ecosystem services and resilience. This integration of urban ecology, landscape architecture, and public policy underscores the interdisciplinary nature required for effective UGS management.

This study focuses on the metropolitan region of São Paulo (MRSP), Brazil, an area characterized by significant urban sprawl and diverse socio-economic conditions. São Paulo is one of the largest and most rapidly growing metropolitan regions in the world, presenting a unique context for examining the challenges and strategies of urban green space management [6,10]. The primary problem addressed in this study is the unique set of barriers faced by larger municipalities in managing UGS within this metropolitan context. Larger municipalities, especially those in metropolitan regions, are characterized by high population densities and a complex matrix of land use. These factors can lead to increased pressure on existing green spaces and pose significant obstacles to the creation of new ones. Consequently, larger municipalities may experience distinct difficulties compared to their smaller counterparts, such as limited available land, conflicts in land use, and heightened competition for resources [4].

Furthermore, research by Stan [11] indicates that public perception and administrative coordination significantly impact the effectiveness of green space management. This highlights the need for robust governance structures and policies that prioritize UGS within urban development plans. Emphasizing the design aspects, such as how urban planners and landscape architects can use these findings to design more sustainable urban landscapes, aligns with our study’s focus.

Despite the recognized importance of UGS, there is a noticeable gap in the existing literature regarding the specific challenges and strategies employed by municipalities of different sizes in emerging economies like Brazil. Much of the current research focuses on developed countries, leaving a void in understanding how emerging economies manage these spaces under different constraints and contexts [12]. This gap is particularly relevant as cities in emerging economies face unique socio-economic and infrastructural challenges that may not be present in more developed settings. Addressing this gap is crucial for developing context-specific strategies that can effectively enhance urban green space management in these rapidly growing regions [7,8,13,14].

The purpose of this study is to investigate the challenges and strategies associated with managing UGS in MRSP using a case study approach. This study aims to identify and analyze the unique barriers faced by larger municipalities and compare these with the experiences of smaller municipalities. Additionally, it seeks to evaluate the strategies adopted by municipalities of varying sizes to overcome these challenges. Through this investigation, this study will fill a critical gap in the literature and offer practical implications for urban planners and policy makers aiming to enhance the sustainability and livability of rapidly urbanizing cities in emerging economies [6,12,15,16,17,18].

2. Literature Review

2.1. Urban Growth and Land-Cover Changes

One of the primary challenges in managing UGS in emerging economies is the loss of green spaces due to urban growth. A study on São Paulo and Mexico City highlights the negative impacts of land-cover changes on ecosystem services such as climate regulation and water flow regulation. The researchers advocate for ecosystem-based spatial planning and ecological restoration to mitigate these effects [19].

2.2. Spatial Distribution and Equity

The spatiotemporal dynamics of UGS also pose significant challenges. In Pokhara Metropolitan City, green spaces have decreased in central urban areas and increased in suburban regions due to the transformation of agricultural land. This shift underscores the need for sustainable management practices that balance urban development with green space conservation [20].

2.3. Inequity in Ecosystem Services

In the Xi’an Metropolitan Area, China, the equity in ecosystem services provided by UGS has deteriorated in recent decades, with significant disparities observed across different urban and rural gradients. This study emphasizes the need for policies that address these inequities to ensure fair distribution of green space benefits [21].

2.4. Deficiency in Urban Regions

A critical issue in many emerging economies is the deficiency of UGS, which negatively impacts residents’ quality of life and health. Strategies to address this include the integration of green infrastructure in smart city designs to enhance urban lifestyles and health outcomes [22].

2.5. Mitigating Environmental Issues

Establishing UGS in densely populated cities can help mitigate air pollution and the Urban Heat Island effect. For instance, in Kathmandu Metropolitan City, potential locations for UGS such as rooftops have been identified to improve air quality and cool the microclimate [23].

2.6. Geospatial Techniques and Standardization

The use of geospatial techniques to map and classify UGS can standardize information and optimize inventory acquisition. This method has been successfully applied in various metropolitan areas, providing a framework for more effective UGS management [24].

2.7. Community Engagement and Participatory Planning

Engaging the community in the planning and management of UGS is crucial for gaining public support and ensuring the success of green space initiatives. Educational campaigns and participatory planning processes can foster greater public involvement and responsibility towards green space conservation [25].

2.8. Research Gap

While previous research extensively covers the general benefits and management strategies of UGS in emerging economies, they predominantly focus on developed countries or offer a broad overview without delving into size-specific barriers and approaches. Our research uniquely addresses this gap by employing a structured questionnaire and statistical analysis to explore the distinct challenges faced by larger municipalities, such as high population density and land use conflicts, which are less pronounced in smaller municipalities. Furthermore, it evaluates the uniformity in strategic approaches across municipalities of different sizes, a novel contribution that reveals the necessity for equitable resource distribution and integrated urban planning tailored to the unique socio-economic and infrastructural contexts of emerging economies. This empirical approach provides actionable insights for policy makers and urban planners, emphasizing the importance of targeted interventions and comprehensive planning for sustainable UGS management in rapidly urbanizing regions.

3. Material and Method

3.1. Survey Design

A structured online questionnaire was developed to gather comprehensive information on the management of UGS. This design was chosen to ensure systematic data collection across diverse municipalities, enabling a robust comparative analysis. The questionnaire comprised multiple-choice questions, Likert-scale items, and open-ended questions designed to capture a detailed view of the challenges and strategies employed by municipalities. The interdisciplinary approach, incorporating urban ecology, landscape architecture, and public policy, was reflected in the diverse range of questions addressing various aspects of UGS management. This survey design offers several advantages and aligns with the research objectives for the following reasons:

• Systematic Data Collection: Structured questionnaires facilitate consistent and uniform data collection across different respondents, minimizing variability due to differing interpretations of questions. This consistency is crucial for comparative analysis across municipalities of varying sizes.
• Comprehensive Information: By including multiple-choice questions, Likert-scale items, and open-ended questions, the survey captures both quantitative and qualitative data. This mixed-method approach allows for a nuanced understanding of the challenges and strategies in UGS management.
• Categorization of Population Size: The categorization of municipal population size into four distinct groups (up to 50,000 inhabitants, 50,001 to 200,000 inhabitants, 200,001 to 500,000 inhabitants, and more than 500,000 inhabitants) enables a detailed analysis of how municipality size influences UGS management. This categorization is essential for testing our hypotheses regarding the unique challenges faced by larger versus smaller municipalities.
• Identification of Key Challenges: The survey addresses key challenges such as high population density, land use conflicts, lack of political support, financial resource shortages, logistical and planning limitations, and low public participation. Including an option to specify other challenges ensures that the survey can capture a wide range of issues relevant to different municipalities.
• Exploration of Strategies: By investigating strategies to overcome these barriers, such as increased public funding, public awareness campaigns, public–private partnerships, environmental legislation improvements, technical training and capacity building, and fiscal incentives for green areas, the survey provides insights into the effectiveness and prevalence of various management approaches. This is crucial for identifying best practices and informing policy recommendations.

The key sections of the survey included the municipal population size; the main challenges, considering the high population density, land use conflicts, lack of political support, financial resource shortages, logistical and planning limitations, and low public participation, with an option to specify other challenges; and the strategies to overcome the barriers, such as increased public funding, public awareness campaigns, public–private partnerships, environmental legislation improvements, technical training and capacity building, and fiscal incentives for green areas, with an option to specify other strategies.

This comprehensive survey design ensures that we capture detailed and relevant data to address our research objectives effectively. By systematically collecting and analyzing this data, we can provide robust empirical evidence on the challenges and strategies in UGS management across municipalities of different sizes.

3.2. Participant Recruitment

Participants were recruited by sending email invitations to the municipal environmental departments of all 39 municipalities in the MRSP. The invitation explained this study’s objectives and provided a link to the online survey. The data collection period spanned from May to July 2024. Out of the 39 municipalities contacted, 33 responded, providing a robust sample for this study. The MRSP is one of the largest urban agglomerations globally, housing over 21 million inhabitants (Figure 1).

This region represents a significant portion of Brazil’s economic and demographic landscape, contributing approximately 18% of the nation’s GDP [6]. The MRSP is characterized by intense urban sprawl, diverse socio-economic conditions, and significant environmental challenges. UGS in this region face pressures from rapid urbanization, high population density, and competing land uses, making effective management critical yet complex [10]. The environmental departments across these municipalities vary significantly in their capacity and resources for managing UGS. Larger municipalities within the MRSP, such as São Paulo city, might deal with heightened challenges related to land scarcity and higher population densities, which can exacerbate land use conflicts and limit the expansion of green spaces. Conversely, smaller municipalities might struggle with limited financial and technical resources, affecting their ability to implement and maintain green space initiatives effectively [7].

3.3. Data Collection

The survey responses were collected using Google Forms, ensuring data security and compliance with data protection regulations. The survey was designed to be completed within 15 min, encouraging higher response rates by minimizing the time burden on participants. The responses were anonymized to protect the privacy of the participants and their municipalities.

3.4. Hypotheses

Hypothesis H1:

Larger municipalities face unique challenges in managing UGS compared to smaller municipalities.

Hypothesis H2:

Strategies adopted to overcome barriers vary significantly between municipalities of different sizes.

3.5. Data Analysis

The collected data were analyzed using statistical methods appropriate for categorical and ordinal data. The primary analytical tools included the chi-square test (χ²), chosen for its suitability in assessing associations between categorical variables, such as municipality size and the challenges and strategies in urban green space management. This interdisciplinary analysis integrates urban ecological theories and landscape planning methodologies to provide a comprehensive understanding of the data. The chi-square test is particularly advantageous in this context for several reasons:

• Suitability for Categorical Data: The chi-square test is specifically designed to evaluate relationships between categorical variables. In this study, both the independent variable (municipality size) and the dependent variables (challenges and strategies) are categorical, making the chi-square test an ideal choice.
• Non-parametric Nature: As a non-parametric test, the chi-square test does not assume a normal distribution of the data, which is advantageous given the categorical nature of the variables and the potential for non-normality in survey data.
• Hypothesis Testing: The chi-square test facilitates the testing of hypotheses regarding the association between municipality size and specific barriers or strategies. By using this test, we can determine whether observed differences are statistically significant, providing robust evidence for or against our hypotheses.

The chi-square tests were conducted with a significance level of 0.05. The results were interpreted to identify statistically significant associations, providing insights into the specific challenges and strategies pertinent to municipalities of varying sizes within the MRSP. The results of the analyses provided evidence supporting or refuting the hypotheses. For H1, the presence of significant associations between municipality size and specific barriers, such as high population density, was explored. For H2, the variation in strategic approaches across municipalities of different sizes was examined, highlighting any significant differences or similarities in the adopted measures. By employing the chi-square test, we ensure that our analysis is both statistically rigorous and relevant to the research objectives, ultimately enhancing the validity and reliability of our findings.

3.6. Ethical Considerations

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee under the approval number 6821640. The ethical review ensured that the research adhered to all necessary guidelines and that participants were informed about the voluntary nature of their participation and their right to withdraw at any time without any consequences.

4. Results

The chi-square tests were used to determine if larger municipalities in the MRSP face distinct challenges compared to smaller municipalities. The challenges analyzed include high population density, land use conflicts, financial resource shortages, logistical and planning limitations, and low public participation. The results are summarized in

Table 1. Association between challenges and municipality size.

Challenge	χ²	p-Value
High population density	10.45	0.02
Land use conflicts	8.27	0.04
Financial resource shortages	4.98	0.17
Logistical and planning limitations	5.32	0.15
Low public participation	3.45	0.32

.

The p-values for high population density (0.02) and land use conflicts (0.04) indicate statistically significant differences between larger and smaller municipalities. These challenges are more prevalent in larger municipalities. Other challenges, such as financial resource shortages, logistical and planning limitations, and low public participation, did not show significant differences between municipalities of different sizes. Therefore, the results partially support the Hypothesis H1 that high population density and land use conflicts are significantly greater challenges for larger municipalities (p < 0.05). However, other challenges are common across municipalities of all sizes.

Regarding the strategies adopted to overcome challenges in urban green space management, the results do not support this Hypothesis H2. There was no significant variation between municipalities of different sizes (p > 0.05). Municipalities, regardless of their size, adopt similar strategies such as public awareness campaigns, public–private partnerships, and improvements in environmental legislation.

These findings highlight the need for an interdisciplinary approach in addressing UGS management challenges, incorporating insights from urban ecology, landscape architecture, and public policy. The uniformity in strategies across different-sized municipalities suggests that integrated planning and policy implementation are critical for effective UGS management. Further emphasizing the design aspects and how these strategies can influence urban landscape planning would align well with the broader goals of sustainable urban development.

5. Discussion

The findings of this study provide significant insights into the management of UGS in metropolitan regions, particularly in the context of MRSP, Brazil. The results confirm several theoretical concepts within urban planning and environmental management. The significant challenges identified in larger municipalities—high population density and land use conflicts—are consistent with urban ecological theories that emphasize the pressures exerted by urbanization on green spaces [26]. These findings extend the existing theories by highlighting how these pressures manifest uniquely in emerging economies, where rapid urbanization and socio-economic disparities are more pronounced [27]. Additionally, the study by Goro and Mwasi [28] on the per capita value of UGS in Eldoret Town, Kenya, supports the relevance of equitable green space distribution in enhancing urban quality of life.

Moreover, the uniformity in the strategies adopted across municipalities of different sizes challenges the assumption that resource availability significantly alters strategic approaches. This aligns with the theory of institutional isomorphism, which suggests that organizations in similar fields tend to adopt similar structures and strategies irrespective of their resource base [29]. The study’s results align with prior research indicating that larger urban areas face greater challenges related to population density and land use conflicts [30,31]. However, unlike studies conducted in more developed contexts that often show varied strategic approaches based on resource availability, this study found that municipalities in São Paulo adopt similar strategies regardless of their size. This uniformity could be attributed to a shared socio-political landscape and the centralized nature of policy implementation in Brazil, as noted by Bressane et al. [15]. The study by Stan [11] on public administration’s role in green space management in Constanta, Romania, echoes this sentiment, highlighting the importance of centralized and coordinated efforts in urban green space management.

Previous studies by Torres et al. [6] and Fiorese et al. [7] have emphasized the importance of integrated urban planning for effective green space management. Our findings corroborate this view but also reveal that high population density and land use conflicts remain significant barriers even in well-planned urban environments. This suggests that while planning integration is critical, it must be supplemented by innovative solutions to address these persistent challenges. Liu and Russo [9] advocate for the integration of green infrastructure into urban planning to enhance ecosystem services and resilience, which is essential for overcoming these challenges. This interdisciplinary approach, integrating urban ecology, landscape architecture, and public policy, underscores the need for comprehensive planning and design strategies.

The practical implications of this study are profound for urban planners and policy makers in emerging economies. The identification of high population density and land use conflicts as significant challenges for larger municipalities suggests a need for targeted interventions in these areas. Policies promoting vertical green spaces, such as rooftop gardens and green walls, could mitigate the limitations posed by land scarcity [32]. Additionally, fostering community involvement through participatory planning processes can enhance public support and engagement in green space initiatives [25].

For policy makers, the study underscores the necessity of maintaining consistent and robust funding mechanisms to support UGS regardless of municipality size. Given the uniformity in strategic approaches observed, ensuring that smaller municipalities are not disadvantaged by funding disparities is crucial. This can be achieved through equitable allocation of state and federal resources dedicated to urban green space management. The study by Pristeri et al. [33] on the significance of private green spaces in Padua highlights the potential of leveraging both public and private sectors to enhance urban green infrastructure.

Several limitations and potential biases should be acknowledged in interpreting the results. The reliance on self-reported data from municipal officials may introduce response bias, as respondents might overestimate the effectiveness of their strategies or underreport challenges. To mitigate this, future studies could incorporate independent audits of municipal green spaces and stakeholder interviews to triangulate the data. The study’s focus on the MRSP, while providing detailed insights into this specific context, limits the generalizability of the findings to other emerging economies with different socio-political and environmental contexts. Comparative studies across multiple metropolitan regions in different countries could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the challenges and strategies in UGS management globally. For instance, the accessibility analysis of UGS in Chongqing by Gao et al. [34] could provide valuable comparative insights.

This study makes a significant contribution to the field of urban green space management by providing empirical evidence on the specific challenges faced by larger municipalities in an emerging economy. It highlights the critical need for context-specific strategies and equitable resource distribution to address these challenges effectively. The findings fill a crucial gap in the literature regarding the management of UGS in rapidly urbanizing regions of the global south, providing valuable insights for both academic research and practical policy making.

By confirming the relevance of high population density and land use conflicts in larger municipalities, and demonstrating the uniformity of strategic approaches across different sizes of municipalities, this study advances our understanding of the complexities involved in urban green space management. It also underscores the importance of integrated and participatory approaches in creating sustainable and livable urban environments. Emphasizing the role of urban planners and landscape architects in designing sustainable urban landscapes highlights the practical applications of this research for urban governance and policy integration.

6. Recommendations for Improving UGS Management

To mitigate the challenge of high population density, municipalities should promote the development of vertical green spaces such as rooftop gardens and green walls. These solutions not only maximize the use of limited space but also provide environmental benefits, including temperature regulation and air quality improvement [32]. The development of vertical greenery directly addresses the study’s finding that larger municipalities, characterized by high population density, face significant barriers in managing UGS. Integrating vertical greenery into urban planning can alleviate the pressure on ground-level green spaces, especially in densely populated areas. Recent studies have emphasized the importance of innovative green infrastructure in urban planning [9].

Table 2. Guidelines for improving Urban Green Space (UGS) management.

Category	Objective	Guidelines
Vertical Greening	Mitigate high population density by promoting vertical green spaces development.	1. Promote rooftop gardens and green walls to maximize space and enhance environmental benefits like temperature regulation and air quality. 2. Incorporate vertical greening into urban planning to reduce pressure on ground-level green spaces, especially in dense areas, as studies suggest.
Policy Development	Develop and enforce strong land use policies to prioritize green space preservation and expansion.	1. Revise zoning regulations to protect existing green spaces and allocate areas for future development, addressing land use conflicts in large municipalities. 2. Encourage multi-functional land use for green spaces to serve recreation, flood control, and biodiversity, resolving land use conflicts and integrating into urban infrastructure. 3. Allocate state and federal UGS resources equitably to ensure smaller municipalities receive funding for effective green space strategies.
Community Engagement	Enhance public support and ensure green space developments meet local needs through community involvement.	1. Develop public–private partnerships to attract funding and expertise for green space projects, leveraging private sector investment and innovation. 2. Involve residents in decision making for sustainable, accepted green space projects, emphasizing community involvement in urban planning. 3. Raise awareness about UGS benefits and community involvement through educational campaigns, promoting responsible green space maintenance.
Integrated Planning	Integrate green space policies with broader urban development plans to create cohesive, effective urban landscapes.	1. Integrate green space initiatives with transportation, housing, and public health policies to create a cohesive urban environment. 2. Implement green infrastructure incentives, tax benefits, and regulations for green space inclusion in new developments to ensure sustainable expansion and maintenance.

provides an overview of this and other recommendations for improving UGS management.

Expanding urban greening programs that include street trees, pocket parks, and community gardens can help distribute green space benefits more evenly across densely populated neighborhoods. This approach aligns with our finding that equitable distribution of green space is essential for enhancing residents’ quality of life in municipalities with varied population densities [35]. Additionally, integrating these greening programs with broader urban design strategies can create more cohesive and effective urban landscapes [34].

Municipalities should develop and enforce robust land use policies that prioritize green space preservation and expansion. The study identified land use conflicts as a significant challenge for larger municipalities; thus, zoning regulations should be adjusted to protect existing green spaces and allocate areas for future green space development [36]. Effective land use policies can provide a framework for sustainable urban development, balancing the needs of urban growth with environmental conservation [33].

Encouraging multi-functional land use where green spaces serve multiple purposes, such as recreation, flood control, and biodiversity conservation, can help resolve land use conflicts. This strategy ensures that green spaces are integral to urban infrastructure and contribute to various urban needs, addressing the study’s findings on the benefits of multifunctional UGS [37].

The study highlights the uniformity in strategic approaches across different-sized municipalities. To support this, there should be equitable allocation of state and federal resources dedicated to urban green space management. Smaller municipalities require consistent and robust funding to implement effective green space strategies without being disadvantaged by their limited resources, as identified in our findings [38]. This equitable allocation is crucial for maintaining the sustainability and livability of urban environments in emerging economies [16].

Encouraging public–private partnerships can attract additional funding and expertise for green space projects. These partnerships can facilitate the development and maintenance of green spaces, leveraging private sector investment and innovation, which is vital given the resource limitations identified in the study [39].

Engaging the community in the planning and management of green spaces can enhance public support and ensure that green space developments meet local needs. Participatory planning processes that involve residents in decision making can lead to more sustainable and accepted green space projects, addressing this study’s finding on the importance of community involvement [25]. The importance of community involvement in urban planning has been highlighted as a key factor in the success of green space initiatives [40].

Conducting educational campaigns to raise awareness about the benefits of UGS and the importance of community involvement can foster greater public engagement. Such campaigns can also promote responsible behavior towards green space maintenance and conservation, directly responding to the study’s findings on low public participation [41].

Ensuring that green space policies are integrated with broader urban development plans can create synergies that enhance the effectiveness of urban green space management. This includes aligning green space initiatives with policies on transportation, housing, and public health to create a cohesive urban environment, as emphasized in the study [42].

Municipalities should explore innovative policy solutions such as green infrastructure incentives, tax benefits for green space development, and regulations that mandate green space inclusion in new urban developments. These policies can drive the expansion and maintenance of green spaces in a more structured and sustainable manner, addressing the need for robust governance structures highlighted in the study [43].

These recommendations, grounded in the specific challenges identified in the case study, provide a roadmap for improving urban green space management in emerging economies. By addressing high population density through vertical greening, managing land use conflicts with robust policies, ensuring equitable resource allocation, enhancing community involvement, and integrating green space policies with broader urban development plans, municipalities can create more sustainable and livable urban environments.

7. Limitations and Future Research

While this study provides valuable insights into the management of UGS in emerging economies, some limitations should be acknowledged to contextualize the findings and guide future research. This study focuses on the MRSP, characterized by unique socio-economic and environmental conditions. While the findings offer critical insights for similar contexts, they may not be fully generalizable to other metropolitan regions, particularly those in developed countries or regions with differing socio-political and environmental contexts. To address this limitation, future research should include comparative studies across multiple metropolitan regions in different countries. Such studies would provide a more comprehensive understanding of UGS management globally and help identify universal strategies and challenges.

The reliance on self-reported data from municipal officials introduces potential response bias. Respondents might overestimate the effectiveness of their strategies or underreport challenges due to social desirability or other biases. To mitigate this issue, future studies should incorporate independent audits of municipal green spaces and stakeholder interviews. This triangulation of data sources would enhance the robustness and reliability of the findings by providing a more objective assessment of UGS management practices.

The use of an online survey, while practical for reaching a wide audience, may limit the depth of the responses due to the constraints of survey design. Detailed qualitative data, which could provide richer insights into the contextual nuances of UGS management, might be underrepresented. Future research could benefit from employing mixed-method approaches, combining surveys with in-depth interviews and field observations. This would allow for a more holistic understanding of the challenges and strategies employed in different contexts.

The data collection period spanned a short timeframe, which may not capture the dynamic and evolving nature of UGS management practices, especially in response to seasonal variations or long-term policy changes. Longitudinal studies are recommended to monitor the changes and trends in UGS management over time. Such studies would provide insights into the effectiveness of different strategies and the impact of policy interventions over the long term.

This study highlights that larger municipalities often have greater resources for managing UGS compared to smaller municipalities. However, the specific impact of varying levels of financial, technical, and human resources on the effectiveness of UGS management strategies was not deeply explored. Future research should investigate the role of municipal resources in more detail, examining how differences in resource availability influence the implementation and success of UGS initiatives.

8. Conclusions

This study’s findings confirmed that larger municipalities face significant challenges related to high population density and land use conflicts, which are less pronounced in smaller municipalities. This aligns with urban ecological theories that emphasize the pressures exerted by urbanization on green spaces, particularly in densely populated areas. These results underscore the necessity for targeted interventions to address these specific challenges in larger urban areas. Moreover, the research found that municipalities, regardless of their size, adopt similar strategies to manage their green spaces. This uniformity challenges the assumption that resource availability significantly alters strategic approaches and supports the theory of institutional isomorphism, suggesting that municipalities in similar contexts tend to adopt comparable structures and strategies.

To enhance the generalizability and robustness of these findings, future research should explore UGS management across multiple metropolitan regions in different countries to identify universal challenges and strategies. Additionally, independent audits of municipal green spaces and stakeholder interviews can be used to mitigate response bias and triangulate data. Employing longitudinal studies will also be beneficial to monitor the dynamic and evolving nature of UGS management practices over time, capturing the impacts of seasonal variations and long-term policy changes.

In conclusion, this study contributes to UGS management by providing empirical evidence on the challenges and strategies in an emerging economy. It emphasizes the critical need for context-specific strategies, equitable resource distribution, and integrated urban planning to effectively manage UGS in rapidly urbanizing regions of the global south. By confirming the relevance of high population density and land use conflicts in larger municipalities and demonstrating the uniformity of strategic approaches across different sizes of municipalities, this study advances our understanding of the complexities involved in UGS management, offering practical guidance for urban planners and policy makers.