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Article

A Study of the Relationship between Human Behavior and Urban Design during the Winter in a High-Snowfall Urban Area

by
Norihiro Watanabe
* and
Tsuyoshi Setoguchi
Division of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-8628, Hokkaido, Japan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(10), 3983; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16103983
Submission received: 4 April 2024 / Revised: 6 May 2024 / Accepted: 8 May 2024 / Published: 10 May 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Urban and Rural Development)
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Abstract

:
This study focuses on the relationship between the outdoor environment and usage behavior of open spaces in cities with snowy and cold climates (winter cities), using an outdoor survey conducted at AKAPURA Plaza in Sapporo, Japan. This study seeks to understand walking and staying behaviors and analyzes their relationships to snowy outdoor environments. An analysis of the survey data shows that while the number of pedestrians using AKAPLA Plaza decreased as temperatures dropped, the ratio of staying behavior to the number of pedestrians did not decrease despite dropping temperatures. This study identified the following three design principles that can be applied to encourage the usage of open urban spaces during the winter. In winter, the number of pedestrians decreases in correlation with decreases in temperature; however, during the snowy season, walking can be encouraged by providing areas with less snow (PATH). Partially snow-covered areas can encourage photography and snow play behavior (STORAGE). Finally, providing walking routes to snow-covered areas can encourage staying behavior (APPROACH). These design principles were established based on the study in Sapporo and have the potential to be widely applied in other winter cities across the world through future research and analysis.

1. Introduction

As cities become more densely populated and the number of high-rise buildings increases, there is an increasing need to create downtown open spaces that can provide comfortable outdoor environments and improve urban amenities. Downtown open spaces in cities with snowy and cold climates (winter cities) are cool and comfortable during the summer months; however, during the winter months, they are less likely to be used due to harsh outdoor environments characterized by snow accumulation and cold temperatures. Urban designers in winter cities have been creating inviting indoor public spaces, such as atriums and underground malls. In winter cities, these indoor public spaces are important urban spaces that support activities during the winter months; however, they are costly to construct and require considerable amounts of energy for heating. In winter cities, downtown open space design must consider the harsh outdoor environment. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the relationship between downtown open space usage behaviors and outdoor environments during winter. Snow cover significantly changes the image of an urban landscape and has a significant impact on outdoor usage behavior. Cities often seek to remove snow from walking spaces, as it impedes foot traffic; this task requires enormous effort and incurs significant costs. However, in some cases, snow cover adds charm to urban spaces, as in the case of events using illumination or snow sculptures.
This paper seeks to clarify the relationship between usage behaviors in downtown open spaces and elements of outdoor winter environments, such as snow accumulation, in winter cities. The study also identifies design policies for downtown open spaces that promote winter usage behaviors.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Research on Urban Public Space

In the 1950s, new urban development in the form of rapid economic growth, industrialization, and the spread of automobiles led to physical and psychological problems related to the urban environment. Around the 1960s, growing alarm over modernist urban planning that heavily prioritized automobile traffic led to calls for more public space and urban amenities for pedestrians. This led to various movements and academic studies on public space. For example, Alan Jacobs established several urban planning principles by organizing the relationship between the values of urban life and the quality of urban spaces that had been discussed in the past. In this way, he developed a systematic approach to understanding public space and life [1,2]. Meanwhile, Jan Gehl, a pioneer of public space studies, defined place in terms of protection from the negative aspects of climate and exposure to the positive aspects [3,4,5]. In recent years, it has been pointed out that with the acceleration of urbanization and the increase in population density around the world, people have become increasingly lonely and depressed. Therefore, there is a growing need for people to spend time with each other and relax in public spaces. Sim [6] has proposed the concept of the “soft city”, which represents a gentle, human-oriented alternative to contemporary urban problems. He has offered concrete measures to make public spaces attractive places where people can live in harmony with the climate. Since the 1960s, public space research has been conducted from a variety of perspectives. The following section summarizes the breadth of public space research while focusing on the relationship between the three major perspectives: “space design”, “environment”, and “people”.

2.1.1. Spatial Design and People in Public Spaces

Public space studies first began attracting attention in the 1960s and 1970s. Since then, scholars have analyzed the relationship between the design of public spaces and people’s perceptions and behaviors. Lynch [7] revealed how people perceive cities, inspiring subsequent generations of public space researchers. Alexander et al. [8] developed a theory of “pattern language” by analyzing the relationship between public spaces and people’s perceptions and behaviors. Marcus and Francis [9] conducted a detailed behavioral analysis of public spaces, focusing on the social and psychological aspects of people’s use of public spaces and clarifying the relationship between space design and usage behavior.
In recent years, studies have analyzed the impact of outdoor public spaces on the type and frequency of usage behaviors by examining the spatial design of outdoor public spaces at various scales, from large macro-environments to micro-spatial design elements. Koohsari et al. [10] reviewed existing studies analyzing the relationship between outdoor public spaces and physical activity. They identified various factors influencing the impact of outdoor public spaces on physical activity, outlining research questions that should be pursued by future scholars. Chen et al. [11] created a spatial database using detailed user activity data for a plaza in Shenzhen, China, to identify the impact of spatial design on the use of outdoor public spaces and the spatial distribution of users. Sun et al. [12] investigated the daily activities of older adults in 74 small outdoor public spaces in Tianjin, China, to determine the relationship between the spatial design of public spaces and the types and frequency of user activities. Meanwhile, Motomura et al. [13] reviewed existing studies analyzing the relationship between outdoor public spaces and user behavior in dense urban areas in East Asian countries to identify public space designs encouraging physical leisure time activities. Vidal et al. [14] conducted behavior mapping in four outdoor public spaces in Porto, Portugal, and analyzed the relationships among user attributes, the surrounding environment, and spatial design. Pinto et al. [15] focused on the use of urban green spaces over time by conducting seasonal, weekly, and daily use studies of three urban green spaces (parks) in Lithuania. The results demonstrated that the type of facility and equipment, park size, the presence or absence of open space, proximity to water, and vegetation coverage and density affect steady-state usage behaviors.
Additional studies have analyzed the relationship between the spatial designs of outdoor public spaces and their effects on people in terms of changes in physical activity and mental states. Pietilä et al. [16] conducted a survey of citizens of Finland of all ages and analyzed the impact of urban green spaces on their physical activity levels and self-assessments of health. Hadavi and Kaplan [17] conducted a survey of Chicago residents to analyze the relationship between the spatial design of outdoor public spaces, residents’ neighborhood satisfaction levels, and the use of outdoor public spaces. Liu et al. [18] conducted a survey of urban parks in Beijing, China, and analyzed the relationship between urban park location, physical activity in urban parks, and mental health benefits. Do et al. [19] employed user behavior mapping, interviews, and a questionnaire survey targeting users of a park in Da Nang, Vietnam, to analyze the relationships between spatial design elements, maintenance status, user satisfaction, and usage behavior. Teixeira [20] studied the effects of spatial design, including green spaces, on microclimates, urban surface temperature, and human behavior in three urban public squares in Aracaju, Brazil, highlighting the importance of considering users’ cognitive processes of environmental awareness in spatial design. Balai Kerishnan and Maruthaveeran [21] comprehensively reviewed the literature on the spatial designs of urban pocket parks and their impact on mental well-being, social benefits, and physical health. Reyes-Riveros et al. [22] reviewed the literature on the relationship between the characteristics of urban public green spaces and human well-being, finding that the number of green spaces, vegetation coverage, and the size of public green spaces improve well-being. Meanwhile, Hematian and Ranjbar [23] conducted an experimental analysis of outdoor public spaces that focused on urban streets to identify spatial designs that can influence mental health.

2.1.2. Environment and Human Comfort in Public Spaces

In the study of public spaces, outdoor environments and microclimate, as well as the spatial designs of buildings and streets, are recognized as factors that have a significant impact on people’s use of space. Peter Bosselmann conducted wind tunnel experiments and a sunshade analysis (solar radiation and wind) of outdoor environments in the San Francisco Bay Area to calculate thermal comfort. Based on this research, Bosselmann generated urban design guidelines that account for outdoor environments. In this way, Bosselmann and colleagues conducted pioneering research focusing on the relationship between microclimates and human comfort [24,25]. Similar studies were conducted on the outdoor environment of downtown Toronto (solar radiation and wind), and on thermal comfort [26]. In recent years, following improvements in the performance of measurement equipment and simulation technology, scholars have conducted studies on the relationships between outdoor environments and thermal comfort, utilizing more detailed data and simulations of outdoor environments and microclimates. For example, Bourbia and Boucheriba [27] conducted a study on the urban center of Constantine, Algeria, using field surveys to clarify the relationship between the shape of urban canyons and the sky view factor (SVF). They concluded that the SVF has an important influence on air temperature. Shahrestani et al. [28] conducted a study in central London investigating microclimate parameters, such as air and ground surface temperatures. They also assessed the impact of direct and diffuse solar radiation on horizontal and vertical surfaces and examined the influence of wind speed and direction on building energy performance and renewable energy technology implementation. Andreou [29] carried out a study in the Mediterranean region using computer simulations. The study determined that parameters such as the shape of urban canyons, street patterns, the ratio of building height to street width, and street orientation determine solar radiation acquisition and shading conditions and have a significant impact on thermal comfort. While evaluation methods for determining thermal comfort in outdoor spaces have been applied mutatis mutandis to indoor thermal comfort evaluation methods, recent research has investigated indicators that are applicable to outdoor environments and a wide range of climate zones. For example, Spagnolo and de Dear [30] conducted a study in Sydney, Australia, involving surveys and questionnaires. They studied outdoor thermal comfort using such tools as the OUT SET* index and identified differences between outdoor and indoor thermal comfort indices. Studies have also conducted long-term thermal comfort assessments over the course of a year in places such as central Taiwan, focusing on differences between solar radiation environments resulting from different urban morphologies [31]. Hoppe [32] focused on physiological equivalent temperature and examined outdoor thermal comfort assessments. Meanwhile, Shimazaki et al. [33] conducted a detailed analysis of the relationship between meteorological parameters and physiological factors for human thermal comfort under non-steady-state conditions.
Studies on the environment and comfort assessments of outdoor public spaces have focused on the relationship between thermal comfort and usage behavior. Kunming Li et al. [34] surveyed four residential areas in a humid, subtropical region of China and analyzed the relationship between thermal comfort and usage behavior. Meanwhile, Ma et al. [35] analyzed the relationship between thermal comfort and usage behavior among older adult visitors to an urban park in Xi’an, China, finding that outdoor usage behavior was significantly influenced by microclimate, space functionality, and public facilities. They also discovered that users preferred to engage in outdoor activities when environmental conditions were comfortable. Darbani et al. [36] analyzed the relationship between urban form and pedestrian thermal comfort in three districts of Mashhad, Iran, and examined urban design policies that could improve thermal comfort in urban heat islands.
Recent research on comfort assessments of outdoor public environments has focused on the complex relationships among various comfort-related factors. Lenzholzer et al. [37] reviewed existing research on evaluation methods, the combination of thermal and spatial perceptions of outdoor public environments, and the importance of thermal perception at large and small scales. They also considered instantaneous thermal perception. Their study highlighted the importance of evaluating thermal perception on large as well as small and instantaneous scales. They also established the importance of assessing long-term thermal perception. Finally, the authors identified cases where, in the context of outdoor environmental thermal perception, “objective” measurable reality and “qualitative” subjective reality differed. They described the complex effects of perception on comfort assessment. Kun Li and Liu [38] surveyed outdoor public spaces in Wuhan, China, analyzing the interactions between users’ acoustic, aesthetic, and thermal comfort levels while clarifying how these variables interacted with the physical environment. Shooshtarian [39] reviewed existing studies to reveal the complex relationships of mutual influence between factors related to thermal comfort, highlighting the inadequacies of theoretical evaluations of outdoor thermal comfort assessments. Lai et al. [40] attempted to clarify the complex factors influencing thermal comfort in outdoor public spaces through a review of existing studies, identifying physical, physiological, and psychological factors as direct influences on thermal comfort and behavioral, personal, social, and cultural factors, as well as thermal history, location, and alliesthesia, as indirect influences.

2.1.3. Environment and Human Behavior in Public Spaces

In addition to the studies analyzing people’s comfort ratings, there are also studies analyzing the relationship between the environment of public spaces and people’s usage behaviors. Thorsson et al. [41] analyzed the relationship between thermal environment, thermal comfort ratings, and behavioral patterns in public spaces in a Swedish urban park; they found that various physically adaptive behaviors can improve thermal comfort. Moreover, they discovered that certain psychological adaptation behaviors affect enjoyment and satisfaction and identified the influence of these behaviors on factors other than thermal comfort. Zacharias et al. [42] studied a plaza in San Francisco and found that the microclimate strongly influenced usage behavior. Nikolopoulou and Lykoudis [43] conducted a field study on the Mediterranean coastal city of Alimos, Greece, and found a strong correlation between microclimate conditions and open space usage behavior. Lenzholzer and Koh [44] conducted a study in a public space in a downtown environment in the Netherlands and formulated a “collective cognitive map” for understanding microclimates. This study illustrated the relationship between urban design, microclimate, microclimate perceptions, and usage behavior. Bosselmann [45], who has conducted pioneering research on the environments of public spaces, analyzed changes in people’s usage behaviors over time in a plaza in San Francisco and investigated the relationship between shade and usage behavior [45]. Chen and Ng [46] attempted to identify the complex evaluation relationships employed in research on outdoor public space through a review of research from the past decade. They found that the use of outdoor public space is impacted not only by “physical state” but also by “mental state”. Moreover, they asserted that behavioral assessments of outdoor thermal comfort must involve physical, physiological, psychological, and social/behavioral dimensions. Huang et al. [47] conducted an observational survey of user behavior at a staircase plaza in Taichung, Taiwan, during the summer. They clarified the effects of microclimates on user behavior, finding that the effect varied by season and that users’ past experiences and expectations influenced their usage behaviors. Sharifi et al. [48] analyzed outdoor activity under heat stress conditions in an Australian urban area. They found that shade and natural spatial elements such as tree canopies and water features were preferred. Furthermore, facilities and social events, such as shopping and dining, influenced users’ choices of outdoor activities. Han et al. [49] reviewed 116 quantitative research articles on behavioral studies of outdoor public spaces, presenting a system for classifying outdoor public space behaviors and collating the effects of outdoor elements on behavior, emotions, and health.
In summary, recent studies on the relationship between environment and behavior in outdoor public spaces have attempted to analyze the complex mutual relationships among elements related to the environment, behavior, emotion, and health. The current study, which focuses on outdoor public spaces in snowy and cold cities, which few studies have focused on, highlights usage behavior as a manifestation of the complex evaluation of outdoor public spaces.

2.2. Research on Urban Public Space in Regions with Cold Climates

Public spaces in cold regions require a different urban design approach than those in warmer regions due to the characteristics of the outdoor environment, such as frigid temperatures and snowfall [50]. Norman Pressman [51] conducted a pioneering study on cold-weather cities. He studied past perceptions of cold climates and analyzed the principles apparent in urban designs of the past to understand how past generations dealt with cold-weather climates. Stout et al. [52] focused on the movement to identify physical interventions that could make cities more attractive and functional in winter. This study focused on “winter cities”, referring to urban centers that experience long, dark, cold, and snowy winters. The authors identified the importance of creating attractive outdoor public spaces to encourage users to experience, and potentially appreciate, winter environments. Stout et al. [53] analyzed winter festivals as efforts by “winter cities” to address winter challenges and enrich public spaces. They analyzed three Canadian cities as case studies and found that winter festivals provide an opportunity for communities to overcome negative attitudes toward winter and develop a collective pride in the opportunities and beauty that winter brings, demonstrating the importance of using outdoor public spaces to host winter festivals.
The following section provides a summary of the scholarship on public space research in cold regions, with a focus on the relationship between “space design”, “environment”, and “people”.

2.2.1. Spatial Design and the Environments of Public Spaces in Regions with Cold Climates

Ralph Erskine was a pioneer of cold-weather architecture and regional planning. He was an important innovator who designed spaces that responded to the environmental characteristics of cold regions, including light, wind, cold, and snow [54]. Indeed, there have been several attempts in cold regions to examine urban and architectural form and design to eliminate problems caused by the harsh winter climate. In Prince George, British Columbia, Canada, policymakers have formulated urban design guidelines that consider the cold climate based on the research of Norman Pressman. The guidelines account for the positive and negative elements of the summer and winter seasons [55,56]. Meanwhile, Edmonton, Canada, has established urban design guidelines that account for the area’s frigid climate and heavy snowfall [57]. Similar to these existing studies, this study aims to analyze cold climate considerations and apply them to actual urban design guidelines. However, while these studies have analyzed cold climate considerations based on past urban design and living experiences, this study aims to develop urban design policies suitable for cold regions by scientifically analyzing the relationship between cold climates, human behavior, and spatial design.

2.2.2. Environments and Human Comfort in Public Spaces in Regions with Cold Climates

In Shanghai, China, Chen et al. [58] made microclimate observations and conducted interviews with subjects to analyze the relationship between outdoor environmental changes and thermal comfort ratings throughout fall and winter. In Tianjin, Northern China, Lai et al. [59] analyzed the effectiveness of outdoor thermal comfort assessments in cold climates by combining microclimate observations, questionnaire surveys, and thermal comfort simulations. Eliasson et al. [60] studied outdoor public spaces in Gothenburg, Sweden, analyzing the impact of temperature, wind speed, and clearness index (cloud cover) on people’s evaluations of weather, as well as their perceptions and uses of space. Ebrahimabadi et al. [61] examined an urban project in Kiruna, Sweden, and presented a microclimate assessment method based on wind comfort analysis and measurements of solar radiation and wind speed. Methods used to evaluate thermal comfort in severely cold winter environments tend to differ from those used in warmer climates, and studies have been conducted to analyze the relationship between outdoor environmental factors and thermal environment evaluation methods in cities in northern China and northern Europe. There are several studies focusing on the mental health of public spaces, some of which have been conducted in cold climates. Zhu et al. [62] conducted an experiment using virtual reality technology in a community park in a Chinese winter city to analyze the impact of the park’s environmental elements, particularly its snowy landscape, on psychological restorative benefits.

2.2.3. Environments and Human Behavior in Public Spaces in Regions with Cold Climates

While there have been several studies on public space in cold climates that focus on the relationship between outdoor environments and comfort evaluations, very few studies have analyzed the relationship between environment and usage behavior. Several studies by Paukaeva et al. [63,64] on the relationship between temporary design and usage behavior during events in a square in Khabarovsk, Russia, provide a detailed analysis of people’s perceptions and uses of public spaces during the winter in cold regions. However, these studies do not mention outdoor environmental factors. Chapman’s [65] literature review highlights the importance of urban designs that consider winter outdoor environmental conditions in snowy cities, revealing that snow has a significant impact on outdoor soft mobility in winter, which is an important factor in well-being. Moreover, they point out that increasing outdoor soft mobility during the winter requires a rethinking of established urban design principles. Snow can transform into ice, water, or slush depending on the temperature, potentially posing a risk to public space use; it can also reflect less sunlight in winter, affecting the brightness of the surroundings.
During the winter in snowy and cold cities, low temperatures and snow accumulation have a significant impact on people’s usage behaviors; however, there are no studies that have explored this relationship. This study focuses on outdoor winter environments in snowy and cold cities, with a focus on snow accumulation. By clarifying the relationship between human usage behavior and the outdoor environment, this study aims to identify design principles for public spaces that can encourage winter usage behavior.

3. Materials and Methods

Figure 1 outlines the research approach adopted for this study. This investigation aims to identify public space design policies encouraging usage behavior during winter in snowy and cold cities. This study involved selecting a public space as a case study, conducting a field survey during winter, and analyzing the relationship between usage behavior and the outdoor environment to clarify relevant design policies. The design policies identified in this study are intended to be applied to other cities after verifying their applicability using surveys and further analysis. This section describes information on the case study area used for this study, as well as the methods employed to conduct field research.

3.1. Target Area: AKAPLA Plaza in Downtown Sapporo

This study focused on AKAPLA, a plaza in central Sapporo, Japan. Sapporo has a population of over 2 million people, and it has one of the highest snowfalls in the world. Figure 2 shows the winter temperatures, snow cover levels, and snowfall records for Sapporo. During winter, temperatures drop below −10 °C, and snow depths exceed 70 cm. The ground is covered with snow for about five months each year, and downtown open spaces in Sapporo are greatly affected by the snow.
Figure 3 provides information on AKAPLA Plaza, which is the only outdoor plaza defined in the government’s urban planning in downtown Sapporo. The AKAPLA Plaza was originally a roadway. This roadway was developed into a plaza in 2014. Vehicular traffic was prohibited, and the adjacent buildings (N Building and M Building) were redeveloped. The east side of AKAPLA Plaza faces Sapporo Station Road, which runs through the center of downtown Sapporo. Moreover, the former Hokkaido Government Office Building, a popular tourist attraction, stands on the west side of the plaza. The N Building and M Building are located on the north and south sides of AKAPLA Plaza, respectively. Both buildings feature restaurants and commercial stores on the lower floors and offices on the upper floors. AKAPLA Plaza is one of the busiest areas in downtown Sapporo, with many businesspeople, shoppers, and tourists passing through. Most sidewalks in downtown Sapporo are heated to melt the snow. The locations of heated walkways in AKAPLA Plaza are shown in Figure 3. Only the central walking path of the plaza is heated; the other areas are reserved for snow accumulation.

3.2. Field Survey Methods

This study observed the outdoor environmental conditions and usage behaviors of AKAPLA Plaza during the winter season. A survey was carried out approximately once a month between October (when temperatures begin to drop) and May (when temperatures begin to rise) from 2015 to 2019. Because the COVID-19 pandemic severely restricted the use of public spaces, survey data collected up to before the spread of COVID-19 were used in the analysis. Moreover, the surveys were conducted on weekends and public holidays, as weekdays are less optimal for engaging in outdoor activities due to the large number of businesspeople using the site for work-related activities. The surveys were conducted outside of the days of events involving the construction of temporary structures to avoid impacts on event usage behavior. A total of 14 sets of survey data that matched the above criteria were analyzed: 3 in 2015, 6 in 2016, 3 in 2017, 1 in 2018, and 1 in 2019. The surveys were conducted over the course of one hour from 12:00 to 13:00, which is a period of high pedestrian traffic.
This study assesses three usage behaviors: sitting behavior, walking behavior, and staying behavior. Sitting behavior was determined by counting the number of people seated within the plaza. Walking behavior was determined by counting the number of pedestrians in the plaza, and their walking routes were recorded. Next, three forms of staying behaviors were identified: photography, snow play, and others. Moreover, the study recorded the number of behaviors (number of pairs) and the locations where the behaviors occurred. Usage behaviors were recorded using 1 s interval videos recorded at the six locations shown in Figure 3, and the number and location of each behavior were measured. Table 1 shows the units of analysis for usage behaviors. The weather conditions (temperature, average wind speed, solar radiation, and relative humidity) on the survey days were ascertained using Japan Meteorological Agency data. Snow cover conditions were visually ascertained according to three measurements: snow cover (unpressurized), light snow cover (pressurized), and no snow cover. The areas of each category were also recorded.

4. Results

4.1. The Outdoor Environment on the Days of the Survey

Table 2 shows the weather conditions on the survey days [66]. The minimum and maximum temperatures on the survey days were −5.6 °C and 18.7 °C, respectively. The average wind speed on the survey days ranged from 8.1 to 0.8 m/s. The maximum solar radiation on the survey days was 2.84 MJ/m2, and the minimum was 0.91 MJ/m2. There was snow on seven of the survey dates: 27 December 2015; 11 January 2016; 17 January 2016; 17 December 2016; 7 January 2017; 18 March 2017; and 20 January 2018.

4.2. An Analysis of the Number of Pedestrians

The relationship between the number of pedestrians and temperature is shown in Figure 4. The number of pedestrians tended to decrease as temperatures decreased. In contrast, many pedestrians were observed during the fall foliage season. A strong correlation between temperature and the number of pedestrians was observed in the data excluding the foliage season (coefficient of determination [R2] = 0.9). No strong relationship was found between the number of pedestrians and the presence of snow cover.
The relationship between the number of sitting instances and air temperature is shown in Figure 5. Instances of people sitting tended to decrease as temperatures decreased, demonstrating a strong correlation between temperature and sitting behavior (R2 = 0.8). The number of sitting incidents was almost zero at temperatures below approximately 5 °C. This could be due to both a drop in temperature and snow accumulation.
The relationship between the ratio of the number of sitting incidents to the number of pedestrians according to temperature is shown in Figure 6. The ratio of the number of sitting incidents to the number of pedestrians also tended to decrease as the temperature decreased, demonstrating a strong correlation (R2 = 0.7). A trend was observed whereby the number of pedestrians decreased as temperatures dropped; the percentage of sitting people also decreased slightly alongside these temperature drops.

4.3. Analysis of the Number of People Engaging in Staying Behavior

The relationship between the number of people engaging in staying behaviors and temperature is illustrated in Figure 7. The number of staying behaviors showed a gradual decrease as temperatures decreased. However, during the fall foliage season, many staying behaviors were observed. A correlation between temperature and the number of staying behaviors was observed in the data excluding the foliage season (R2 = 0.6).
The ratio of the number of staying behaviors to the number of pedestrians according to temperature is shown in Figure 8. No correlation was found between the ratio of the number of staying behaviors to the number of pedestrians when analyzed according to temperature. Therefore, the decrease in the number of staying activities at lower temperatures is largely due to the decrease in the number of pedestrians in the plaza.
A more detailed analysis was conducted by categorizing staying behaviors into three types: taking photos, playing in the snow, and others. The relationship between the number of photo-taking behaviors and temperature is shown in Figure 9. During the fall foliage season, many photo-taking behaviors were observed. When excluding the fall foliage season, a weak correlation was observed between temperature and photo-taking behaviors, with a gradual decrease in the number of photo-taking behaviors as temperatures decreased; however, the number of photo-taking behaviors remained almost flat.
The relationship between snow-playing behaviors and air temperature is shown in Figure 10. We found no relationship between snow-playing behaviors and temperature. The relationship between other staying behaviors and temperature is shown in Figure 11. A correlation was observed between other staying behaviors and temperature; that is, incidents of staying behaviors tended to decrease as temperatures decreased (R2 = 0.5). Examples of staying behaviors observed during the snowy season are shown in Figure 12.

4.4. Analysis of Walking Paths and the Location of Idling Activities

Figure 13 and Figure 14 provide visualizations of the data regarding walking path routes, the locations of staying behavior, and snow cover conditions. The locations of staying behaviors were plotted for each group. Figure 13 shows the results for survey days without snow cover, and Figure 14 shows the results for survey days with snow cover.
Regarding walking paths, on the survey days without snow cover, the paths were dispersed, with people meandering throughout the plaza. Therefore, it is likely that those who walk at AKAPLA Plaza are not simply on their way to a destination but rather are walking for enjoyment. However, on survey days with snow cover, the walking routes were concentrated in areas with little (low-snow-cover areas) or no snow cover, and walkers often avoided areas with heavy snow cover (high-snow-cover areas). On survey days with large areas of low snow cover (7 January 2017; 11 January 2016), the walking paths were dispersed, with walkers meandering through areas of low snow cover.
Among the staying behaviors, photo-taking behaviors were concentrated near the center of the plaza on all survey days. During the snowy season, photo-taking was observed more frequently in areas with little snow. Most of the snow-playing behaviors occurred in the boundary areas between areas with no snow cover and areas with snow cover; they also occurred in the boundary areas between areas with little snow cover and areas with snow cover. On one survey day (11 January 2016), when the snow cover area was particularly light, there was little snow play behavior. There was also not much snow play behavior on another survey day (17 December 2016) when the snow cover area was large but the areas with little snow were small.

4.5. Design Policies

Based on the analysis of the relationship between changes in usage behavior and outdoor environmental conditions (temperature and snow cover), we developed public space design policies that encourage usage behavior in downtown open spaces during the winter season (Figure 15).

4.5.1. Relationship between Temperature and Usage Behavior

There is a strong correlation between the number of pedestrians and temperature, with the number of pedestrians decreasing as temperature decreases. There is also a strong correlation between sitting behaviors and air temperature, with sitting behaviors decreasing as air temperature decreases. When the temperature drops below approximately 5 °C, the number of sitting behaviors approaches zero.
When temperatures drop below approximately 5 °C and snow accumulates, it becomes difficult to use public spaces in the same way as during the warm seasons. However, urban public spaces must continue to be operational even during the winter season due to the requirements of urban citizens. However, eliminating all snowfall from a public space and striving to create the same conditions as in the warm seasons would require considerable effort and cost and would not solve the problems caused by low temperatures. Therefore, in winter, it is necessary to promote the features of public spaces that are unique to snowy and cold cities.

4.5.2. PATH: Low Snowfall Design That Reduces Barriers to Walking Behavior

When there was no snow, walkers in the plaza did not take the shortest paths; rather, they took dispersed and meandering routes, demonstrating that most visitors to the plaza were there for enjoyment purposes. In public outdoor spaces, it is necessary to provide sufficient walking space to accommodate the spontaneity of walking. During periods of snow cover, walking routes were concentrated in areas where there was no snow cover, with walkers avoiding areas of heavy snow cover. Therefore, snow removal is required to facilitate foot traffic, especially in the vicinity of buildings with sidewalks and entrances and along straight routes connecting buildings. On survey days with large areas of low snow cover, somewhat dispersed and meandering walking paths were observed in areas with low snow cover, and there was no excessive concentration of walking paths in areas with no snow cover. Spatial designs and snow removal initiatives that reduce snow accumulation in areas that serve as walking paths are thought to promote behaviors that make walking enjoyable during the winter. Snowdrifts are likely to form on sidewalks and building corners on the downwind side of high-rise buildings [67], and snow removal should consider the designs of buildings and city blocks.

4.5.3. STORAGE: Snow Design That Encourages Staying Behavior

The number of pedestrians is correlated with temperature, and while the number of pedestrians decreases as temperatures decrease, the ratio of the number of staying behaviors to the number of pedestrians did not decrease alongside temperature decreases. Other staying behaviors that lacked a specific purpose also decreased; however, overall staying behaviors did not decrease due to an increase in purposeful behaviors, such as taking photos and playing in the snow. Therefore, when seeking to encourage outdoor winter behaviors in public spaces in snowy and cold cities, it is important to increase staying behaviors during the snowy season. Many of the staying behaviors involved taking photos. Historic buildings and landmarks are elements that encourage photo-taking behaviors, even during the winter months, and it is important that the spatial composition of an open space incorporate views of these architectural features. A certain number of photos taken and snow playing activities occur during the winter months, leading to an increase in staying behaviors. While it is necessary to remove snow and reduce snow accumulation to facilitate foot traffic, it is also necessary to reserve spaces where snow can accumulate to increase staying behaviors during the winter season. For example, snow tends to accumulate in the vicinity of planting basins due to their stepped shape and the existence of soil, making it an effective design for encouraging people to play in the snow.

4.5.4. APPROACH: Control of Snow Accumulation to Promote Staying Behavior

Among the staying behaviors, snow-playing behaviors were observed in the boundary areas between walkable areas with little or no snow cover and snow-covered areas. Even on the survey days when snow cover was high, snow-playing behavior was low when the walkable area was small. Therefore, snow accumulation does not necessarily promote snow-playing behavior; rather, it is necessary to provide walkable areas with little snow accumulation that are adjacent to spaces where snow can accumulate. Much of the photo-taking behaviors during the snow season occur in areas where there is little or no snow cover. While snow cover is important for taking photos of snowy landscapes, it is also necessary to have areas with low snow cover that are easy to walk through in order to access scenes for photographing. Designing areas with reduced snow cover that can facilitate photo-taking is necessary to promote staying behaviors during the winter months. Spatial design and snow removal management that retains an appropriate amount of snow-covered and low-snow-covered areas is important for increasing the usage of open spaces during the snow season.

5. Discussion

This study’s findings confirm that the number of pedestrians and the amount of sitting behavior decrease as temperatures decrease during all periods except the fall foliage season. This trend is consistent with the influence of temperature on seating behavior observed by Zacharias et al. [42] and with the relationship between thermal comfort and behavior identified by Thorsson et al. [41]. The number of pedestrians and the frequency of staying behaviors increased during the fall foliage season, and a certain amount of staying behavior was observed during the snowy season despite low temperatures. These observations suggest that factors other than thermal comfort—such as aesthetic comfort, as indicated by Kun Li and Liu [38], and psychological evaluations, as indicated by Han et al. [49]—may influence usage behavior. Therefore, it is important to clarify the influence of factors other than thermal comfort on usage behavior and apply this understanding to the design of outdoor public spaces in snowy and cold cities where thermal comfort is an issue during the winter.
Regarding the relationship between snow cover and usage behavior, this study confirmed that walking routes tend to be concentrated in areas where snow has melted or where snow cover is low. This trend is consistent with the impact of snow cover on soft mobility noted by Chapman [65]. In addition, usage behaviors such as photography and playing in the snow during snow cover are “behaviors that allow winter cities to positively perceive the opportunities and beauty that winter brings”, as noted by Norman Pressman [51] and Stout, Collins, and Evans [53]. Public spaces in snowy and cold cities should focus on promoting such behaviors. Specifically, this study only analyzed changes in usage behavior. However, as shown by Zhu et al. [62], snow-covered landscapes have a psychological impact on users; therefore, future studies should seek to develop designs for public spaces that promote usage behavior based on an understanding of the psychological impacts of snow cover.

6. Conclusions

To clarify the relationship between snow conditions and the usage of public spaces, we investigated people’s usage behaviors at AKAPLA Plaza during the winter in Sapporo, Japan. Usage behaviors were divided into three categories: sitting behavior, walking behavior, and staying behavior. The results of the analysis of the relationship between the outdoor environment and usage behavior showed that while the number of pedestrians decreased as temperatures decreased, the ratio of staying behavior to the number of pedestrians did not decrease as temperatures decreased. Based on these findings, this study identified the following three principles of public space design that can be applied to promote the usage of downtown open spaces during winter: PATH, STORAGE, and APPROACH. Here, PATH refers to public space design that encourages walking by providing snow-free areas with heating or areas with light snowfall where snow is removed or compacted. Spatial designs that reduce snow accumulation, as well as snow removal management, are required to maintain walking routes and entrances. Playing in the snow and taking photos are important staying behaviors that should be encouraged during the winter. STORAGE refers to public space design that encourages staying behavior during the winter. For this purpose, space should be set aside where snow is allowed to accumulate. Planting basins are effective for this purpose because snow easily accumulates on steps and on soil surfaces. APPROACH refers to public space design that supports the occurrence of staying behavior by maintaining a balance between snow-covered areas and low-snow areas. Staying behavior during the winter tends to occur in snow-covered areas near low-snow areas. It is important to design walkable areas with little snow accumulation that are adjacent to spaces where snow can accumulate. Moreover, it is important to combine low-snow areas that allow access to buildings, public spaces, and snow-covered areas with snow-covered areas that encourage playing in the snow and taking photos.
This study analyzed the relationship between the outdoor environment and usage behavior during the winter in AKAPLA Plaza in Sapporo, Japan, a city with a snowy and cold climate. It identified design policies that encourage usage behavior. The effectiveness of these policies was only confirmed within the context of this individual case study; therefore, it is necessary to verify the effectiveness of the policies in other outdoor public spaces through comprehensive statistical analysis. As previous studies have shown, a complex relationship exists between the spatial design of outdoor public spaces, usage behavior, and comfort. Especially in snowy and cold cities where the thermal environment presents a problem during winter, it is necessary to clarify the relationship between factors other than thermal comfort and usage behavior, which has been the subject of numerous studies to date. Future research should be conducted on outdoor public spaces with different spatial designs and in various cultural and social contexts to clarify the influence of factors other than thermal comfort on usage behavior.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, N.W. and T.S.; methodology, N.W. and T.S.; validation, N.W.; formal analysis, N.W.; investigation, N.W.; data curation, N.W.; writing—original draft preparation, N.W. and T.S.; writing—review and editing, N.W. and T.S.; visualization, N.W.; supervision, T.S.; project administration, N.W.; funding acquisition, N.W. and T.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI, Grant Number JP 22K04486.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Minori Kusaka, Tomoyuki Matsuyama, Hayato Sato, Daiki Iwakuni, and Takashi Sasaki for their assistance with the field survey.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The research approach.
Figure 1. The research approach.
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Figure 2. Winter climate in Sapporo: (a) temperatures during the winter; (b) snow conditions during the winter.
Figure 2. Winter climate in Sapporo: (a) temperatures during the winter; (b) snow conditions during the winter.
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Figure 3. Target area: AKAPLA Plaza.
Figure 3. Target area: AKAPLA Plaza.
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Figure 4. Number of pedestrians.
Figure 4. Number of pedestrians.
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Figure 5. Number of people sitting.
Figure 5. Number of people sitting.
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Figure 6. Ratio of sittings to pedestrians.
Figure 6. Ratio of sittings to pedestrians.
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Figure 7. Number of staying behaviors.
Figure 7. Number of staying behaviors.
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Figure 8. Ratio of staying behaviors to pedestrians.
Figure 8. Ratio of staying behaviors to pedestrians.
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Figure 9. Number of photo-taking behaviors.
Figure 9. Number of photo-taking behaviors.
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Figure 10. Number of snow-playing behaviors.
Figure 10. Number of snow-playing behaviors.
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Figure 11. Number of other staying behaviors.
Figure 11. Number of other staying behaviors.
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Figure 12. Pictures of staying behaviors: (a) taking photos; (b) playing with snow.
Figure 12. Pictures of staying behaviors: (a) taking photos; (b) playing with snow.
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Figure 13. Location of the behaviors observed when there was no snow.
Figure 13. Location of the behaviors observed when there was no snow.
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Figure 14. Location of the behaviors when there was snow.
Figure 14. Location of the behaviors when there was snow.
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Figure 15. Design policies that promote the use of public spaces during the winter in snowy regions.
Figure 15. Design policies that promote the use of public spaces during the winter in snowy regions.
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Table 1. Survey items related to human behavior.
Table 1. Survey items related to human behavior.
Kinds of Human BehaviorSurvey Items
(a) Sitting Number of people sitting
(b) Walking Number of pedestrians
Walking paths
(c) Staying(c1) Taking photosNumber of groups
Location of the photos taken
(c2) Playing in the snowNumber of groups
Location where people played in the snow
(c3) OthersNumber of groups
Location of staying
Table 2. Weather information during surveys in Sapporo (Japan Meteorological Agency).
Table 2. Weather information during surveys in Sapporo (Japan Meteorological Agency).
DateTemp.Average Wind Speed (m/s)Solar Radiation (MJ/m2)Humidity (%)Snow Cover
10 October 201517.11.61.2544
21 November 20155.84.41.4164
27 December 2015−5.66.10.9144✓
11 January 2016−4.85.71.7342✓
17 January 2016−2.61.31.6458✓
24 April 201613.95.51.9034
8 May 201618.78.13.4719
12 November 20167.80.81.1471
17 December 2016−2.44.80.9548✓
7 January 20172.60.81.2051✓
18 March 20175.35.22.6143✓
29 April 201715.14.92.8445
20 January 20181.24.11.6340✓
3 November 20199.74.91.9652
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Watanabe, N.; Setoguchi, T. A Study of the Relationship between Human Behavior and Urban Design during the Winter in a High-Snowfall Urban Area. Sustainability 2024, 16, 3983. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16103983

AMA Style

Watanabe N, Setoguchi T. A Study of the Relationship between Human Behavior and Urban Design during the Winter in a High-Snowfall Urban Area. Sustainability. 2024; 16(10):3983. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16103983

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Watanabe, Norihiro, and Tsuyoshi Setoguchi. 2024. "A Study of the Relationship between Human Behavior and Urban Design during the Winter in a High-Snowfall Urban Area" Sustainability 16, no. 10: 3983. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16103983

APA Style

Watanabe, N., & Setoguchi, T. (2024). A Study of the Relationship between Human Behavior and Urban Design during the Winter in a High-Snowfall Urban Area. Sustainability, 16(10), 3983. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16103983

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