Archaeoastronomy and Conflict: On the Orientation of Prehistoric Funerary Monuments in Western Sahara
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Sample
- Circular tumuli, generally accompanied by a reference stone or a smaller companion tumulus.
- Monuments with annexed structures such as chapels, false entrances, antennae, and any other kind of reference features associated with the main tumulus. Non-circular tumuli with annexed structures are included in this group.
- Standing stone alignments or lines of orthostats, some of them decorated, that could also follow a curved line and are included in the cairns group by Nick Brooks et al. [12] (p. 43, Figure 3.3)
2.2. Methodology
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. The Role of the Topography
3.2. Orientation of the Monuments
3.3. Orientation by Types
3.4. Lunar Orientations: An Alternative
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
φ (°) | λ (°) | Azimuth (°) | Height (°) | δ (°) | Group |
23.249 | −15.317 | 97.0 | 1.8 | −5.7 | STR |
23.133 | −15.327 | 112.0 | 0.0 | −20.2 | STR |
23.049 | −15.275 | 168.0 | 0.0 | −64.2 | STR |
23.053 | −15.268 | 110.0 | 0.0 | −18.3 | STR |
23.053 | −15.268 | 106.0 | 0.0 | −14.7 | STR |
23.053 | −15.268 | 116.0 | −0.3 | −23.9 | CIR |
23.053 | −15.268 | 140.0 | −1.0 | −45.4 | STR |
23.053 | −15.268 | 126.0 | −0.4 | −32.9 | CIR |
23.053 | −15.268 | 129.0 | −0.4 | −35.6 | CIR |
23.053 | −15.265 | 106.0 | 0.0 | −14.7 | STR |
23.055 | −15.263 | 83.0 | 0.0 | 6.4 | STR |
23.052 | −15.263 | 133.0 | 0.0 | −38.9 | STR |
23.052 | −15.264 | 126.0 | −1.5 | −33.4 | STR |
23.009 | −15.266 | 111.0 | 0.2 | −19.2 | STR |
23.009 | −15.266 | 172.0 | 0.0 | −65.7 | STR |
23.009 | −15.266 | 128.0 | 0.0 | −34.5 | STR |
23.009 | −15.266 | 136.0 | −0.4 | −41.7 | STR |
23.009 | −15.266 | 115.0 | −0.4 | −23.1 | CRES |
23.007 | −15.265 | 106.0 | 0.0 | −14.7 | CRES |
23.007 | −15.265 | 89.0 | 0.0 | 0.9 | STR |
23.007 | −15.265 | 166.0 | 0.0 | −63.3 | STR |
23.007 | −15.265 | 95.0 | 0.0 | −4.6 | STR |
23.007 | −15.265 | 135.0 | 0.0 | −40.6 | STR |
23.007 | −15.265 | 139.0 | −0.4 | −44.2 | CRES |
23.031 | −15.278 | 172.0 | 0.0 | −65.7 | STR |
23.032 | −15.277 | 104.0 | −0.4 | −13.0 | STR |
23.032 | −15.277 | 109.0 | −1.4 | −18.0 | STR |
23.045 | −15.263 | 132.0 | 0.0 | −38.0 | CIR |
23.045 | −15.263 | 111.0 | 0.0 | −19.3 | STR |
23.045 | −15.263 | 134.0 | 0.0 | −39.7 | STR |
23.045 | −15.263 | 114.0 | 0.0 | −22.0 | STR |
23.047 | −15.262 | 290.0 | 0.0 | 18.3 | STR |
23.048 | −15.262 | 264.0 | −0.4 | −5.7 | STR |
23.048 | −15.263 | 278.0 | −0.9 | 7.0 | STR |
23.049 | −15.263 | 112.0 | −0.9 | −20.5 | STR |
23.049 | −15.263 | 127.0 | −0.5 | −33.9 | CIR |
23.049 | −15.263 | 122.0 | −0.5 | −29.4 | CIR |
23.045 | −15.241 | 123.0 | −0.4 | −30.3 | STR |
23.045 | −15.241 | 127.0 | −0.4 | −33.8 | CIR |
23.045 | −15.241 | 110.0 | −0.4 | −18.5 | CIR |
23.041 | −15.242 | 97.0 | 0.5 | −6.2 | STR |
23.041 | −15.241 | 108.0 | 1.0 | −16.1 | STR |
23.039 | −15.240 | 107.0 | 1.0 | −15.2 | STR |
23.039 | −15.239 | 197.0 | −0.9 | −62.4 | STR |
23.044 | −15.237 | 111.0 | 0.0 | −19.3 | STR |
23.045 | −15.240 | 97.0 | −0.5 | −6.6 | CIR |
23.045 | −15.240 | 126.0 | 0.2 | −32.7 | CIR |
23.045 | −15.240 | 111.0 | −0.9 | −19.6 | STR |
23.051 | −15.236 | 121.0 | 0.0 | −28.3 | CRES |
23.051 | −15.236 | 129.0 | 0.0 | −35.4 | STR |
23.051 | −15.236 | 150.0 | 0.5 | −52.5 | CIR |
23.051 | −15.236 | 138.0 | 0.0 | −43.1 | STR |
23.118 | −15.225 | 120.0 | −0.4 | −27.6 | STR |
23.118 | −15.225 | 102.0 | 0.5 | −10.8 | CIR |
23.118 | −15.225 | 130.0 | 0.4 | −36.0 | CIR |
23.120 | −15.221 | 183.0 | 0.0 | −66.7 | STR |
23.130 | −15.219 | 90.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | CRES |
23.137 | −15.218 | 99.0 | 0.0 | −8.3 | CRES |
23.137 | −15.218 | 98.0 | 0.0 | −7.4 | CIR |
23.137 | −15.218 | 112.0 | 0.0 | −20.1 | CIR |
23.135 | −15.216 | 96.0 | −0.4 | −5.7 | CIR |
22.671 | −14.536 | 91.5 | 0.0 | −1.4 | STR |
22.671 | −14.536 | 221.5 | 0.7 | −43.3 | CIR |
22.667 | −14.536 | 196.5 | 0.0 | −62.2 | CIR |
22.667 | −14.535 | 128.5 | 3.0 | −33.6 | CIR |
22.667 | −14.535 | 138.5 | 1.5 | −42.9 | CIR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 155.0 | 0.0 | −56.8 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 82.0 | 1.0 | 7.8 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 343.0 | 0.5 | 62.4 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 83.0 | 1.0 | 6.8 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 274.0 | 0.5 | 3.9 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 119.0 | 1.5 | −25.9 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 121.0 | 2.0 | −27.5 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 85.0 | 0.8 | 4.9 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 305.0 | 0.8 | 32.3 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 129.0 | 1.8 | −34.6 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 310.0 | 0.0 | 36.4 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 311.0 | 0.0 | 37.3 | CIR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 314.0 | 0.0 | 39.9 | CIR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 133.0 | 2.8 | −37.6 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 123.0 | 1.8 | −29.4 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 128.0 | 2.4 | −33.5 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 122.0 | 2.0 | −28.4 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 302.0 | 0.5 | 29.5 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 134.0 | 3.0 | −38.3 | CIR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 126.0 | 2.0 | −31.9 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 131.0 | 2.0 | −36.3 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 139.0 | 1.8 | −43.2 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 151.0 | 0.3 | −53.6 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 99.0 | 1.8 | −7.6 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 109.0 | 3.5 | −16.1 | CIR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 69.0 | 0.0 | 19.3 | CRES |
22.621 | −14.364 | 149.0 | 0.0 | −52.3 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 74.0 | 0.5 | 14.9 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 154.0 | 0.0 | −56.1 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 319.0 | 0.5 | 44.4 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 99.0 | 1.3 | −7.8 | STR |
22.621 | −14.364 | 111.0 | 3.5 | −17.9 | CRES |
22.622 | −14.360 | 120.0 | 1.7 | −26.7 | CRES |
22.622 | −14.360 | 111.0 | 3.5 | −17.9 | CRES |
22.622 | −14.360 | 151.0 | 0.0 | −53.8 | CIR |
22.622 | −14.360 | 148.0 | 0.5 | −51.2 | CIR |
22.622 | −14.360 | 134.0 | 0.5 | −39.6 | CIR |
22.622 | −14.360 | 148.0 | 0.5 | −51.2 | CIR |
22.622 | −14.360 | 109.0 | 3.5 | −16.1 | CRES |
22.573 | −14.426 | 309.0 | 1.7 | 36.3 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 309.0 | 1.7 | 36.3 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 309.0 | 1.7 | 36.3 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 122.0 | 9.8 | −24.6 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 309.0 | 1.7 | 36.3 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 322.0 | 0.5 | 47.0 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 306.0 | 2.0 | 33.8 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 123.0 | 9.8 | −25.5 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 131.0 | 8.8 | −32.7 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 131.0 | 8.8 | −32.7 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 149.0 | 6.8 | −47.8 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 111.0 | 8.0 | −15.9 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 119.0 | 9.0 | −22.5 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 113.0 | 4.8 | −19.1 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 84.0 | 1.5 | 6.1 | CRES |
22.573 | −14.426 | 124.0 | 4.8 | −28.8 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 119.0 | 7.5 | −23.2 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 119.0 | 7.5 | −23.2 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 124.0 | 2.8 | −29.8 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 124.0 | 2.8 | −29.8 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 104.0 | 5.0 | −10.9 | CRES |
22.573 | −14.426 | 302.0 | 1.5 | 29.9 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 87.0 | 2.0 | 3.5 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 102.0 | 3.8 | −9.6 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 104.0 | 3.8 | −11.4 | CRES |
22.573 | −14.426 | 104.0 | 3.8 | −11.4 | CIR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 80.0 | 1.3 | 9.7 | STR |
22.573 | −14.426 | 111.0 | 1.8 | −18.6 | CRES |
22.573 | −14.426 | 103.0 | 1.8 | −11.3 | STR |
22.621 | −14.365 | 97.0 | 1.0 | −6.1 | CIR |
22.621 | −14.365 | 95.0 | 1.0 | −4.2 | STR |
22.621 | −14.365 | 96.0 | 1.0 | −5.1 | CIR |
22.444 | −14.508 | 126.0 | 0.0 | −32.9 | ORT |
22.376 | −14.534 | 114.0 | −1.1 | −22.5 | ORT |
22.375 | −14.534 | 98.0 | −1.1 | −7.8 | ORT |
22.410 | −14.518 | 152.0 | −0.5 | −55.0 | ORT |
22.410 | −14.518 | 126.0 | −0.5 | −33.1 | CIR |
22.417 | −14.518 | 106.0 | −0.6 | −15.0 | ORT |
22.418 | −14.515 | 114.0 | −0.6 | −22.3 | ORT |
22.447 | −14.515 | 126.0 | 0.0 | −32.9 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 101.0 | 0.0 | −10.2 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 91.0 | 0.5 | −0.7 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 81.0 | 1.0 | 8.7 | CIR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 125.0 | 0.5 | −31.8 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 108.0 | −0.6 | −16.8 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 129.0 | −1.1 | −36.1 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 146.0 | 0.5 | −49.7 | CIR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 218.0 | 1.0 | −46.2 | CIR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 97.0 | −0.6 | −6.7 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 186.0 | 1.8 | −65.1 | STR |
22.447 | −14.515 | 280.0 | 0.0 | 9.2 | STR |
22.442 | −14.514 | 136.0 | 0.0 | −41.7 | CIR |
22.442 | −14.514 | 124.0 | 0.0 | −31.1 | STR |
22.442 | −14.514 | 125.0 | 0.0 | −32.0 | STR |
22.442 | −14.515 | 81.0 | 0.0 | 8.3 | STR |
22.442 | −14.515 | 80.0 | 0.0 | 9.2 | CRES |
22.442 | −14.515 | 146.0 | 0.0 | −50.0 | CIR |
22.442 | −14.515 | 239.0 | −0.6 | −28.7 | STR |
22.442 | −14.515 | 88.0 | −0.6 | 1.6 | CIR |
22.442 | −14.515 | 80.0 | 0.0 | 9.2 | STR |
22.442 | −14.515 | 130.0 | 0.4 | −36.3 | STR |
23.001 | −14.500 | 120.0 | 1.1 | −26.9 | CIR |
23.001 | −14.500 | 130.0 | 2.0 | −35.3 | CIR |
23.001 | −14.000 | 90.0 | 0.5 | 0.2 | STR |
23.003 | −14.000 | 127.0 | 0.5 | −33.4 | STR |
23.003 | −14.000 | 90.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | STR |
23.003 | −14.001 | 164.0 | 0.0 | −26.5 | STR |
23.003 | −14.001 | 240.0 | 2.0 | −13.8 | ORT |
23.011 | −14.001 | 122.0 | 0.0 | −29.2 | ORT |
23.011 | −14.001 | 140.0 | 0.0 | −44.8 | ORT |
23.011 | −14.002 | 130.0 | 1.0 | −35.8 | STR |
23.011 | −14.002 | 100.0 | 0.0 | −9.2 | STR |
23.010 | −14.002 | 340.0 | 0.0 | 59.9 | STR |
23.011 | −14.002 | 115.0 | 0.0 | −22.9 | STR |
23.011 | −14.002 | 200.0 | 0.0 | −59.88 | CIR |
22.500 | −14.002 | 120.0 | 1.0 | −27.1 | CRES |
22.500 | −14.510 | 120.0 | 1.0 | −27.1 | CRES |
22.500 | −14.510 | 330.0 | 2.0 | 54.4 | STR |
22.500 | −14.510 | 80.0 | 0.0 | 9.2 | STR |
22.500 | −14.510 | 140.0 | 1.5 | −44.2 | CRES |
22.500 | −14.510 | 140.0 | 1.0 | −44.5 | CRES |
22.500 | −14.510 | 230.0 | 0.0 | −36.4 | CIR |
22.500 | −14.515 | 150.0 | 0.5 | −52.8 | CRES |
22.500 | −14.515 | 150.0 | 0.5 | −52.8 | CRES |
22.501 | −14.515 | 120.0 | 1.0 | −27.1 | STR |
22.501 | −14.511 | 120.0 | 1.0 | −27.1 | STR |
22.501 | −14.511 | 120.0 | 1.0 | −27.1 | CIR |
23.155 | −14.390 | 120.0 | 0.5 | −27.1 | CRES |
23.155 | −14.390 | 120.0 | 0.5 | −27.1 | STR |
23.155 | −14.400 | 160.0 | 0.75 | −59.2 | CRES |
23.155 | −14.400 | 143.0 | 0.5 | −46.96 | CRES |
23.160 | −14.400 | 145.0 | 1.0 | −48.26 | CRES |
23.160 | −14.388 | 230.0 | 1.0 | −35.7 | STR |
23.160 | −14.400 | 142.0 | 1.0 | −45.9 | CIR |
23.160 | −14.400 | 150.0 | 0.0 | −52.8 | STR |
23.160 | −14.400 | 56.0 | 0.0 | 30.9 | STR |
23.160 | −14.400 | 155.0 | 1.0 | −55.7 | CRES |
23.160 | −14.410 | 135.0 | 1.0 | −40.0 | CRES |
23.160 | −14.392 | 150.0 | 0.0 | −52.8 | CRES |
23.160 | −14.392 | 141.0 | 0.5 | −45.3 | CRES |
23.160 | −14.392 | 135.0 | 0.5 | −40.3 | CRES |
22.581 | −14.410 | 109.0 | 1.0 | −17.1 | STR |
22.578 | −14.410 | 135.0 | 1.0 | −40.2 | STR |
22.575 | −14.410 | 294.0 | 2.0 | 22.9 | STR |
22.575 | −14.400 | 160.0 | 0.0 | −60.2 | STR |
22.574 | −14.421 | 142.0 | 3.5 | −44.7 | CRES |
22.574 | −14.421 | 335.0 | 1.0 | 57.5 | STR |
22.574 | −14.421 | 147.5 | 1.5 | −50.2 | STR |
22.573 | −14.421 | 146.0 | 0.5 | −49.7 | STR |
22.571 | −14.421 | 315.0 | 2.0 | 41.8 | CIR |
22.574 | −14.43 | 303.0 | 0.5 | 30.4 | STR |
22.443 | −14.50 | 125.0 | 0.5 | −31.8 | CRES |
22.443 | 14.505 | 130.0 | 0.5 | −36.2 | CRES |
22.440 | 14.505 | 150.0 | 0.5 | −52.9 | CRES |
22.440 | 14.510 | 135.0 | 0.0 | −40.8 | STR |
References
- González-García, A.C. Traveling between natural and human sciences: A professional voyage towards cultural astronomy. In The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Archaeology, 1st ed.; Karenleigh, F.L.C., Overman, A., Wynn, T., Eds.; Oxford Academic: Oxford, UK, 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- VVAA. The Archaeology of Western Sahara, 1st ed.; Clarke, J., Brooks, N., Eds.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Sáenz de Buruaga, A. Contribución al Conocimiento del Pasado Cultural del Tiris, 1st ed.; Sáhara Occidental, Servicio Central de Publicacio-nes del Gobierno Vasco: Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain, 2008; pp. 21–185. [Google Scholar]
- Belmonte, J.A.; Esteban, C.; Cuesta, L.; Perera Betancort, M.A.; Jiménez González, J.J. Pre-Islamic Burial Monuments in Northern and Saharan Morocco. Archaeoastron. Suppl. 1999, 30, 21–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belmonte, J.A.; Hoskin, M. África del norte antes del Islam. In Reflejo del Cosmos, 1st ed.; Equipo Sirius: Madrid, Spain, 2002; pp. 297–382. [Google Scholar]
- Gauthier, Y. Orientation and distribution of various dry-stone monuments in the Sahara. In Cosmology across Cultures, 1st ed.; Rubiño-Martín, J.A., Belmonte, J.A., Prada, F., Alberdi, A., Eds.; ASP Conference Series: San Francisco, CA, USA, 2009; Volume 40, pp. 317–330. [Google Scholar]
- Gauthier, Y. Pre-Islamic Dry-Stone Monuments of the Central and Western Sahara. In Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Eth-Noastronomy, 1st ed.; Ruggles, C., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015; Volume 2, pp. 1059–1078. [Google Scholar]
- Clarke, J.; Brooks, N. (Eds.) Chapter 8. Western Sahara in a local and regional context. In The Archaeology of Western Sahara, 1st ed.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 197–205. [Google Scholar]
- Clarke, J.; Brooks, N. Chapter 11. Burial practices in Western Sahara. In Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond, 1st ed.; Gatto, D.J., Mattingly, N.R., Sterry, M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2019; pp. 341–372. [Google Scholar]
- Barich, B.E. Northwest Lybia from the early to the late Holocene: New data on environment and subsistence from the Jebel Gharbi. Quat. Int. 2014, 320, 15–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mattingly, D.J.; Gatto, M.C.; Sterry, M.; Ray, N. Burials, migration and identity: The view from the Sahara. In Burials, Migration and Identity in the Ancient Sahara and Beyond, 1st ed.; Gatto, D.J., Mattingly, N.R., Sterry, M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2019; pp. 1–50. [Google Scholar]
- Brooks, N.; Garfi, S.; Gauthier, Y. Chapter 3. Typology of stone features. In The Archaeology of Western Sahara, 1st ed.; Clarke, J., Brooks, N., Eds.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 34–55. [Google Scholar]
- Clarke, J.; Brooks, N. (Eds.) The archaeology of Western Sahara in context. In The Archaeology of Western Sahara, 1st ed.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 1–9. [Google Scholar]
- Garfi, S.; Clarke, J. Intensive survey. In The Archaeology of Western Sahara, 1st ed.; Clarke, J., Brooks, N., Eds.; Oxbow Books: Oxford, UK, 2018; pp. 106–123. [Google Scholar]
- Sivilli, S. A historical background: Mortuary archaeology in the Sahara between colonialism and modern research. In Sand, Stones and Bones: The Archaeology of Death in the Wadi Tannezzuft Valley (5000-2000 BP); Di Lernia, S., Manzi, G., Eds.; L’insegnia del Giglio: Florentia, Italy, 2002; pp. 17–24. [Google Scholar]
- NOAA Magnetic Field Calculator. Available online: https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag/calculators/magcalc.shtml#declination (accessed on 15 December 2022).
- Schaefer, B.E. Atmospheric Extinction Effects on Stellar Alignments. J. Hist. Astron. 1986, 17, S32–S42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Magli, G. Archaeoastronomy. Introduction to the Sciences of Stars and Stones, 1st ed.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- González-García, A.C.; Šprajc, I. Astronomical significance of architectural orientations in the Maya Lowlands: A statistical approach. J. Archaeol. Sci. Rep. 2016, 9, 191–202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Di Lernia, S. Building monuments, creating identity: Cattle cult as social response to rapid environmental changes in the Holocene. Quat. Int. 2006, 151, 50–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Antonello, E. Astronomia pre-strumentale. In Rappresentare il Tempo. Architettura, Geometria e Astronomia, 1st ed.; Farroni, L., Incerti, M., Pagliano, A., Eds.; Librería Universitaria Edizioni: Rome, Italy, 2022; pp. 30–37. [Google Scholar]
- Belmonte, J.A.; Esteban, C.; González, J.J.J. Mediterranean Archaeoastronomy and Archaeotopography: Pre-Roman Tombs of Africa Proconsularis. J. Hist. Astron. 1998, 29, S7–S24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belmonte, J.A.; Esteban, C.; Perera Betancort, M.A.; Marrero, R. Archaeoastronomy in the Sahara: The tombs of the Garamantes at Wadi el Agial, Fezzan, Lybia. Archaeoastronomy 2002, 33, S1–S19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Belmonte, J.A.; Betancort, M.A.P.; Marrero, R.; Gaspar, A.T. The Dolmens and Hawanat of Africa Proconsularis Revisited. J. Hist. Astron. 2003, 34, 305–320. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aguiar Aguilar, M. El cómputo del tiempo en las sociedades islámicas premodernas. Rev. Cienc. Relig. Anejos 2006, 36, 11–21. [Google Scholar]
- Zedda, M.; Belmonte, J.A. On the Orientations of Sardinian Nuraghes: Some Clues to Their Interpretation. J. Hist. Astron. 2004, 35, 85–107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- González-García, A.C.; Belmonte, J.A. Sacred architecture orientation across the Mediterranean: A comparative statistical analysis. Mediterr. Archaeol. Archaeom. 2014, 14, 95–113. [Google Scholar]
- González-García, A.C.; Costa Ferrer, L.; Belmonte, J.A. Solarists vs. Lunatics: Modelling patterns in megalithic astronomy. In Light and Shadows in Cultural Astronomy; Zedda, M.P., Belmonte, J.A., Eds.; Regione Autonoma della Sardegna: Sardinia, Italia, 2007; pp. 23–30. [Google Scholar]
- González-García, A.C.; Belmonte, J.A. Statistical analyses of megalithic tomb orientations in the Iberian Peninsula and neighbouring regions. JHA 2010, 41, 225–238. [Google Scholar]
- Silva, F.; Pimenta, F. The crossover of the sun and the moon. J. Hist. Astron. 2012, 43, 191–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cornax Gómez, C.; González-García, A.C.; de Torres Rodríguez, J. The Guiding Sky: Funerary Orientations and Nomadic Movements in Somaliland during Antiquity. JSA 2022, 8, 36–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ibn Khaldun, A.R. Histoire des Berbères et des Dynasties Musulmanes de l’Afrique Septentrionale; Librarie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner: Paris, France, 1925; Volume 4. [Google Scholar]
- Perera Betancor, M.A.; Belmonte Avilés, J.A. Las Escrituras del Pueblo Majo, Clave para el Poblamiento de Canarias, 1st ed.; Le Ca-narien: Canarias, Spain, 2021. [Google Scholar]
- Belmonte, J.A. Pre-Hispanic sanctuaries in the Canary Islands. In Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, 1st ed.; Ruggles, C., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015; Volume 2, pp. 1116–1126. [Google Scholar]
- Esteban, C. Pre-Islamic religious monuments in North Africa. In Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, 1st ed.; Ruggles, C., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015; Volume 2, pp. 1093–1100. [Google Scholar]
- Belmonte, J.A.; Esteban, C.; Aparicio, A.; Tejera Gaspar, A.; González, O. Canarian astronomy before the conquest: The pre-Hispanic calendar. Rev. Acad. Canar. Cienc. 1994, 6, 133–156. [Google Scholar]
- Barrios García, J. Sistemas de Numeración y Calendarios de las Poblaciones Bereberes de Gran Canaria y Tenerife en los Siglos XIV-XV. Ph.D. Thesis, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain, 2007. [Google Scholar]
- Oxby, C. Calendar Pluralism and the Cultural Heritage of Domination and Resistance (Tuareg and Other Saharans). In Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy, 1st ed.; Ruggles, C., Ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 1107–1114. [Google Scholar]
- Monteil, V. Notes sur la toponymie, l’astronomie et l’orientation chez les maures. Hesperis 1949, 26, 182–216. [Google Scholar]
- VVAA. Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the Context of the World Heritage Convention; A Thematic Study; ICO-MOS–IAU: Paris, France, 2010. [Google Scholar]
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Rodríguez-Antón, A.; Urrutia-Aparicio, M.; Perera Betancor, M.A. Archaeoastronomy and Conflict: On the Orientation of Prehistoric Funerary Monuments in Western Sahara. Sustainability 2023, 15, 2005. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032005
Rodríguez-Antón A, Urrutia-Aparicio M, Perera Betancor MA. Archaeoastronomy and Conflict: On the Orientation of Prehistoric Funerary Monuments in Western Sahara. Sustainability. 2023; 15(3):2005. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032005
Chicago/Turabian StyleRodríguez-Antón, Andrea, Maitane Urrutia-Aparicio, and María Antonia Perera Betancor. 2023. "Archaeoastronomy and Conflict: On the Orientation of Prehistoric Funerary Monuments in Western Sahara" Sustainability 15, no. 3: 2005. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032005
APA StyleRodríguez-Antón, A., Urrutia-Aparicio, M., & Perera Betancor, M. A. (2023). Archaeoastronomy and Conflict: On the Orientation of Prehistoric Funerary Monuments in Western Sahara. Sustainability, 15(3), 2005. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032005