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Article

The Climate Change Influence on Cedrela odorata L. Radial Growth in the Amazon

by
Wayka P. L. B. Da Costa
1,2,*,
Érika F. M. Pinheiro
3,
João V. F. Latorraca
4,
Victor H. P. Moutinho
1,
Fábio H. D. J. Carmo
2,
Glaycianne C. V. S. Ataíde
2,
Maristela Volpato
2,
Diego L. Aguiar
1 and
Fernando W. C. Andrade
1
1
Wood Technology Laboratory, Institute of Biodiversity and Forests, Universidade Federal do Oeste do Pará, Santarém 68035-110, Pará, Brazil
2
Graduate Program in Environmental and Forestry Sciences, Institute of Forests, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica 23890-000, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
3
Department of Agrotechnology and Sustainability, Institute of Agronomy, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica 23890-000, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
4
Department of Forest Products, Institute of Forests, Núcleo de Pesquisa em Qualidade de Árvore e Madeira, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica 23890-000, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(24), 16755; https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416755
Submission received: 22 September 2023 / Revised: 17 November 2023 / Accepted: 29 November 2023 / Published: 12 December 2023
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
Half of the Amazon Forest, which has a marked seasonality in rainfall, is susceptible to intense droughts caused by positive phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Cedrela odorata L., sensitive to climate variations, emerges as a promising candidate for studies on how trees respond to climate change. Given the demand for its wood and the imperative for its protection in the Amazon Biome, applying the principles of environmental sustainability becomes crucial. This study characterizes local climatic variables near the Amazon River and assesses their impact, as well as the effect of ENSO, on the radial growth of Cedrela odorata using Pearson correlation analyses. Ring synchronization followed the standard methodology in dendrochronology, confirming common growth patterns and the formation of growth rings in C. odorata. Significant correlations with growth were noted concerning local climate, with negative associations for maximum and average temperatures and evapotranspiration, and a positive correlation with relative air humidity. ENSO exhibited a significant negative correlation with growth rings, indicating reduced growth during El Niño events. The species is notably sensitive to water availability, particularly at the onset of the growth period. The study concludes that the growth of C. odorata in the Óbidos-PA microregion responds to climate change.

1. Introduction

The Amazon Rainforest plays a crucial role in hydrological and carbon cycles, acting as a carbon sink through precipitation recycling at regional and global scales. These processes depend on spatiotemporal patterns of precipitation [1]. The transport of moisture from the Atlantic Ocean partially controls the temporal variability of rainfall [2] with precipitation primarily modulated by sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical Atlantic region and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) phenomenon [3].
Approximately half of the Amazon experiences marked rainfall seasonality and is susceptible to high-magnitude droughts caused by positive phases of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) [4]. Drought results from a deficiency of rainfall in a specific region and exhibits several key characteristics, including intensity, spatial extent, time, and duration. These characteristics can be derived from numerical indices based on observed measurements, remote sensing data, or modeled data [5]. In the Amazon, drought events occur prominently in certain regions and are expected to increase in both frequency and intensity, potentially causing changes in the dynamics of the forest [6,7]. Although these events do not alter the climatic type of a region, they warrant special attention due to their periodicity and magnitude, particularly in understanding the strategies of coexistence, defense, and survival employed by the species that inhabit the region.
Climate variations are responsible for triggering hormonal processes involved in tree growth [8]. The climatic type of a region is the primary mechanism for initiating the physiological memory of plant species. Due to environmental and genetic factors, tree species may exhibit varying growth rhythms at different stages of their life. Tree ring width decreases with cambial age, increases in height in young trunks, and reduction in apical growth in young trunks [9]. However, they tend to stabilize with age while preserving their anatomical characteristics. In the case of tropical tree species, conditions such as high altitude, variation in precipitation, photoperiod, and other extreme factors can induce a reduction or dormancy of the vascular cambium, resulting in the formation of growth rings in the secondary xylem, which can be interpreted as a characteristic marker of these events [10]. This relationship between annual tree ring growth and climatic variables allows us to identify species that can serve as natural indicators of climate change [11]. Tropical species exposed to high rainfall conditions or water deficits may exhibit variations in the width and formation of growth rings [12]. Dendrochronological studies of these species can help us understand the spatial and temporal growth patterns of forest ecosystems in response to climate transitions.
The species Cedrela odorata L., from the botanical family Meliaceae, is sensitive to climatic variations. The suitability of this genus for dendrochronological studies has been demonstrated through intercorrelation parameters and average sensitivity studies [13], with the former being the most widely used. The value of intercorrelation varies depending on the analysis and statistical software used. An average sensitivity around 0.1 implies that the species is so compliant that data becomes challenging, while an average sensitivity greater than 0.4 indicates extreme sensitivity, often associated with frequent micro rings or absent rings alongside very wide rings [11,13].
Previous studies primarily evaluated the species C. odorata in terms of its potential as a forest product for logging [14]. It is one of the most valuable timber species worldwide and, due to this high demand, it has been excessively exploited for at least two centuries throughout its distribution area. Due to their vulnerable status and habitat preferences, the international conservation community has requested greater protection for three related species: C. fissilis, C. lilloi, and C. odorata. This call was answered and, in 1981, these species were included in the conservation priority list [15] of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora [16,17].
However, through dendrochronological studies, the growth rings of this species can provide valuable information about its physiological responses to climatic variations [13]. Santos et al. (2020) created a chronology of the tree ring width of C. odorata in the eastern Amazon Basin, covering the years from 1786 to 2016, using dendrochronological techniques [18]. Based on the analysis of the growth rings and the use of oxygen isotopes, Pagotto et al. (2021) suggested that this species can serve as an indicator of hydroclimatic variations [19]. Menezes et al. (2022) studied the growth rings of C. odorata in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Brazil and identified a positive correlation with precipitation and a negative correlation with mean air temperature [20].
Despite advancements in studying this species, there remains a knowledge gap concerning its sensitivity to local and global climatic variations and its role as an indicator of environmental changes. Environmental conditions and genetic factors can influence the physiological responses of the species, depending on the sensitivity or compliance [21]. Therefore, understanding environmental variations at microscales will help map the species’ response to climate change.
In light of the different rainfall regimes in the Amazon Basin between the tributaries of the left and right banks due to the influence of the displacements of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the South Atlantic Convergence Zone (SACZ), respectively [19].
Given the undeniable scenario of demand for wood of the Cedrela odorata species in its various forms of use and the need for its protection in the Amazon Biome, the premises of environmentalability must be applied. This implies the responsible use of natural resources, to ensure that the well-being of future generations is not compromised. Therefore, based on scientific evidence, it is important to define which areas and systems must be preserved and which can be used sustainably, without compromising life support.
In this study, the objectives were: (i) to characterize the intra and interannual behavior of local climatic variables on the left bank of the Amazon River (Óbidos microregion, Pará, Brazil); (ii) evaluate how these climatic conditions affect the radial growth of trees of the species C. odorata; and (iii) analyze the physiological response of tree radial growth to El Niño-Southern Oscillation events.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area, Soil and Climate

The study area is in a first-cut native forest in the municipality of Óbidos, state of Pará, Amazon Biome in Brazil. The material was collected from two areas of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM): Elizabeth Farm—AUTEF—No. 273207/2018/Rural Environmental License—LAR—No. 13071/2018 (1.470134° S 55.605361° W) and Afelândia Farm—AUTEF—No. 273229/2018/Rural Environmental License—LAR—No. 13071/2019 (1.512803° S 55.571283° W) (Figure 1).
According to the Köppen classification, this micro-region climate is classified as tropical monsoon type (Amw) with two well-defined seasons: rainy and dry [22]. The rainy season occurs between December and June and the dry season between July and November [22].

2.2. Tree Ring Sample Collection and Chronology Establishment

Samples were collected in October 2018, from logs that were stored in the Fazenda Afelândia log yard. These logs come from forest management carried out in 2018. From each tree, 1 disc was removed from the base of the logs for growth ring analysis.
The trees were initially identified by forestry engineers responsible for the forest management carried out by the company that supports the project and donates the material for analysis. The confirmation of these identifications was subsequently undertaken by the Tree and Wood Quality Research Center (NPQAM) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ). Following this, all samples were deposited in the wood library of UFRRJ’s Forest Products Department (FPDw) under the numbered records ranging from 7829 to 7838.
The discs were polished (sandpaper granulometry: from 40 to 2000 grains mm−2) until the identification of the growth rings was possible. Subsequently, a compressed air jet was applied to the disc to clear the vessels.
The procedure for counting and measuring the rings was performed with radius lines traced on the discs. Three radial lines were laid down on each polished disc and then analyzed, totaling 30 tree ring sequences. The count started at the outermost part of the disc in a bark-to-pith direction. The absolute dating was performed by assigning one calendar year to each growth ring and the start point was 2017, the year before the trees were cut. The radii were scanned at a resolution of 1200 dpi (Epson Perfection V700 Photo). The images were used to measure the growth rings in the Image Pro Plus software (ver. 4.5) previously calibrated with a precision of 0.001 mm.
The control and verification of the series synchronization between and within each tree was carried out by the statistical program COFECHA [23] which evaluated the quality of the cross-dating (crossdate), the ring measurement precision [13], and the original measurements synchronization into dimensional indices. The annual growth series were fitted with a 50% cubic smoothing spline and wavelength cutoff for filtering up to 32 years with a critical correlation of 0.328 and a 1% significance level. To verify possible local climatic influences on growth ring formation patterns, the measurement data were standardized with the ARSTAN software (version 6.00p) (MRWE Application Framework Copyright © 1997–2004) [24].

2.3. Climate Data

The meteorological variables accounted for in the study were precipitation, maximum, minimum, and mean air temperatures, relative air humidity, insolation, cloud cover, and real evapotranspiration. All data were obtained from the Conventional Meteorological Station of Óbidos-PA (85178) of the National Institute of Meteorology (INMET), located in the municipality of Óbidos-PA. The size of the climatic data series was determined by the availability and consistency of existing data for the region and corresponded to a period of 46 years (1971 to 2017), except for the real evapotranspiration variable, which corresponded to a period of 12 years (2006 to 2017). El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) data were obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) platform, corresponding to a 66-year series of climatological data (1950 to 2017).
The classification of the El Niño and La Niña events intensity followed the methodology used by the Center for Weather Forecast and Climatic Studies of the National Institute for Space Research (CPTEC/INPE). It calculates the years of anomaly occurrence through the method proposed by Trenberth (1997) [25].

2.4. Data Analysis

The intra and interannual behavior of meteorological data was evaluated with the non-parametric Mann–Kendall rank correlation tau (α: 0.01) [26]. The chronology correlations were performed according to the series of existing climatic data for the region.
To determine the activation and dormancy phases of the vascular cambium, the correlation analyses were carried out considering a time scale in months and years, to characterize the influence of the local climate pattern on the species growth dynamics. The influence of local climatic variables on growth given by the Standard, Residual, and Arstan chronologies was tested with Pearson’s correlation test (α: 0.05).
The master chronology, obtained by the COFECHA program, was used to verify the ENSO event’s influence on C. odorata radial growth. Pearson’s correlation (α: 0.05) was applied to all climatological data and growth, with a time interval of 66 years. The dp1R statistical package of R software (version 4.3.0) [27] was used to determine the data correlation between ENSO climatic events and growth, with a time interval of 66 years.

3. Results

3.1. Characterization and Measurement of C. odorata Growth Rings

The ring counting determined the youngest individual at the age of 62 years, corresponding to the period from 1956 to 2017, and the oldest at the age of 206 years, corresponding to the period from 1812 to 2017 (Table 1). These results provide support for assessing the quality of cross-dating. Considering Pearson’s critical correlation level of 0.328 (p < 0.01), the ten series with width measurements of individual growth rings reached a critically significant correlation value of 0.342, sensitivity of 0.346, and 14 flags (31.1%). This confirms that there are common characteristics in the species rings growth pattern and that the Julian year calendar can be attributed to them. Therefore, the species develops annual growth rings that can be dendrochronologically analyzed (Table 1).
The ten chronological series of C. odorata rings growth rates generated a standard chronology of 206 years, as can be seen in Figure 2.

3.2. Meteorological Data Analysis

The inter- and intra-annual behavior of meteorological elements over the 46 years that were considered for this study showed a standard seasonal behavior (Figure 3), with a rainy period concentrated in the first months of the year (January, February, March, April, and May) and a rainfall reduction as of June.
Considering all the meteorological elements of the analyzed data series through the years, the relative humidity and evapotranspiration showed a negative correlation, and the average and minimum temperature and cloudiness showed a positive correlation. It indicates a reduction in water availability (relative humidity and evapotranspiration) and an increase in temperature over the years (Table 2).

3.3. Correlation between Growth and Local Climate

The correlations between C. odorata growth rings width and the local climate are shown in Figure 4, with significant correlations for relative humidity, maximum and mean temperatures, and evapotranspiration. The relative humidity showed significant positive correlations to the previous months of November and December. Significant negative correlations were observed for the maximum temperature in the previous months of October, November, and December and for the current month of February. Significant negative correlations were observed for mean temperature in the months of previous November and current February. Significant negative correlations were observed for real evapotranspiration in the current months of April and May.

3.4. ENSO and Growth Correlation

The correlation analysis between C. odorata growth and ENSO showed a negative correlation for the months of the years when El Niño occurred (Figure 5).

4. Discussion

The meteorological variables showed the pattern described by Coutinho et al. (2018) [28]. These authors characterize the Lower Amazon Region Basin with a seasonal regime of rains and droughts, with the dry season concentrated from June to November with an average of 385 mm total accumulated precipitation. Oliveira and Santos (2017), analyzing trends in air temperature and precipitation, described the municipality of Óbidos with accumulated precipitation of 100 mm in August and critical months in the dry period with a monthly precipitation average below 50 mm [29]. The highest accumulated precipitation occurred in March, with the rainy season concentrated between January and April with accumulated precipitation above 250 mm. Similar results were found by Santos et al. (2019) [22].
Regions with well-defined seasonality such as this may impact the demarcation of growth rings due to the variation in rainfall over the year [30]. C. odorata growth, as seen in Figure 4A, did not show correlation with precipitation. However, the relationship between the rainy season and tree growth was observed in studies by Menezes et al. (2022) [20]. Granato-Souza et al. (2019) studying C. odorata trees in the Paru River, mentioned that the growth correlations with precipitation may be due to the combination of moisture recharge present in the soil and the lower demand for evapotranspiration [31]. Brienem et al. (2016) state that tropical tree growth is sensitive to precipitation and temperature, with a reduction in growth in dry and hot years [12]. The trees of Cedrela sp. show a pattern of sensitivity to precipitation and trunk diameter growth depends on the amount of water available in the transition period in the month before the onset of rains [32]. This growth pattern is explained by the need for trees to store organic compound reserves in the transition months from the rainy to the dry season, which will be used in the following growing season, providing greater trunk growth [12].
In the months with lower precipitation in the region, such as March to June of the current period, it was observed that C. odorata growth was less intense, although a negative correlation was not determined (Figure 4A). Taiz et al. (2017) state that when the water available in the soil is reduced to levels that decrease its normal absorption by the root system, causes a continuous loss of water vapor by the plants and an increase in transpiration rate and/or direct evaporation from the soil surface [33]. This causes changes in cell expansion, transpiration, reduced translocation of assimilates, and decreased photosynthetic rate and physiological functions, which triggers growth inhibition.
Evaporation controls the functionality of the ecosystem, just as transpiration determines the photosynthetic activity of vegetation [34]. In the dry period, net photosynthesis is lower when compared to the rainy season [35]. Thus, the months in which rainfall makes the environment suitable for the full development of physiological activities are those where water replenishment in the soil begins, that is, the month of December [28], which may explain the results found in this work.
The mean air temperature (Figure 4C) showed a negative correlation with C. odorata growth for November and February of the current period. Menezes et al. (2022) mention that high-temperature years are associated with narrower growth rings for C. odorata [20]. It may be related to the fact that the increase in temperature, combined with the water deficit in the soil, can affect the cambial activity of cedar trees, which negatively affects their growth [36]. The result presented here corroborates the study by Bräuning et al. (2022) which mentions that high temperatures and continuous droughts during the growth period can limit cambial activity and interfere with the formation of tree cells [37].
When considering the entire time series assessed in this research, a negative correlation was established for the months of the years of El Niño occurrence, corroborating the results of Aragão et al. (2022) [38]. The ENSO is an atmosphere–ocean phenomenon that occurs in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and has a strong impact on instrumental precipitation over the eastern Amazon [39]. In the warm phase (El Niño), it increases temperature and reduces precipitation. This translates into a dependence on the precipitation regime, soil water potential, and, consequently, the amount of water stored in the stem. Species of deciduous trees, such as C. odorata, lose their leaves in response to precipitation reduction during the dry season to establish high solute content and equate water potential in stem tissues. This is a prerequisite for flowering and budding during the dry season. Menezes et al. (2022) when studying the edaphoclimatic effects on C. odorata growth in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Brazil, concluded that there is a relationship between climate variables, such as El Niño, and that trees respond to the dynamics of atmospheric teleconnections [20].
C. odorata responds to the effects caused by extreme events, corroborating the results of the mentioned papers. Venegas-Gonzáles et al. (2018) evaluating trees of Cedrela spp. from the Atlantic Forest, observed a positive association between trees’ radial growth and soil moisture conditions, showing the water sensitivity of Cedrela spp., which showed reduced radial growth in extreme periods of drought [36]. They also point out the importance of researching trees of the genus, due to their sensitivity and wide geographic distribution, for understanding the impacts caused by climate change. Likewise, Do Carmo et al. (2022), when analyzing the effect of climate variations on Tectona grandis trees growing in the southeastern region of Pará state, observed that the effect of ENSO was negatively correlated with the growth ring width, showing that during this event the species growth is also reduced [40].

5. Conclusions

The radial growth of C. odorata is influenced by local climatic variables of relative air humidity, maximum and average air temperatures, and real evapotranspiration. Likewise, dry periods, caused by El Niño Southern Oscillation events, affect the growth of C. odorata. Therefore, C. odorata from the Óbidos-PA microregion is a species that responds to climate change.
This study highlighted the negative effects of extreme weather events on the growth of C. odorata and contributed scientifically to knowledge about the effects of climate change on tree growth in the Amazon, one of the most important biomes in the world.
Therefore, it is suggested that studies, similar to this one, with C. odorata and other forest species, of commercial and ecological interest, should be carried out in different microregions of the Amazon, so that physiological responses, in the behavior of forest dynamics, and extreme events can be understood. As well as, in addition, we wish to establish sustainable strategies, both for areas to be preserved and conserved, considering physiological responses according to the susceptibility of individuals to interference in predominant and extreme climate patterns.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.P.L.B.D.C., V.H.P.M., J.V.F.L. and É.F.M.P.; Methodology, W.P.L.B.D.C., V.H.P.M., J.V.F.L., É.F.M.P., G.C.V.S.A., F.H.D.J.C. and D.L.A.; Validation, W.P.L.B.D.C., G.C.V.S.A. and F.H.D.J.C.; Formal Analysis, W.P.L.B.D.C., V.H.P.M., G.C.V.S.A. and F.H.D.J.C.; Investigation, W.P.L.B.D.C. and V.H.P.M.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, W.P.L.B.D.C.; Writing—Review & Editing, W.P.L.B.D.C., É.F.M.P., J.V.F.L., V.H.P.M., F.H.D.J.C., G.C.V.S.A., M.V., D.L.A. and F.W.C.A.; Visualization, W.P.L.B.D.C., É.F.M.P., J.V.F.L., V.H.P.M., F.H.D.J.C., G.C.V.S.A., M.V., D.L.A. and F.W.C.A.; Supervision, W.P.L.B.D.C.; Project Administration, W.P.L.B.D.C.; Funding Acquisition, W.P.L.B.D.C. and V.H.P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The APC was funded by the Federal University of Western Pará (UFOPA) by the Programa de Apoio à Produção Científica Qualificada (PAPCIQ), grant number 03/2022.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on per request to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

This research was partly funded by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES)—Finance Code 001 and the Graduate Program in Agricultural and Environmental Engineering (PGEAAmb) of the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Study area location. (A) Brazil and Pará State (PA); (B) Óbidos—PA; (C) Elizabeth Farm and (D) Afelândia Farm.
Figure 1. Study area location. (A) Brazil and Pará State (PA); (B) Óbidos—PA; (C) Elizabeth Farm and (D) Afelândia Farm.
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Figure 2. The 206 years standard chronology for C. odorata (from 1812 to 2017). The changing sample depth of dated radii is plotted in gray; solid gray line: standardized series; and solid black line: ring width index (RWI).
Figure 2. The 206 years standard chronology for C. odorata (from 1812 to 2017). The changing sample depth of dated radii is plotted in gray; solid gray line: standardized series; and solid black line: ring width index (RWI).
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Figure 3. Seasonal climate behavior for 46 years of meteorological data in the municipality of Óbidos—PA. Interannual variations in precipitation and mean temperature (A) and relative humidity and insolation (B). Intra-annual variations in accumulated precipitation and mean temperature (C) and relative humidity and insolation (D).
Figure 3. Seasonal climate behavior for 46 years of meteorological data in the municipality of Óbidos—PA. Interannual variations in precipitation and mean temperature (A) and relative humidity and insolation (B). Intra-annual variations in accumulated precipitation and mean temperature (C) and relative humidity and insolation (D).
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Figure 4. Correlation between C. odorata growth rings time series and the climatological variables monthly averages: precipitation (A); maximum temperature (B); mean temperature (C); minimum temperature (D); relative humidity; (E); insolation (F); real evapotranspiration (G) cloudiness (H) (period 1971 to 2017). Dashed lines indicate the significance levels for each variable. Subscript “p” = previous months. Subscript “c” = current months.
Figure 4. Correlation between C. odorata growth rings time series and the climatological variables monthly averages: precipitation (A); maximum temperature (B); mean temperature (C); minimum temperature (D); relative humidity; (E); insolation (F); real evapotranspiration (G) cloudiness (H) (period 1971 to 2017). Dashed lines indicate the significance levels for each variable. Subscript “p” = previous months. Subscript “c” = current months.
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Figure 5. Climatic correlation between C. odorata chronology and El Niño event occurrence years (1950 to 2017).
Figure 5. Climatic correlation between C. odorata chronology and El Niño event occurrence years (1950 to 2017).
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Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the chronologies developed per tree of C. odorata L. time series.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the chronologies developed per tree of C. odorata L. time series.
SeriesIntervalYear AverageMax. SegmentsFlagsMaster CorrelationSensibility
D11844–2017174730.2270.386
D21908–2017110410.4330.326
D31914–2017104410.3180.439
D41904–2017112400.5210.286
D51941–201777300.5050.254
D61904–2017114400.5750.426
D71812–2017206740.2100.371
D81956–201762220.2350.283
D91911–2017107410.3960.406
D101853–2017165620.2010.237
Total-1.2314514--
Critical correlation 0.3420.346
Table 2. Trend of meteorological variables by Mann–Kendall correlation tau for 46 years.
Table 2. Trend of meteorological variables by Mann–Kendall correlation tau for 46 years.
Meteorological VariableCorrelation Coefficient
Relative humidity (%)−0.100
Insolation0.048 ns
Precipitation0.003 ns
Mean temperature (°C)0.236
Max. temperature (°C)0.062 ns
Min. temperature (°C)0.467
Cloudiness0.353
Evapotranspiration−0.259
Thermic Amplitude (°C)−0.028 ns
ns non-significant correlation at a 1% significance level.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Da Costa, W.P.L.B.; Pinheiro, É.F.M.; Latorraca, J.V.F.; Moutinho, V.H.P.; Carmo, F.H.D.J.; Ataíde, G.C.V.S.; Volpato, M.; Aguiar, D.L.; Andrade, F.W.C. The Climate Change Influence on Cedrela odorata L. Radial Growth in the Amazon. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16755. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416755

AMA Style

Da Costa WPLB, Pinheiro ÉFM, Latorraca JVF, Moutinho VHP, Carmo FHDJ, Ataíde GCVS, Volpato M, Aguiar DL, Andrade FWC. The Climate Change Influence on Cedrela odorata L. Radial Growth in the Amazon. Sustainability. 2023; 15(24):16755. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416755

Chicago/Turabian Style

Da Costa, Wayka P. L. B., Érika F. M. Pinheiro, João V. F. Latorraca, Victor H. P. Moutinho, Fábio H. D. J. Carmo, Glaycianne C. V. S. Ataíde, Maristela Volpato, Diego L. Aguiar, and Fernando W. C. Andrade. 2023. "The Climate Change Influence on Cedrela odorata L. Radial Growth in the Amazon" Sustainability 15, no. 24: 16755. https://doi.org/10.3390/su152416755

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