Forest Fires, Stakeholders’ Activities, and Economic Impact on State-Level Sustainable Forest Management

Abstract

In Europe, forest fires are a serious and constant threat. They destroy forests and forest land, causing damage, financial loss, and long-lasting impacts on forest ecosystem services. There are several ways to decrease the number of forest fires, including continuous investment in fire prevention measures and the intensive implementation of adaptive sustainable forest management measures, which need additional financial resources. In many cases, forest management activities in karst forests are not implemented in a timely manner and in coordination with other stakeholders. A comprehensive study about the impact of forest fires on different economic activities (tourism and protected areas) is not currently available. In this study, the legislative framework in Croatia was analysed in relation to the fire protection activities and jurisdictions of different institutions. From data collected in the period 2013–2020, the first-age class afforestation costs and growing stock assortment value were calculated, and the non-wood forest functions were estimated. The aforementioned data were further compared to the Fire Weather Index (FWI) and Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR) of fire seasons. The total estimated damage is EUR 326,810,724.72. The research emphasises the need for the implementation of cross-sectoral forest policy measures. The state forest company should allocate more financial resources for biological forest restoration in the future. Forest management practices should implement climate-adaptable silviculture measures to preserve forest and forest land.

1. Introduction

Current forest-fire management policies are mainly focused on fire suppression and less adapted to climate change. Forest management should incorporate species selection considering flammability, fire resistance, and resilience, and the adoption of silvicultural practices that decrease the fire hazard [1].

Recognising the complexity of the negative impacts of climate change on different sectors, including forestry, the European Union (EU) has emphasised the importance of and the need to develop adaptive sustainable forest management regimes, appropriate institutional frameworks, and supportive measures to combat climate change [2]. The European Green Deal [3] aims to bring into effect a set of policy initiatives proposed by the European Commission to adapt to climate change due to the estimation that 60% of global ecosystem services have deteriorated, contributing to a significant rise in the number of floods and major wildfires on all continents [4]. The Green Deal is an integral part of the Commission’s strategy to implement the United Nations 2030 Agenda and Sustainable Development Goals. The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) encompass a broad range of issues [5], among which managing climate change was set as a priority (Goal 13—Climate action: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts, and Goal 15—Life on land with sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, and sustainably manage forests). The new EU forest strategy for 2030 presents a vision and proposes actions to improve the quantity and quality of EU forests and strengthen their protection, restoration, and resilience. Its aim is to adapt Europe’s forests to the new conditions, weather extremes, and high uncertainty brought about by climate change [6]. The aim of the EU biodiversity strategy for 2030 is to put Europe’s biodiversity on the path to recovery by 2030 for the benefit of the people, the climate, and the planet [7]. Therefore, a variety of policies and measures for climate change mitigation were developed at international, EU, and national levels (for example, the EU Joint Research Centre communication for 2021; The Paris Protocol, and COP26—a blueprint for tackling global climate change beyond 2020; a Roadmap for moving to a competitive low-carbon economy in 2050; and the 2030 Framework for Climate and Energy Policies, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). In recent decades, natural disturbances, such as wildfires, windstorms, and insect outbreaks, have severely disrupted large areas of the world’s forests at an unprecedented rate [8]. In addition to anthropogenic climate change, southern Europe has experienced strong land cover and land use changes in recent decades, including the progressive abandonment of agricultural land and activities [9]. In Europe, wildfires are one of the most important disturbance agents. The average annual area covered by forest fires was 213,000 ha between 1950 and 2000 [10].

Forest fires are one of the dominant disturbances in the forests of Croatia. Numerous natural disasters (fires, floods, ice storms, and windstorms) during the period 2014–2020 caused significant damage in the forestry sector, requiring substantial investment to preserve and repair these threatened ecosystems [11,12]. Croatia, as a Mediterranean country, is increasingly feeling the effects of climate change. Longer and more intense dry periods create ideal conditions for the development of forest fires, posing an increasing challenge in the organisation and cost of firefighting measures. Fire frequency and burn severity have had a negative impact on the recruitment of pine seedlings in the pine ecosystem forests in the Iberian Peninsula [13]. In Spain (Cordoba), suppression costs increased by between 65.67% and 86.73% in the last decade [14]. The fire environment can be represented as a triangle where the sides represent fuel, topography, and weather [15]. There is a need to analyse flammability and the spread of fire within ecosystems, especially in coastal areas [16]. The European Commission Emergency Response Coordination Centre (ERCC) monitors forest-fire risks and emergencies across Europe [17]. It is supported by national and European monitoring services, such as the European Forest-Fire Information System (EFFIS) [18]. The EFFIS has estimated that on average, about 65,000 fires occur in Europe every year, burning approximately half a million hectares of wildland and forest areas. Most of the burnt area (over 85%) is in the European Mediterranean region. In 2020, fires of over 30 ha affected 20 EU Member States, burning 339,489 ha in total, which is a slight increase from the year before [19]. Therefore, in 2019, the European Commission adopted [20] a goal to strengthen European civil protection, by enhancing prevention and preparedness actions to alleviate the effect of wildfires in the extended European region. Moreover, Europe is developing a pan-European approach to wildfire risk assessment with different variables regarding danger and vulnerability [21]. In 2021, the European Commission adopted a new EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change [22]; due to climate change, droughts cause cascading effects and increase the volume of dry fuel available for forest fires. Forest fires create additional silviculture work and damage to forests, which affects the long-term management and business plans of companies managing these forests, making integral forest management even more challenging. In the Republic of Croatia, more than 250,000 ha of forest has been burnt over the past decade (2010–2020) [23]. Annual burnt areas have increased over the past 60 years, particularly during extremely dry years such as 2017 [24,25]. According to the Seventh National Report of Croatia and the Third Two-Year Report of the Republic of Croatia According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [26], it is necessary to consider the long-term resilience and natural capacity for ecosystem adaptation caused by the unprecedented combination of climatic variables, extreme weather, and natural occurrences (fires and breakages by ice, snow, and wind). The Mediterranean region is a major climate change hotspot [27], due to warming of approximately 1.3 °C, which is above the global average [28]. Croatia, as a Central European and Mediterranean country, is increasingly experiencing the consequences of climate change. Longer and more intense dry periods (Figure 1) create ideal conditions for the ignition and spread of forest fires, which results in increasing challenges in the organisation and costs of firefighting measures.

The Republic of Croatia has been participating in the EU Civil Protection Mechanism since 2009, emphasising the cooperation of Mediterranean countries in the field of firefighting, where the state administration body is responsible for firefighting activities and coordinating assistance to other countries in case of open fires on their territory when they seek international assistance through the EU Monitoring and Information Centre in Brussels. For the purposes of the MEDforex project, the total monetary value of Croatia’s forests was calculated, and the results showed that approximately 15% of these forests are Mediterranean forests that are most vulnerable to fire [30]. The importance of the socio-economic impact of forest ecosystems in Croatia was further outlined by Krznar [31], Vuletić et al. [32], and Posavec [33]. Forest ecosystem degradation after fire significantly impacts the loss of a range of products and services previously provided by those ecosystems. Degraded habitats demand increased management costs and long-term investments in the revitalisation and protection of forests after a fire. Unfortunately, future climate change [34] will also increase the fire risk, particularly in Mediterranean forests. Decision makers and policy makers in forestry should closely follow international initiatives and ensure implementation in a range of sectors on the ground.

The aim of this study was to use content analysis to review existing legislative frameworks related to the financing of forest-fire protection activities and the jurisdictions of decision makers in Croatia. Based on the data regarding the number of forest fires and total burnt areas in the period 2013–2020, damage to the first-age class, growing stock, and non-wood forest functions for the state forest company were calculated.

The purpose of this research was therefore as follows: (a) to identify policy regulating areas regarding forest-fire protection stakeholders, with a review of the Forest Law and other related laws which define fire protection measures and activities; (b) to explore the characteristics and obligations of different stakeholders which are prescribed in the implementation of special fire protection measures; (c) to calculate the damages and economic impact of forest fires on state forest company management; and (d) to compare extreme weather conditions and the potential meteorological risk of forest fires using the Fire Weather Index (FWI) and Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR) of fire seasons in the period 2013–2020.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Area

The research area encompasses all state forests in the Republic of Croatia, managed by the state-owned company Croatian Forests Ltd. (Hrvatske šume d.o.o., Zagreb, Croatia). The total forest area covers 2,759,039.05 ha. State-owned forests cover an area of 2,097,318.16 ha (76% of the total forest area), while private forests cover an area of 661,720 ha (24% of the total forest area). The total growing stock of the state forest company amounts to 315.8 million m³ [35]. Croatian Forests Ltd. is responsible for the management of most (97%) of the state-owned forests and forest areas. The remaining 3% falls under the control of other public institutions, such as municipalities, the military, etc. The main tree species are beech (38%), common oak (14%), sessile oak (8%), fir (9%), hornbeam (8%), ash (4%), and spruce (2%) [36]. Forest fires are primarily an issue in the Mediterranean region. These areas are primarily covered by pubescent and holm oak forests which are indigenous vegetation, with significant areas of allochthonous forests and plantations of Aleppo pine. The forests and forestlands of the Croatian Mediterranean region cover an area of 662,000 ha, in which sub-mediterranean forests cover 457,000 ha, while EU-Mediterranean forests cover an area of 120,000 ha. In addition, there are 85,000 bare forestlands [37]. These forests are of low commercial value but are highly valuable for the preserving and provisioning of ecosystem services. Due to previous fires and mismanagement, most of the Mediterranean forests are in degraded forest forms (maquis, garrigues) that are highly vulnerable to fire, which in turn causes further degradation.

2.2. Methodology

In methodological terms, the paper is divided into three parts. The first part analyses the legislative framework, while the second part assesses the damage from forest fires in the state forest company. In the third part, the potential meteorological risk of forest fires is analysed for Croatia in the period 2013–2022, particularly for two extremely different weather years, 2014 and 2017.

2.2.1. Forestry Legislation and Fire Protection Regulation

The reviewed documents consist of forestry legislation and fire protection regulations: the Forest Law [38], the Fire Protection Law [39], the Fire Fighting Law [40], and the Law on Agricultural Land [41]. Content analysis [42] was used to identify legal acts and articles which regulate fire protection. The legislation documents were collected and reviewed to define regulation areas, legislation, and measures which include fire protection.

2.2.2. Assessment of Forest-Fire Damages

In the second part of the article, the number of forest fires, burned area (ha), and calculations of the amount of damage on wood volume, amount of damage in first-age class, damage on non-wood forest functions are presented. Data regarding the number of forest fires and burned areas were taken from the business report of the state forest company (Croatian Forests Ltd., Zagreb, Croatia) for the period 2013–2022 [36]. To calculate growing stock values, it is necessary to consider the average quantity of growing stock in rotation, price on the forest road from the company price list of the main forest products, and the exploitation costs from Croatian Forests Ltd.’s price list of calculated, internal, and external sales prices; labour costs; and costs of machinery and vehicles. It is also necessary to determine the number of years in the rotation. The stumpage value is the result of the function of price of the forest products and the cost of their exploitation. A higher market price for wood products has a favourable effect on increasing the value of forests, and vice versa; a lower market price for products will reduce forest value. The compensation calculation (Equation (1)) from the Ordinance on the determination of compensation for transferred and restricted rights to forests and forest lands [43] is used to calculate the value of the growing stock damage caused by forest fires:

$${{\mathrm{V}}_{\mathrm{m}}=\mathrm{c}\left(1.0+\frac{\mathrm{p}}{100}\right)}^{\mathrm{n}}$$

(1)

where V_m is the stand value, c denotes the cost of raising the stand, p is the percentage of the increment, and n is the stand rotation.

The damage to the growing stock is calculated on the basis of the actual value of the mature stand for felling V_m, which is determined in the manner prescribed by the Ordinance. Therefore, for the calculation of V_m, the total amount of wood is determined, which is defined by the forest management plan, and exceptionally with the incremental-income tables. The percentage of assortments is estimated, their quantity and value are calculated, and the costs of transport are deducted. The costs of the first-age class include the costs of stand establishment (seeding or planting), costs of thinning, costs of management, and protection of stands. The production services of Croatian Forests Ltd. have established the standard technology for raising stands of specific management classes. The raising costs per hectare are determined by multiplying the labour price from the works pricelist for the calculation year, with a multiplication coefficient for that work, and the calculated values are then added (Equation (2)).

Hkm = (B + V + c) × 1.0pm – (B + V) – (Da × 1.0−pm−a +…)

(2)

Hkm = stand value;

B = land value;

V = value of administration costs;

c = afforestation costs;

p = interest rate;

Da = income from thinning.

The raising costs per hectare in Mediterranean forest for the Aleppo pine management class include different silviculture costs like raising and establishing forests (afforestation), forest care (clearing and thinning), and forest rejuvenation. The value of non-wood forest function is calculated based on the methodology developed by Prpić and Meštrović [44] by assessing ten factors using a judgement scale and points system. The obtained score is then multiplied by the monetary value of the economic function of the forest. The non-wood forest functions, according to the Ordinance on the determination of compensation for the transferred and restricted rights to forests and forest lands [43] fall within two categories: social (tourism, recreation, health, and aesthetic) or protection and ecological (hydrological, anti-erosion, climate protection, and assimilation). In accordance with the overall score of non-wood forest function in each category, the stand is awarded a point. The value of a point is determined by the Croatian Forests executive board, and the value is currently set at 1 point = 0.13 EUR. The official classification of non-wood forest functions, with the price range for their validation, is provided in the Ordinance [43]. The compensation for reductions of the non-wood forest functions is calculated based on a review of the investor’s project documentation, as the difference between the value of the non-wood forest functions before and after works were performed in the forests. The value of the non-wood forest function of newly raised forests or plantations, from Article 5 of this Ordinance, is equal to the cost of raising a new forest or plantation to an age of five years, as calculated using the company standards. The non-wood forest functions, protective forests, and special value forests are evaluated using this range of scores [43]:

• Protection of soil, roads, and other structures from erosion, torrents, and flooding (1–5);
• Influence on the water regime and hydropower system (1–4);
• Influence on soil fertility and agricultural production (1–4);
• Influence on climate (1–4);
• Protection and improvement of the human environment (0–3);
• Oxygen generation and atmospheric filtration (1–3);
• Recreation, tourism, and health functions (1–4);
• Influence on fauna and hunting (0–4);
• Protective forests and special purpose forests (8–10).

2.2.3. Fire Weather Index and Assessment of Seasonal Weather Conditions

Since 1982, the Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service (DHMZ) has been performing risk assessments of the ignition and spread of forest fires for the Adriatic area, and for the whole of the Croatian area during the last ten fire seasons. The fire weather risk is based on determination of the Fire Weather Index (FWI) for the 41 meteorological stations using the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System (CFFWIS) [45]. The daily results of the risk assessment are delivered to the operational fire centre. The FWI considers the dry and wet effects of past and current weather conditions (air temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed at 12 UTC, as well as the daily amount of precipitation from the previous day at 12 UTC to the current day at 12 UTC) for three types of forest fuel indices: Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC), Duff Moisture Code (DMC), and Drought Code (DC). The Initial Spread Index (ISI) and the suitability index of the burning material, called the Buildup Index (BUI), are calculated from the previous indices. ISI provides a fire spread rating after ignition of a standard type fuel of Canadian pine. If the ISI is greater than 18, then there are favourable meteorological conditions for the development of the worst form of fire, which is called a crown fire. Finally, the numerical value of the FWI is determined from the ISI and BUI. The FWI associated with the BUI is generally the best way to describe fire weather risk classes (

Table 1. Fire weather risk classes according to the Fire Weather Index (FWI) associated with the Buildup Index (BUI) and Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR) separately [46].

Fire Risk	FWI	BUI	SSR
Very low	≤4	≤48	–
Low	5–8	49–85	<1
Moderate	9–16	86–118	1–3
High	17–32	119–158	3–7
Very high	≥33	≥159	>7

).

The most appropriate indicator of seasonal potential fire risk is the Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR). The assessment of severity is obtained by applying the Canadian model of the FWI according to the following relation:

DSR = 0.0272 (FWI)^1.77

(3)

The DSR is the Daily Severity Rating from which the mean Monthly Severity Rating (MSR) or mean Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR) is calculated. As the assessment of severity contains meteorological conditions and the moisture condition of dead forest fuel material, MSR and SSR are used for the climatological-fire presentation of the average condition in an area by month or the fire season from June to September. For the assessment of the monthly, seasonal, or annual weather conditions at the meteorological stations for the current year, the anomalies of the mean daily air temperature (°C) and the amount of precipitation (%) in relation to the mean value of the reference climate period 1961–1990 are analysed in the DHMZ. According to the values of the 2nd, 9th, 25th, 75th, 91st, and 98th percentiles obtained from the theoretical distributions, which approximate the basic characteristics of the data for the reference period, the limits for the climate assessment are determined. The normal distribution is applied for the assessment of temperature conditions, and the square root normal distribution is used for the assessment of the precipitation amount [47].

3. Results

This section presents an analysis of the latest Forestry Law with bylaws and related fire protection regulations, grouped according to the main regulation areas: sustainable development, environmental protection, nature protection, biodiversity conservation, protected areas, fire protection, waste management, forestry, agriculture, and other related laws. The economic impact of forest fires on state forest management is presented through the calculation of first-age class afforestation costs, growing stock assortment value, and estimation of non-wood forest functions. Using the mean Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR), the extreme weather conditions and potential meteorological risk of forest fires in the selected period are analysed.

3.1. Legislative and Policy Framework

In Croatia, fire protection at the state level is regulated by the National Fire Protection Strategy for the period from 2013 to 2022 [48], the National Fire Protection Action Plan [49], the report on the state of fire protection in the Republic of Croatia [50], and the program of activities in the implementation of special fire protection measures of interest to the Republic of Croatia [51]. The Government enacts the Fire Protection Law [39], the Ordinance on the Fire Protection Plan [52], the Ordinance on Forest Fire Protection [53], and other ordinances and regulations in the field of fire protection.

The Law on Forests [38] is the most important legal document regulating various aspects of forest management. The protection of forests from natural disasters is legally regulated in Articles 41 to 45 of the Law on Forests, which stipulate that persons who manage forests are obliged to use a set of measures to protect forests from fire, other natural disasters, harmful organisms, and harmful anthropogenic impacts. The same act prescribes the obligation of constituting and managing a unique information system and registry on forest fires (Article 43), in order to improve the control of forest fires their causes, effects, and prevention. On burned areas of forests and forest land, the purpose cannot be changed for 10 years after the fire (Article 46). According to Article 19, forest owners are responsible for restoring burned areas in a period of two years, if this is not defined in the forest management plan. According to Article 20, counties, cities, and municipalities should plan and provide prescribed preventive silviculture works with the aim of decreasing fire danger and the fast spread of forest fires, and enabling early detection, forest-fire alarms, rapid warnings, and fire suppression.

In the Republic of Croatia, the Ordinance on Forest-Fire Protection [53] prescribes technical, preventive silviculture and other fire protection measures to be implemented by owners and users of forests and forest land, holders of other rights in forests and forest lands, legal entities that manage forests and forest lands on the basis of special regulations (counties, cities, and municipalities) in territories which are forests and forest lands owned by forest owners, in order to reduce the risk of forest fires and enable early detection and reports of forest fires, and timely action in extinguishing forest fires.

Table 2. Main and other sector-related laws that define fire protection measures and activities.

Regulation Area	Legislation	Measures and Activities
Sustainable development	Sustainable development strategy for Republic of Croatia [54]	−
Environmental protection	National strategy for environmental protection [55]	+
	Climate change adaptation strategy [56]	+
	Law on Environmental Protection [57]	−
	Law on Mitigation and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters [58]	+
Nature protection	National strategy and action plan for nature protection 2017–2025 [59]	+
	Law on Nature Protection [60]	−
Biodiversity conservation	Biodiversity and landscape conservation strategy and action plan [61]	+
	Convention on Biological Diversity [62]	−
Protected areas	Rulebook on Protected Areas [63]	−
	National strategy for fire protection 2013–2022 [64]	+
Fire protection	Program of activities in the implementation of special fire protection measures of interest to the Republic of Croatia [51] National Fire Protection Action Plan [49] Law on Fire Protection [39] Law on Fire Fighters [40] Rulebook on fire protection plan [64] Law on Civil Protection System [65]	+
Waste management	Law on Sustainable Waste Management [66]	−
Forestry	National forest policy and strategy 2003 [67] Forest Law [38] Ordinance on Forest-Fire Protection [53]	+
Agriculture	Law on Agriculture Land [68]	+
Related laws	Law on Flammable Liquids and Gases [69] Law on Roads [70] Law on Explosive Materials and Production and Trade of Weapons [71] Law on Dangerous Materials Transport [72] Law on Sustainable Waste Management [66] Law on Air Protection [73] Law on Safety and Interoperability of Railroad System [74]	+

Measures prescribed in the legislation are marked with a plus sign. Legislation without defined measures and activities are marked with negative sign.

presents the main laws that regulate fire protection management and define financial measures for fire suppression. Measures prescribed in the legislation are marked with a plus sign. Legislation without defined measures and activities is marked with a negative sign.

The Law on Fire Protection [39] prescribes measures and activities addressing the causes of fire, elimination and fire extinguishing, and coping with fire disasters and fire protection financing. The Ministry, as an entity responsible for nature protection, participates in the creation of sustainable development documents and nature protection at the state level. Responsible policy departments at a regional level participate in the provision of nature protection regulations with fire protection sections. The government ensures financial means in the state budget. Also, natural and legal persons, local government units, and regional autonomy ensure financing in their budgets (Article 59). Many forest fires have started on agricultural land. The Law on Agriculture Land [68], in Article 87, defines how to provide fire protection measures and order the implementation of particular measures if agricultural land users or owners are not following directions for fire protection. Landowners have to care about the agricultural land according to the Ordinance on the methodology for monitoring the condition of agricultural land [75]. The Law on Fire Fighters [40] regulates firefighters’ organisation in the Republic of Croatia at the national, regional, and local levels, as well as their constitution, obligations, method of management, and financing. Article 13 defines that means collected from the green tax fund defined in the Forest Law should be allocated for the needs of the firefighters in a minimum amount of 20%. Units of local and regional administration regulate the fire protection in their area in accordance with the provisions of the Fire Protection Act and other regulations governing the area of fire protection and according to their own plans, needs, and judgments. Financing of planning and operational costs related to forest -fire protection is realised within the approved funds in the State Budget of the Republic of Croatia, with the largest share for the Ministry of Defence, which includes firefighting aircrafts, six Canadairs CL-415 (Canadair Bombardier Aerospace De Havilland Canada, Calgary, Alberta), seven observation aircrafts, and two transport helicopters. The fee for non-wood forest functions (green tax) is paid in the amount of 0.024% of a total income of more than EUR 1 million for defined taxpayers [38]. Funds collected from the fee are spent on demining areas where there are still mined or suspected mined forest areas and for the restoration and fire protection of forests on islands, coasts, and mountainous areas. In the continental part of Croatia, these funds are mostly spent on the remediation and restoration of decaying forests, forest protection, development of forest management plans, afforestation and restoration of forest stands, reconstruction and conversion of forests, forest protection, and construction of forest infrastructure. All these investments are controlled and approved by experts from the Ministry of Agriculture. Since 2014, the funds of the green tax fee have been paid into a special account of the State Budget, and the Ministry of Agriculture has controlled and distributed them to various users in accordance with the Law on Forests. Annually, about EUR 22 million is collected, which is distributed according to the regulations to the firefighters, demining initiatives, private forest owners, and the state forest company.

The laws listed in Table 2 define the measures, activities, and resources required for fire protection. Competencies and partners in the implementation of measures in practice are specifically listed for law enforcement. The obligations of individual stakeholders are prescribed in detail in the Program of activities in the implementation of special fire protection measures of interest to the Republic of Croatia, which is adopted before the fire season. Of course, most of the responsibilities are assumed by the Croatian Fire Brigade, which is responsible for the execution, coordination, monitoring, harmonisation, and direction of all activities related to the implementation of this Program. Planned, preventive, operational, and supervisory activities are carried out through a program of activities for executors and participants in the preparation of the fire season in order to reduce the risk of fire occurrence and spread. In addition to forest owners and public institutions of national parks, nature parks, and institutions for the management of other protected areas, as the most important stakeholders in the implementation of fire protection, other companies and institutions are also involved in the activities. Because of the risk during the tourist season, tourist companies, the Croatian National Tourist Board, and the Croatian Hotel Employers’ Association are implementing plans for the evacuation and care of tourists in case of forest-fire threats. The Ministry of the Sea, Transport, and Infrastructure in the Air Transport Department and the Croatian Air Navigation Services is obliged to draw up plans for firefighting activities (number of aircraft, equipment, and use of drones). The same Ministry in the Department of Maritime Transport will determine the conditions and manner of use of vessels, equipment, and techniques and the transportation plan. Croatian Railways companies, private carriers, and the Ministry of the Sea, Transport, and Infrastructure in the field of railway transport are obliged to plan and implement fire protection measures, with special attention during the fire season. Road management companies, as well as companies involved in the production, transmission, and distribution of electricity, and the relevant ministry should develop a plan for clearing flammable substances from roads and distribution zones. Most of the work consists of clearing side vegetation and illegal waste disposals from roads and clearing shrubs and vegetation below electricity transmission lines to reduce the potential fire risk. The Ministry of the Interior—Police Directorate and the Directorate of Civil Protection, during the tourist season, conducts intensified supervision of critical places that are a potential danger to the occurrence and spread of fire (landfills, whether legal or illegal, high-risk forests, neglected agricultural land, and other risky open areas for the occurrence and spread of fire). The Ministry of the Interior—Directorate of Civil Protection—Croatian Mine Action Centre is obliged to include in the Mine Action Plan priority areas for demining for the purpose of easier access, i.e., firefighting, in agreement with mine-affected counties. The Ministry of Health covers the costs of on-call staff and additional activities. Regarding the other responsible stakeholders and participants and their activities, the main responsible authority is the company Croatian Forests Ltd. Based on the Forest Management Plan 2016–2025 [35], the company will continuously work on the construction and maintenance of observation points, forest roads, fire protection corridors, and video surveillance for fire detection. Together with other stakeholders (county prefects, major, municipal heads, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Defence, firefighters’ associations, county commander, regional civil protection offices, Ministry of Interior, Croatian Firefighters Association), the company is committed to providing up-to-date data about forest-fire vulnerability, forest roads, observation points, and protection corridors in digital form, and data about forest values. It must provide a list of the teams with equipment and an engagement plan delivered to the territorial responsible firefighters’ association (county) and local civil protection office.

Responsible authorities in protected areas are public institutions of national parks, public institutions of nature parks, public institutions for management with protected areas, and the Ministry of the Interior and State Inspectorate. They have to carry out preventive measures for fire protection defined with threat assessment and a fire protection plan, and after the fire season provide joint analyses with the aim of improving fire protection measures. The responsible inspection service is responsible for the planning, organisation, and timely monitoring of the implementation of fire protection measures in national and nature park institutions.

One of the important authorities is the Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service (DHMZ). Together with the Croatian Firefighters Association, Ministry of Interior—Directorate for Civil Protection—Operations Centre, and Ministry of Defence, they have to identify on a daily basis the real fire index threat for the creation and spread of fire in open space for 40 stations in coastal and regional country areas. At the end of the year, the DHMZ will make an annual report with the space distribution of monthly (MSR) and seasonal (SSR) intensity at the national level.

3.2. Economic Impact of Forest Fires on State Forest Management

Due to climate change, the company Croatian Forests Ltd. has been investing more funds each year into the restoration of forest stands, as a consequence of various natural disasters (fires, floods, icebreaks, windbreaks, wind throw, and snow damage). The company, with the aim of fire prevention, has invested significant funds in fire protection, as presented in Table 2 [36]. Many works were carried out in the analysed period (i.e., designing forest-fire roads, establishing observation and information services, production and maintenance of observational areas, production and maintenance of forest-fire roads, setup of warning signs, firefighting work, fire conservation, and promotional activities). In 2017, the company spent EUR 9.2 million. During the year 2017, 3168 fires were recorded, which burned 48,543 ha of forests and other land, owned together by the state and private forest owners, and agricultural land. In terms of the number of forest fires, this was a year with an above-average number of fires (328 fires compared to the average of 273 per year in the past 26 years). The burned area of 48,543 ha far exceeded the annual average of 14,300 ha. The most catastrophic wildfire in Croatia occurred in 2017, producing downslope fire runs into the most populated area along the Adriatic coast in Croatia near the city of Split [25]. Overall, fires mostly affected karst areas (99%) and state forests, which were burned to 85% of the area, compared to 7% of burned private forests and 8% of agricultural land. Based on the damage cost calculations by the Croatian state forest company for the period 2013–2022 (EUR), presented in

Table 3. Calculated damage by the Croatian state forest company for the period 2013–2022 (EUR).

Year	First-Age Class (EUR)	Growing Stock Damage (EUR)	Non-Wood Forest Functions (EUR)	Number of Fires	Burned Area (ha)	Fire Protection (Mil. EUR)
2013	n.a.	1,832,227.24	6,912,529.86	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.
2014	n.a.	131,271.57	526,811.78	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.
2015	374,037.70	1,535,041.15	8,597,690.47	164	6594	8.9
2016	752,588.27	888,903.64	3,801,831.69	134	6707	3.8
2017	4,598,221.40	10,518,980.62	94,189,673.50	316	41,171	9.2
2018	518,582.43	141,226.44	2,056,809.13	49	1095	13.3
2019	1,936,421.56	757,499.34	4,056,145.47	118	1639	9.6
2020	544,730.55	5,174,807.54	176,964,693.39	141	20,874	8.0
2021	2,419,138.63	1,318,733.82	75,255,425.04	111	4328	8.3
2022	1,595,859.04	4,059,725.26	167,963.24	238	17,760	10.3
Total	8,724,581.90	20,979,957.53	297,106,185.29	1271	100,168	71.4

, carried out in the analysed period, the highest amounts were in the first-age class and growing stock in 2017, while the highest calculated amount of damage from the non-wood forest functions of forests was in 2020. These data correlate with the extreme weather conditions in those years, and the highest Fire Weather Index (FWI).

In the period 2013 to 2022, there were a total of 1271 fires on forest land owned by the Republic of Croatia. A total of 100,168 ha was burned. The average burned area per fire was 78.8 ha/fire. The state company has spent more than EUR 71 million on fire prevention. Most of the fires occurred in the karst area. After analysing the number of fires and burned areas per year and correlating these data with climatic conditions, the results confirm that the dry and hot years were 2017 and 2020.

3.3. Extreme Weather Conditions and Potential Meteorological Risk of Forest Fires

Various definitions classify forest fires as a natural disaster, but their occurrence is associated with another natural disaster, i.e., drought. Thus, one natural disaster causes another, but the circle is not closed. Namely, a forest fire causes great changes to the vegetation, which is destroyed by fire, but drastic changes in the plant cover are also caused by erosion. The effect of fire also leads to chemical–physical changes in the content of the soil. All these sudden changes in a burned area cause changes in the plants during and after the fire. This shows the interaction of the processes taking place in the atmosphere and the soil. The Croatian mid-Adriatic region known as Dalmatia is the area most threatened by forest fires according to the period 1991–2020 [76]. The reason for this is the specific and easily flammable Mediterranean vegetation and long-term dry and hot periods [77]. The potential risk of forest fires is certainly increased by human factors due to the increased number of tourists in the summer. The mean SSR values of a 30-year period in the mid-Adriatic are mostly in the range of 8 to 12. The desiccation of dead fuel material and vegetation increases during long hot and dry periods, thereby increasing the potential risk of forest fires. Heat stress for plants is considered a period of at least ten consecutive days with a maximum daily air temperature (tmax) greater than or equal to 30 °C [78]. For precipitation (P) to have some effect on dead fuel material, each fuel type has a different critical precipitation threshold. Therefore, dry periods for FFMC (P ≤ 0.5 mm), DMC (P < 1.5 mm), and DC (P < 2.8 mm) were considered separately. Previous research has shown that dry periods lasting longer than a month cause an extremely high potential risk of the ignition and spread of forest fires [79]. The longest hot and very hot periods were analysed for two temperature thresholds (tmax ≥ 30 °C and tmax ≥ 32 °C) as well as the longest dry periods with regard to the type of fuel material in the period 2013–2020 (

Table 4. Maximal numbers of consecutive days with maximum daily air temperatures t_max ≥ 30 °C and t_max ≥ 32 °C as well as with daily amounts of precipitation P ≤ 0.5 mm, P < 1.5 mm, and P < 2.8 mm according to the 41 meteorological stations in Croatia in the period 2013–2020.

Years	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	2020
Maximal Number of Consecutive Days
tmax ≥ 30 °C	45	18	47	24	39	41	32	25
tmax ≥ 32 °C	10	0	35	17	15	20	15	10
P ≤ 0.5 mm	57	34	51	34	73	37	49	37
P < 1.5 mm	81	54	56	41	78	39	51	39
P < 2.8 mm	102	55	84	42	100	50	78	50

). In the summer of 2015 in the mid-Adriatic, the longest hot period of 47 days (from 1 July to 16 August at the Hvar station) and the longest very hot period of 35 days (from 12 July to 15 August at the Split-Marjan and Ploče stations) were recorded. In the considered 8-year period, 2017 had the longest dry period with regard to FFMC, i.e., 73 consecutive days (from 17 June to 2 September), and the daily amount of precipitation at the Lastovo station was less than or equal to 0.5 mm. During the summers of 2014 and 2017, the maximal numbers of dry consecutive days with respect to DMC were approximately the same (81 and 78 days, respectively) as for DC (102 and 100 days, respectively).

The spatial distributions of the mean SSR were analysed in order to determine extreme years in the considered period 2013–2022. The highest SSR values were estimated in the fire season of 2017, which reached up to 24–28 in Dalmatia (Figure 2). In contrast, the fire season of 2014 was rated with the lowest SSR values and these were mostly between 0 and 4 throughout Croatia. Therefore, those two extreme fire seasons will be analysed in more detail.

The summer of 2017 (June–August) was categorised as extremely warm throughout Croatia according to the temperature conditions of the percentile distribution (Figure 3). Above-average values of air temperature in all three summer months contributed to this [80]. Anomalies in the mean summer air temperature ranged from 2.5 °C to 4 °C. Precipitation amounts in the summer of 2017 were below average throughout the country, with a range from 2% in Dubrovnik to 74% in Zagreb, considering the multi-year summer average. This was partly due to the amount of precipitation being less than or approximately equal to the multi-year average in all three summer months. Therefore, an extremely warm summer and at the same time very and extremely dry conditions in the greater part of Croatia created favourable meteorological conditions for the occurrence and spread of forest fires in the summer months. In contrast, the summer of 2014 in most of Croatia was categorised as warm and very warm according to the temperature conditions of the percentile distribution. Above-average air temperature values in June contributed the most to this, as air temperature values were mostly at the level of the multi-year average in July and August [81]. Anomalies in the mean summer air temperature reached 1.1 °C. Precipitation amounts in the summer of 2014 were above average throughout the country, except in eastern Croatia, where they were within normal limits, with a range from 100% in Osijek to 302% in Zadar, with regard to the multi-year summer average. A very rainy July in almost the entire country and very wet June in Dalmatia contributed the most to this. Thus, the described weather conditions in the summer of 2014 were not favourable for the occurrence of large forest fires, especially not in the Adriatic coast and islands.

In July 2017, in the area of Dalmatia, the greater part of the peninsula of Istria in the northern Adriatic, and part of the interior in the northwest and east of the country, very high values of monthly intensity were assessed (Figure 4). The greatest risk from fire appeared in the Dalmatian hinterland, where MSR values were higher than 35 (Knin 37.0 and Zadar airport 35.6) and at Split airport and Ploče stations, which were twice their average. In the Šibenik, Dubrovnik, and Lastovo areas, the MSR was greater than 20, and in the rest of the Croatia Lastovo areas, the MSR values were mostly up to 12, except at Pula airport (13.3). In northwestern Croatia, MSR values were also 2.5–3.5 times higher than the multi-year average in the period 1981–2010. The very high potential risk of forest fires in almost the entire country, except for a small part in the interior, continued in August 2017. Compared to the multi-year average, extremely warm weather prevailed with simultaneous drought throughout the country. It is to be expected that the MSR values will be above average, which can be clearly seen in Figure 4. In the continental area of Croatia, the potential risk of forest fire was up to three times higher than the average.

Thus, the weather conditions were extremely favourable in July and August 2017 for the ignition and rapid spread of fires, which did occur in the Split, Šibenik, and Zadar areas when catastrophic forest fires raged. The largest wildfire was the Split fire, which firefighters refer to as “the mother of all fires in Croatia”. The detailed surface meteorological situation, as well as the vertical structure of the atmosphere during the Split fire in July 2017, were analysed in the paper of Čavlina Tomašević et al. [25].

After the collection of data regarding the total damages in Croatian state forest company for the period 2013–2022 (EUR), we made a correlation with the maximal number of consecutive days with maximum daily air temperature tmax more than 30 °C and tmax more than 32 °C, as well as with the daily amount of precipitation (P ≤ 0.5 mm, P < 1.5 mm, and P < 2.8 mm) according to the 41 meteorological stations in Croatia in the same period, as presented in

Table 5. Correlation of selected variables in the period 2013–2022 (EUR). The values marked with red colour are showing correlations significant at p < 5%.

Variable	Correlations (Fires) Marked Correlations Are Significant at p < 0.05000 N = 8 (Casewise Deletion of Missing Data)
	Means	Std.Dev.	I Age Class (EUR)	Growing Stock Damage (EUR)	Non-Wood Forest Functions (EUR)	Total Damage (EUR)	Number of Fires	Area (ha)	Burnt Area Indicator (ha/fire)	Share of Fires (%)	Sources Fire Protection (Mil. €)	tmax > 30 °C	tmax > 32 °C	P < 0.5 mm	P < 1.5 mm	P < 2.8 mm
I age class (EUR)	1,592,447	1,428,146	1.000	0.712	0.225	0.275	0.689	0.669	0.320	−0.0423	0.043	0.154	−0.360	−0.003	0.380	0.387
Growing stock damage (EUR)	3,049,290	3,484,688	0.712	1.000	0.578	0.624	0.871	0.994	0.852	−0.014	−0.009	−0.013	−0.295	−0.439	−0.091	−0.149
Non-wood forest functions (EUR)	45,636,279	64,696,326	0.225	0.578	1.000	0.998	0.203	0.553	0.819	0.228	−0.159	−0.309	−0.563	−0.177	0.020	−0.025
Total damage	50,278,016	67,151,445	0.275	0.624	0.998	1.000	0.255	0.599	0.840	0.218	−0.153	−0.295	−0.565	−0.194	0.023	−0.024
No. of fres	159	83	0.689	0.871	0.203	0.255	1.000	0.882	0.620	−0.167	−0.119	0.084	−0.010	−0.297	0.007	−0.075
Area (ha)	12,521	13,644	0.669	0.994	0.553	0.599	0.882	1.000	0.867	−0.035	−0.058	−0.055	−0.279	−0.420	−0.099	−0.157
Burnt area indicator (ha/fire)	65	50	0.320	0.852	0.819	0.840	0.620	0.867	1.000	−0.010	−0.187	−0.326	−0.417	−0.370	−0.168	−0.230
Share of fires (%)	79	11	−0.042	−0.014	0.229	0.218	−0.167	−0.035	−0.010	1.000	0.069	0.610	0.414	−0.115	0.114	−0.052
Sources fire protection (Mil. €)	9	3	0.043	−0.009	−0.159	−0.153	−0.119	−0.058	−0.187	0.069	1.000	0.597	0.157	−0.570	−0.389	−0.502
tmax > 30 °C	35	8	0.154	−0.013	−0.309	−0.295	0.084	−0.055	−0.326	0.610	0.597	1.000	0.703	−0.382	−0.078	−0.283
tmax > 32 °C	18	7	−0.360	−0.295	−0.563	−0.565	−0.010	−0.279	−0.417	0.414	0.157	0.703	1.000	−0.296	−0.299	−0.441
P < 0.5 mm	49	18	−0.003	−0.439	−0.177	−0.194	−0.297	−0.420	−0.370	−0.115	−0.570	−0.382	−0.296	1.000	0.863	0.910
P < 1.5 mm	62	28	0.380	−0.091	0.020	0.023	0.007	−0.099	−0.168	0.114	−0.389	−0.078	−0.299	0.863	1.000	0.935
P < 2.8 mm	73	28	0.387	−0.149	−0.025	−0.024	−0.075	−0.157	−0.230	−0.052	−0.502	−0.283	−0.441	0.910	0.93	1.000

.

Regarding the analysed data, there is a negative correlation between the amount spent on fire protection and total damage amount (R = −0.153). The correlation between a temperature higher than 32 degrees Celsius and total damage is also negative (R = −0.565). The burnt area indicator was created to confirm the highest positive correlation with burned area in the selected period.

4. Discussion

Forest fires have a significant influence on sustainable forest management. After analysing forest-fire protection policy measures and laws, in addition to the state forest company, there are many other stakeholders which participate in forest-fire prevention. Unfortunately, their total costs could not be calculated because of the different (unpublished) database sources (ministries, municipalities, and state companies) used in firefighting operations. There are several important factors for reducing the number of fires and burned (fire-affected) areas, such as the continuation of investment in preventive measures (e.g., maintenance of forest roads), and intensive implementation of silvicultural work. The majority of forests in the Mediterranean karst area in Croatia do not have an important wood production role, so the above-mentioned work often cannot be carried out. These problems do not only concern Croatia, but also other Mediterranean countries like Spain and Greece. According to Pausas and Millian [28], larger numbers of fires and larger affected areas are correlated with land-use changes (rural depopulation increases, land abandonment, and consequently, fuel accumulation) and climate change (extreme droughts and extreme heat). Fire-smart management is essential for forest sustainability in the Mediterranean [82].

In 2017 (the most intensive fire season in the past five years), the accumulated annual burnt area of Portugal, Spain, and Italy alone exceeded 0.8 million ha [83]. Fires caused the loss of 127 lives and estimated costs of EUR 10 billion [84]. The Mediterranean region experienced a heatwave from July to August 2021, with record-breaking temperatures in Italy and Spain in some areas. The widespread dry conditions were conducive to numerous wildfires, in particular in Italy, Greece, and Turkey, while fires of about 7500 ha and 65,000 ha occurred in Portugal and France. The total burnt area in the Mediterranean region in July and August exceeded 800,000 ha. The summer of 2021 was the warmest on record for Europe, with slightly higher temperatures than the previous warmest summers of 2010 and 2018 [85]. The year 2022 was the second worst year in terms of areas burnt since records began in 2006. The cost of damage inflicted by wildfires in 2022 is estimated to be “at least EUR 2 billion” [86]. According to the data from the European Forest-Fire Information System (EFFIS), the area burned in Greece so far in 2023 has surpassed that of the destructive 2021 fire season.

In Croatia, neglected agricultural areas (formerly vineyards and olive groves) and private forests, often allow the rapid and uncontrolled spread of fires. Mediterranean forests should be managed according to the rules of the forestry profession. State forest company implemented projects with the support of EU rural development funds for the conversion of degraded forest stands and forest crops to mixed forests with autochthonous species. However, there is a lot of unused potential (such as non-wood forest functions) in these forests. In this sense, it is necessary to plan the long-term and strategic development of karst forestry, which has not been the case so far. Active and sustainable forest management in the Mediterranean requires the development of competitive new added-value chains on wood, non-wood products, and services. The new EU bio-economy strategy could create opportunities for new markets and innovations [7]. There is a need for strategic, long-term forest development planning, and the valorisation of all forest products and services to obtain more economic value from endangered forests.

Using content analysis, we quantified and analysed the presence, meanings, and relationships of fire protection laws and different stakeholders’ obligations and activities. The regulatory, economic, and informational forest policy instruments or their combinations are often used to address challenges in the forestry field [87]. The Croatian government provides a good legal framework aligned with EU directives, which enables different stakeholder tools for fire protection measures. Each of the prescribed measures should have a budget for implementation. Informational forest policy instruments could create awareness among the citizens and private forest owners to consider abandoned forest and agricultural land as the main risk for the spread of forest fires in the state and protected forest areas, which are significant for tourism. The most effective instruments would be economic, such as subsidies for private forest owners or the allocation of more financial sources for fire protection to the state company. This could be realised through different EU financial mechanisms, e.g., ForestEye cross-border project “Protection of nature and environment from forest fires” between Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

An important factor that cannot be influenced is weather and climate, especially during extremely dry and extremely warm years. Spatial analysis of mean SSR in the period 1991–2020 [88] showed the expansion of areas with high potential risk of forest fires from the Dalmatian islands and the coast towards the hinterland compared to the previous reference climate period (1961–1990). However, the area of moderate to high risk has extended to almost the entire interior of Dalmatia and the northern Adriatic, as well as eastern Croatia and part of northwestern Croatia. Certainly, the most threatened area is still the mid-Adriatic, considering the occurrence of forest fires in the summer months when there are long-lasting dry and hot periods. It follows that areas with an increased potential risk of forest fires are expanding rapidly. In addition to the spatial change, a temporal change is also expected in the prolongation of the fire season from May to October due to climate change [89]. These results fit into the wider picture of the expansion of areas at high risk of forest fires in the Mediterranean and Eastern Europe in the summer months [35]. The meteorological elements that most influence the ignition and spread of fires are solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, amount of precipitation, and wind speed and direction, but the vertical structure of the atmosphere is also important [90]. Therefore, in addition to long-lasting hot and dry periods, meteorological analyses during the large forest fires on the Adriatic coast showed that weather changes associated with a cold front passage often trigger fire events due to a sudden increase in wind speed [91]. Contrary to the negative attributes, it is important to stress the exceptional ecological and economic role of pine trees in the Mediterranean [92,93].

The current forest management practice hardly accepts new trends and adaptations to changed conditions. Forest-fire management should be improved by implementing various protection measures, like planning forest-fire access roads, implementing specific silvicultural measures, improving the efficiency of responding to forest fires by investing in fire protection forces, interdisciplinary fire research, and education of the general public, private forest owners, and others about fire risks. There should be continuous improvement in the assessment of the meteorological risk of forest fires during the fire season. Investment in firefighting equipment and protection, such as the network of infrared (thermographic) cameras or surveillance towers, would reduce response times and make the fire-extinguishing strategy by ground or air forces easier to plan. The decrease in the number of fires was certainly, to some extent, influenced by the preventive actions of more frequent monitoring by ground fire patrols, drone surveys, and regular monitoring by firefighting aircraft, and by an increased number of surveillance cameras that can now be technically coordinated and monitored from the newly equipped Situational Operations Centre and the newly established and staffed Operational Firefighter Command of the Republic of Croatia.

Future tasks will be the development of decision support systems and tools, forest-fire risk assessment models, risk reduction, and adaptation. There is a need to provide continuous research regarding the influence of the forest fuel structure and moisture content on the probability of fire occurrence and development [94,95]. Post-fire management and measures are important for preserving forest soil quality from erosion and cost calculation.

5. Conclusions

In this paper, we analysed the current forest policy framework in order to determine, provide, valorise, and protect forests and their services. In line with the research aims, we determined the following:

(a)

According to the definition of fire protection measures and activities, 29 fire-related laws and their bylaws were identified and reviewed. The roles and obligations of different stakeholders were analysed, with an emphasis on Croatian Forests Ltd. and the Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service (DHMZ). The laws were grouped according to the main regulation areas: sustainable development, environmental protection, nature protection, biodiversity conservation, protected areas, fire protection, waste management, forestry, agriculture, and other related laws.

(b)

The analysis shows the characteristics of different stakeholders and their obligations for the implementation of special fire protection measures, such as the Croatian Fire Association, the Ministry of Defence, the County Fire Associations, regional civil protection offices, public institutions of national parks, public institutions of nature parks, public institutions for the management of protected areas, regional civil protection offices, the Croatian Tourist Board, and the Ministry of Tourism.

(c)

The economic impact of forest fires on state forest company management was calculated. In the period 2013 to 2022, there were a total of 1271 fires on forest and other land owned by the Republic of Croatia. A total of 100,168 ha was burned. The calculated damage for the first-age class was EUR 8,724,581.9, for growing stock it was EUR 20,979,957.53, and for non-wood forest functions, it was EUR 297,106,185.29 for the state forest company. The company is investing significant resources in the fight against adverse weather conditions, which requires additional operating costs. In the year 2020, the forest-fire damage exceeded EUR 176 million.

(d)

Weather conditions were analysed in more detail for fire seasons with the highest and lowest Seasonal Severity Rating (SSR) values in the considered period. In almost all of Croatia, the SSR values for 2017 were above 1.5–2 times the multi-year average for the period 1981–2010. This is because the air temperatures were above average by 3–4 °C, and the precipitation amount was below average (2–31% of the average in the mid-Adriatic) in the summer months. Conversely, the SSR values in 2014 were not higher than 5 and were below average throughout the country due to a very rainy summer. The analyses of correlation among the forest fire damages spent sources for fire protection show that there is no significant benefit if only the state forest company invests in fire protection.

Unfortunately, there has not been any recent study about the negative impact of forest fires on tourism and other sectors. Because of the different databases among different institutions, the research limitations are the unavailability of relevant, timely, comprehensive, and unified forest fire damage costs. Our research recommendations are to include all of the stakeholders at regional and local levels from the very beginning for the implementation of fire protection measures. The state forest company should implement fire risk assessment through forest management activities, reduce the fuel mass in forest stands, and in relation to that, decrease the forest fire potential. The government should adopt climate-smart forestry through the relevant ministries, which will embrace and put in place a set of new EU strategies and action plans in order to ensure sustainable forest ecosystems.