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Article

Holistic Methods of Assessing the Historical Wooden Structure on the Example of the Floor of the Polish Manor House in Tarnowiec

by
Anna Różańska
1,
Wojciech Koryciński
2 and
Paweł Kozakiewicz
3,*
1
Department of Technology and Entrepreneurship in Wood Industry, Institute of Wood Sciences and Furniture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences WULS-SGGW, 02-787 Warszaw, Poland
2
Department of Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Faculty of Agrobioengineering, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-400 Lublin, Poland
3
Department of Wood Sciences and Wood Preservations, Institute of Wood Sciences and Furniture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences WULS-SGGW, 02-787 Warszaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 11343; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411343
Submission received: 10 June 2023 / Revised: 7 July 2023 / Accepted: 12 July 2023 / Published: 21 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Green Building)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Sustainable development should take into account the conservation and preservation of architectural features characteristic of a given cultural area for future generations. Chemical, physical and mechanical properties of timber components are key to assessing the technical preservation of historical timber structures, defining proper restoration methodology and extending the durability of timber structures. Moreover, this evaluation will help to elaborate assessment criteria to decide between the restoration or replacement of a given antique structure. The article presents a method of assessing a historical wooden structure on the example of an antique decorative wooden floor from the beginning of the 19th century, preserved in the Tarnowiec Manor House. It determines tests and scientific analysis as a tool for a decision of possibilities of further usage of the historical floor structure. We performed tests and scientific analysis by calculating the functional properties of the parquet panels, performing a visual inspection, as well as resistance tests, tests of longitudinal curvature deviation and shape preservation, tests of fungi infestation and its impact on the state of preservation, as well as future perspectives for the use of parquet elements. The results of the evaluation verify that the proposed methodologies are reasonable and will help to elaborate assessment criteria to decide between the restoration or replacement of a given antique parquet.

1. Introduction

The Manor houses are deeply rooted in Polish vernacular tradition and form an important part of European and especially Polish cultural heritage [1]. Progressive urbanization and civilization development often cause unconscious devastation not only of individual historic buildings but also of entire complexes of historic architecture, leading to a change in the historical face of the region. Polish manor houses are among such endangered objects. It is estimated that there are even several hundred thousand historical manors in Poland [2,3,4,5] divided into two groups: the practical type that existed since the second half of the 16th century and resembled a rural homestead, in which the domination of the manor was limited and a central yard was surrounded by elements of the estate and a new, sumptuous baroque type created under the influence of foreign trends in architecture, secular culture and customs, in which the manor was the dominating element and the entire estate was organized around the central axis [6]. The change in the type of manor estates was related to their demilitarization, and the composition axis received additional elements: an access avenue leading to the manor, a yard at the front surrounded with outbuildings on the sides, and a garden or a park in the back of the manor. In the 17th century, when feudal castles were disappearing in Poland, the manors started to dominate and became more similar to the layout and construction of palace estates, but at a smaller scale (for example, the representational and residential part was reduced to one story only), according to inspirations from French architecture [7]. It was usually a single-story building organized along a central axis accented by a porch or a risalit in the middle, with two or four oriel rooms inspired by the defense towers from baroque palaces. The French residence layout entre cour et jardin (type of baraque palace, development in France in the 17th century) in the second half of the 17th century was adopted also by smaller aristocratic estates. The manors had hip, jerkinhead or saddleback roofs, and also mansard roofs in the French version, or the so-called “Polish” gambrel roofs, with the two roof halves divided by a low vertical wall.
They were often made fully of wood—including interior furnishings—or in part (roof trusses, ceilings, floors) [8,9]. The widespread use of wood was due to its availability and low prices, as well as fast order delivery [10]. Wooden buildings were made with simple technology and relatively quickly, which is why Polish manor houses had walls made of log structure, wooden roof trusses, wooden beam ceilings, stairs, wooden interior wall paneling and beam floors [11].
The number of noble mansions in Poland is very large. There were over 360 of them in the area of the present Subcarpatia region, of which over 120 have been preserved in various states [12]. In the years 2008–2011, a search was carried out among them for places with preserved tile floors. We managed to reach 20 objects (Figure 1), where an inventory and examination of the parquet structure were made. Figure 2 shows a few typical, representative objects of this type located in the Subcarpatia region of Poland.
The floor is a valuable element of historical buildings, so the development of parquet patterns always went hand in hand with the history of interior design [13,14,15,16,17]. In the tradition of European architecture, floors had a representative character and were a manifestation of the house’s wealth. The patterns of single-layer panel parquets installed in Polish manor houses in the early 19th century were inspired by French baroque residential architecture, while Polish palaces from that period featured two-layered parquets with rich intarsias and rosette patterns [18,19].
Antique wooden floors differed as to their historical and esthetic value, structural characteristics, quality of assembly, and state of technical preservation. Due to the biodegradability of wood, many antique floor structures require urgent protection [20,21,22]. Conservation of wooden floors is related to the maintenance of wooden structures [23]. The rules of conduct are specified, i.a., in the European standards [24,25,26]. We have to pay particular attention to the stage of diagnostics and the assessment of technical preservation [27,28], which largely depends on the condition of the wood as a material. The floor transfer dynamic live loads related to the movement (traffic), and static loads (dead loads related to its own weight) and weight of the objects that are placed on its top. Historical timber floor structures are constructed by a variety of different timber species with natural defects (cracks, knots, grain deviations) which influence their performance. A comprehensive evaluation of timber structural performance is the key to defining proper restoration methodology and extending the durability of timber structures [20,21,29,30].
In contemporary conservation practice, non-destructive and portable methods (for in situ assessment) are preferred, while avoiding negative influence on antique objects. However, when the antique structure is still in use, for safety reasons, it is necessary to meet contemporary material standards, that require destructive testing. Therefore, in order to preserve them elements of antique floors should be tested for their chemical, physical and mechanical properties and analyzed with mathematical models.
The objective of this study was the presentation of a holistic method of assessing a historical wooden structure on an example of an antique decorative wooden floor from the beginning of the 19th century, preserved in the Tarnowiec Manor House and emphasizing the role tests and scientific analysis as a tool of decision of possibilities of further usage. The test results were the basis for comparing the properties of historic wood with modern wood, and indications for and against the preservation of the historic wooden structures.

2. Materials and Methods

The Research was conducted on antique floors from the Polish Manor House in Tarnowiec, in South-Eastern Poland, Subcarpatia region. Taking into account its style, size, structure and construction materials, it is a typical example of vernacular architecture, representative of the entire group of several thousand Polish manor houses, characteristic also of South-Eastern Poland. The study of antique parquets, approached holistically with the example of Tarnowiec Manor House, is an up-to-date topic that can contribute to the sustainable development of the region, with the preservation of its architectural tissue and, as a result, also its individual, historical character.
The Tarnowiec Manor House (Figure 3a) is dated back to the 1830s, on the basis of historical records and its stylistic features [31,32,33]. The manor was built in the Empire style. It is a building comprising two enfilades, with 11 axes in the front facade (with two axes at each side risalit) and 10 axes on the side of the garden enfilade, with an engaged portico on the axis of the front facade (Figure 3b).
The load-bearing structure of the floors was made of pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) joists connected to the pine beam placed alongside the wall with a lap joint. The joists have continuous support—they lie on a layer of sand (Figure 4). In rooms 1, 2 and 6 the joists are placed in parallel to the shorter walls of the room. On top of the joists, there is a pine decking (boarding) that supports the parquet.
In rooms 4 and 5 pine joists are placed diagonally at a 45-degree angle. There is no decking, and the strips of parquet panels are placed parallel to the joists and their layout becomes diagonal. The lack of decking means that the panels are supported only by the frames, while the elements that fill the middle part of the panels are suspended on the frames with the help of a system of joints. Hand-forged nails are used to fasten the flooring to the beams.
Because of the uneven bottom surface of the 18th and early 19th century, it was a common practice to place a layer of sand, wedges or wood shavings between the boarding and the parquet for leveling the parquet. The thickness of the layer of sand may vary from ca. 5 mm to ca. 20 mm [19]. The layer of sand or clay was also used for stabilizing and leveling in the case of joists. Moreover, the layer of sand or clay is important for fire protection and provides thermal insulation. Force reduction tests have proven the role of sand in the dynamic properties of floors structure [34].
The thickness of single-layered parquet panels differs between the rooms from 35 to 27 mm. and within one single panel. Individual elements in the panel are joined with the use of tongue in grove joints and lap joints in case of a cross motif situated in the center of the panel. Because of the structure of Versailles pattern flooring, which has thicker frame elements and thinner center elements, all construction of the panel is fastened on a system of profiled carpenters joints. When the panel is placed on full sheathing (boarding), wedges were inserted locally between the boarding and the panel. Nevertheless, nowadays the center of the panels is collapsed up to 3 mm.
The individual parquet panels are connected to each other with spline joints (Figure 5), made of pine with longitudinal grain layout (in the Rooms No. 1, 2 and 6) or oak with transverse fibre and non-continuous layout (in the Rooms No. 4 and 5).
Antique floors have been preserved in four rooms of the manor. Currently, they are disassembled. In 2011, the authors of the paper carried out a study that provides us with the original layout and structure of the parquets. The above-mentioned study included measurements, stocktaking with records of parquet layout, stratigraphic and technical tests of wood.
The evaluation of the functional properties of the antique parquets was carried out by assessing their macro and microscopic structure and by applying destructive and non-destructive methods. The analyses included: their capacity to transfer dead loads and live loads, the impact of fungi infestation, and perspectives of future usage.
We also compared the mechanical properties of antique wood: hardness (EN 1534:2020 [35]), resistance to abrasion (ISO 5470-1:2016 [36]), elasticity (EN 408:2010+A1:2012 [37]) and density (ISO 13061-2:2014 Part 2 [38]).
The deformations of antique parquet panels, the deviation from flatness and the longitudinal curvature were measured in order to study the effects of usage in cycles of sorption and desorption, in accordance with the EN 13647:2021 standard [39]. Before the test, the tiles were acclimatized (60 ± 5)%, (20 ± 2) °C and then the tests were carried out in laboratory conditions (with actual humidity of the environment measured with an RB702 sensor amounting to 48.8% and temperature of 19.7 °C). The curvature was measured on the front side of the panels in points marked by the virtual mesh, size 50 × 50 mm.
The fungal infestation of antique wooden parquets was assessed in terms of the state of preservation and further usage prospects visually at macro and microscopic levels and by determining Ergosterol [40] with the use of the Seitz method [41], with the modification by Gutarowska, Żakowska [42] the moisture equivalent and wettability curves.
The state of wood preservation is also well characterized by the quantity of substances soluble in 1% NaOH. Extracted sawdust was subject to the following tests: holocellulose content determined with the use of NaClO2, cellulose content determined with the Kurschner–Hoffer method, lignin content determination with a method according to the Polish standard PN-P-50092:1974 [43] and determination of the content of substances soluble in 1% NaOH.
In order to include the influence of the microclimate on the current properties of antique parquets, samples were collected from three different points of each room (sampling point 1—external room corner, sampling point 2—traffic paths, sampling point 3—internal room corner).
The age of samples collected from antique manor houses is about 180 years. The age and origin of the parquet wood are certain because their original character has been confirmed by both the patterns and the floor structure, as well as their state of preservation, and traces left throughout history and during manor layout reorganization.
The Tarnowiec Manor House had not been subject to prior conservation activities and contains floors that have been preserved in their original state. The presence of parquets based on different types of structures in several different rooms made it possible to collect numerous samples from various kinds of structures and from different places in the same room. Therefore, we minimize the risk of the research results depending on the character of samples taken from an element chosen at random and we are able to use objective statistical methods.

3. Results

3.1. Visual Assessment—Destructive Factors and Damage of Floor

Wood located in closed interiors can suffer from exposure to water [44,45], changing temperatures, radiation and loads. In some cases, parquets in manor houses were additionally exposed to direct moisture from a leaky roof and indirect humidity caused by rainwater penetrating through the external walls and rising moisture from the ground due to the lack of a rain gutter system. Most harmful to the durability of wood is frequent changes in humidity. According to Kozakiewicz and Matejak [46], at constant wood humidity of up to 10%, wood durability is very high.
The state of preservation of antique floors in the Tarnowiec Manor House depends on floor structure, parquet structure, wood species and usage conditions.
The main reason for damage to antique parquets (apart from mechanical damage) is the fact that the manor was not used for many years, and—therefore—it was also not heated.
The glass panes of most windows had been broken for years, which is why all the elements of the interiors were exposed to humidity, due to the impact of atmospheric conditions (water flowing through leaking roofs and windows), as well as the moisture absorbed from the ground.
Water absorption from the ground could happen in several different ways. The main manner involves capillary-diffusion-hygroscopic processes (due to the lack of water insulation, when the absolute humidity of the soil underneath exceeded 6%), diffusion-hygroscopic processes (resulting from the difference in the concentration of humidity in the ground and the adjacent wooden elements, when the absolute humidity of the ground exceeded 3.5%), and thermal diffusion (as a result of changes in ambient temperature in relation to the floor, especially in spring and autumn periods).
The manner of interior heating with stoves caused abrupt changes in the relative air humidity, and as a result, also changes in the equilibrium moisture of the wood, causing overheating of parquet wood placed in direct proximity to the stoves. In both cases, it contributed to the creation of cracks and the swelling of elements.
The visual inspection of oak wood in the Tarnowiec Manor House revealed that oak was obtained from the heartwood of older trees, characterized by high density. The joists and structural elements of parquet panels were made of oak wood, which because of its hardness and elasticity, resistance to abrasion and tannin content, makes it more resistant to microbiological factors. Less durable wood species were used for the elements filling the central parts of parquet panels, e.g., in the case of Room no. 5 it was elm. The flooring was made of wood with medium growth (3–4 rings for each 1 cm of the radius) and slow growth (>4 rings for each 1 cm of the radius). Such wood has a more uniform structure, which affects the even abrasion resistance of the top surface of the parquet. In most cases, wooden elements had mixed section layouts, with different angles of grain orientation between radial and tangential sections. Sporadically, biological decay on the bottom side of some panels appeared. Biological decay was significant in the case of the floor beams and subfloor—the lower structural layers.
We compared samples collected from parquet panels placed on boarding and beams in rooms situated over a cellar, with samples collected from elements placed directly on beams in rooms without a cellar beneath (Figure 6 and Figure 7). The results of macroscopic inspection showed that the wood of the parquets placed on the sheathing is well preserved, and its structure is nice and cohesive, with a dark color and no discolorations, scratches, or indentations (Figure 6). In the case of parquets placed directly on beams (without boarding) in rooms 4 and 5, indentations appeared on the front side of the elements, located in the proximity of joints. This was formed due to delaminations alongside the fibers, as a result of usage stresses (Figure 7).
The wood of those elements turned grey and had a less cohesive structure, and was attacked by insects and fungi (Figure 8 and Figure 9). The fungi destroyed only the bottom surface of elements (Figure 9a) or their entire structure: dark brown color (brown-rot decay), mass loss, and spongy structure cracking after drying (Figure 9b).
The roughness of parquet elements placed on boarding, measured on the front surface was below 0.152 mm in the case of the tangential section and 0.098 mm for the radial section, and relatively low. The roughness of the front surface of the parquets that did not have boarding underneath was greater, even up to 0.278 mm.

3.2. Resistance Tests

Table 1 presents the results of density, bending strength and modulus of elasticity tests carried out on elements of panel frames. The bending strength and modulus of elasticity of antique wood samples taken from Room 1, Room 4 and 5, were comparable with the values of contemporary wood indicated in reference literature.
The Brinell hardness of wood from antique parquets was comparable to or even higher than the hardness of contemporary wood (whose species, growth ring width, density and section type were similar to those of the antique wood). It was visible in the case of oak wood of the parquet in Room 4, from an internal corner (sampling point 3) and from the communication (traffic path—sampling point 2) and elm wood of the parquet in Room 5, from an internal corner and from the communication.
Tests showed that the hardness of wood from antique parquets depends on the sample collection point, that is, on the microclimate conditions. The lowest average hardness in the case of oak samples from Room 1 and Room 4 and elm from Room 5, was consistently observed, in each case, for the external corner of the room (sampling point 1).
Tests showed also, that the hardness of wood depends on its anatomic section and floor structure correlated with microclimate conditions. The average hardness of parquets placed on boarding amounted to 38.97 [N/mm2] for the radial section, and 43.94 [N/mm2] in the case of the tangential section. The hardness of wood in parquets without boarding was significantly lower: 25.66 [N/mm2] for the radial-tangential section. For the sake of comparison, the hardness of contemporary oak parquet elements was also tested, and in laboratory conditions, it amounted to 44.39 [N/mm2] (Table 1).
Abrasion resistance tests carried out by measuring the mass loss of the sample after 100 revolutions (Table 1) revealed that the resistance parameters of oak and elm from the Tarnowiec Manor House are comparable with the results of certain contemporary samples (taking into account the standard deviation). The average mass loss of oak from Room 4 was lower than the mass loss of contemporary oak, in the case of each sampling point location. The differences amount to 30% for samples collected in the external corner of the room (sampling point 1), 51% for samples collected from traffic paths (sampling point 2), and 24% for samples collected from the internal corner of the room (sampling point 3). The same relation was observed for elm samples from Room no. 5 (57% for the external corner of the room—sampling point 1; 41% for traffic paths—sampling point 2 and 30% for internal corner of the room—sampling point 3). The largest mass loss was observed for oak samples from Room no. 1 (currently 109) in Tarnowiec (about 1 g). The most variable mass loss results were obtained for antique wood, especially oak from Room 1.

3.3. Longitudinal Curvature Deviations and Shape Preservation

Parquet quality consisting of flatness is affected by longitudinal deformations of the entire panel and deviations from the right angle of individual panel elements.
The dispersion of longitudinal curvature test results for Room 1 in Tarnowiec (Figure 10) fell in the range between 4.69–−7.33 and amounted to 44.5%. It was significantly higher than the dispersion of longitudinal curvature measurements for contemporary copies of oak panels from Room 4 in the Tarnowiec Manor House.
As for the dispersion of longitudinal curvature results for contemporary copies of antique parquet panels tested 3 months after the panels were manufactured and stored in central heating conditions, before the sorption and desorption cycle, the results fell within the range 0.56–−0.7 and 0.95–−0.47 for the two panels that were tested, that from 3.8% to 4.3% (Figure 11).
After the first cycle, immediately after taking them out of the climate chamber set to ±20 °C and relative air humidity of ±60%, longitudinal curvature deviations reached the level of 0.62–−0.82 and 1.14–−0.46, that is from 4.4% to 4.9% (Figure 12).
After the panels were dried (about 3 weeks after taking them out of the chamber in conditions of central heating), longitudinal curvature deviations for panel A amounted to 1.8–−0.15, which is 5.9%. The values of longitudinal curvature deviation increase with subsequent cycles, which will affect the flatness of the reconstructed parquet in the future. Therefore, future deviations from flatness in panel copies can be greater than the current deformations of antique panels. Antique panels after careful surface treatment can become even flatter because antique wood has a good stability of dimensions (the deformations are constant and should not increase further).
The values of deformations in square elements differ on every edge and amount to, on average, 1.6%. Deformations in triangular elements amount to 0.3%. The assessment of deformations in antique wood has to take into account the fact that—considering the historical methods of wood processing—the elements might not have been perfectly rectangular in the first place. The direction of deformations corresponds to the anatomical structure and results from sorption and desorption hysteresis. Despite the changes in the shape of individual elements, the floor did not lose its tightness, but definitely, the static layout of joints in the entire panel changed because only parts of the tongues and grooves transfer the bending loads.

3.4. Influence of Fungi on the State of Preservation and the Usage Prospects of Antique Wooden Parquets from the Tarnowiec Manor House

3.4.1. Evaluation of Microbiological Corrosion

The resistance of wooden parquets to microbiological corrosion (mainly fungal activity) has vital practical importance [47]. The results of visual inspection of the investigated parquets from Rooms number 1, 4 and 5. Included in Table 2.

3.4.2. Ergosterol Determination

Modern methods used to identify the presence of fungal mycelium in construction materials, among others consider the ergosterol determination [47]. Ergosterol is a component of the cell membranes of the majority of fungi, some microalgae and yeasts. It is practically absent from cell structures of more advanced plants (embryophyta) and prokaryotic microorganisms. The correlation between the ergosterol level and the degree of substrate’s fungi infestation was proven [47]. Table 3 shows the results of ergosterol determination for the analyzed parquets.
The increased level of ergosterol is characteristic for all tested samples from Tarnowiec (also with no visible morphological fungi formations), which means that antique parquets wood has been infested with house fungi.

3.4.3. Wettability Curves and Equilibrium Moisture Content

Other indicators of mycelium activity are the moisture equivalent and wettability curves (Figure 13 and Figure 14), which were tested by placing dried samples whose mass was known (three of each kind) in an environmental chamber with a temperature of 20 °C and relative air humidity of 60% until their mass got stable again. Measurements were recorded every 15, 30 and 60 min. The moisture equivalent was determined after 14 days.
Antique wood has the disadvantage of a shorter moisture exchange time. It absorbs water faster than contemporary wood, which translates into unfavorable dynamic changes in wood dimensions and higher equilibrium moisture of wood (Figure 14).

3.4.4. Content of Selected Structural and Non-Structural Substances

The changes in the chemical composition of antique parquet wood caused by climate conditions, as well as the manner of parquet assembly and maintenance are part of research concerning the relations between the physical and chemical wood properties and the factors determining its durability within the scope of material, surface finishing and microclimate of antique parquets [48].
The results in Table 4 show that the chemical composition of the antique wood from Tarnowiec is different from the data in the reference literature [49].
The analysis of parquet samples from Room 4 has revealed that, in comparison to literature data, they have a higher content of substances soluble in 1% NaOH, which is due to many factors that degrade and dissolve the carbohydrates present in the wood under research.
The results show that antique oak had high changes in the structure of polysaccharides, which is related to both substances soluble in 1% NaOH (significantly elevated) and to a lower cellulose content. This could have been caused by chemical factors, the impact of the environment or physical factors, related to exposure to light.
The antique oak has significantly fewer byproducts, which might be due to their extraction and decay related to the passage of time and lack of conservation measures.

4. Discussion

The study compares the functional properties of modern and antique wood elements and presents an assessment of wood durability, which depends on the wood species and type of cross-section, type of finish and manner of use, including the microclimate conditions around it [46,50,51,52]. We checked the capacity of the floors to transfer dynamic loads related to people moving on their surface, as well as the static loads of the objects that are placed on them [22,53]. The loads are transferred through the parquet and the load-bearing structure made of beams or joists; or through the parquet and the subfloor containing an insulation layer [53,54]. Additionally, we also tested the longitudinal curvature deviations, panel shape preservation [28], panel dimensional stability [55] as well as the impact of fungi on the state of preservation of parquet elements [47] and the underlying load-bearing structure [34].
On the basis of the evaluation of the state of preservation of wood (including visual inspection, functional tests, chemical analyses) conclusions were formulated concerning the advantages and disadvantages of further use of the preserved antique floor in the process of conservation.
The fact that elements of wooden parquets have been preserved for almost 200 years and do not require reinforcements (reinforcements are typical for historic structures [20,21,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64]) shows that the wood quality was high.
The properties of some antique decorative wooden parquet materials, despite the wood degradation caused by the passage of time and usage conditions, do meet contemporary functional requirements [65]. The hardness and resistance to abrasion of the analyzed antique oak floors are higher than those of the contemporary wood used in the study. It depends on the wood’s species [66,67] and anatomic cross-section and also the microclimate conditions, resulting from floor structure and sample collection point [68]. The fact that resistance properties of antique wood are often higher than those of contemporary parquet materials is proof of a drastic reduction in the quality of wood from contemporary trees and of inadequate drying conditions [69,70]. Therefore, the use of antique parquet panels should be considered as much as possible.
The current resistance parameters of the antique oak wood are able to provide safe usage conditions, that is: the transfer of live loads and of the dead loads of the parquet layers themselves. According to contemporary standards PN-EN 1991-1-1 A1:2015 [71], point loads in contemporary residential buildings amount, as a minimum, to Qk = 2 kN (for furniture legs) or even 3 kN for a leg of a grand piano.
Unfortunately, tests measuring deviations from flatness prove that after the relocation of antique parquets, we are not able to achieve the “perfectly flat” surface that is preferred in contemporary parquets. In order to achieve that in the Tarnowiec Manor House, we would need to polish off as much as 12 mm of the wear layer that is currently 10 mm thick, which is impossible. A more even surface can be achieved by using copies of the antique parquet panels. However, it should be borne in mind that deviations from flatness in contemporary copies of antique parquet panels will increase with each cycle of sorption and desorption, which will negatively affect parquet flatness in the future. The dimensional stability of antique wood is many times higher than that of its contemporary copies.
Fungi infestation of antique floor wood does not always entail the need for replacement. The perspectives of further usage depend also on the tests of wood density, its hardness, resistance to abrasion and resistance to scratches, which are satisfactory and promising. Unfortunately due to fungi infestation, antique wood has a shorter moisture exchange time, which translates into unfavorable dynamic changes in wood dimensions and a higher equilibrium moisture [44,72,73].
It is known that as a result of natural aging, wood undergoes oxidation (decomposition of cellulose and lignin [74]) and its crystallinity increases as a function of a very long time [75,76]. Having an amorphous structure and a low degree of hemicellulose polymerization, they are much more susceptible to degradation than crystalline-amorphous, more polymerized cellulose (the average degree of cellulose polymerization in wood is 9000–10,000, and in some cases, it reaches even 15,000 [49,77]. Cellulose polymerization affects the durability of the fibers; therefore, the durability of wood and any other materials made of cellulose depends on the degree of its polymerization.
Because of the degradation and dissolution of the carbohydrates, antique wood has a higher content of substances soluble in 1% NaOH, changes in the structure of polysaccharides and lower cellulose content caused by chemical, environmental or physical factors related to exposure to light. The exposure of carbohydrates to UV radiation results in the transfer of energy to the molecules and, as a result, their degradation, because the energy accumulated inside leads to the appearance of free radicals and the initiation of many chemical reactions, including depolymerization and homolytic cleavage of hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl and hydroxymethylene radicals [77,78,79].
The passage of time and lack of conservation measures for antique floor wood caused extraction and decay. The damage of the investigated parquets caused by infestation with house fungi qualifies as grade I and grade II. Only floor elements with grade I of degradation caused by house fungi can be used again, after applying adequate fungicides. Despite the first grade of fungi infestation, the mechanical properties of oak wood from the Tarnowiec Manor House are not worse than those of the contemporary wood under research, including properties such as bending strength, modulus of elasticity, hardness and resistance to abrasion. Parquet panels can be reused after conservation and restoration measures.
The paper analyzed the structural solutions and the state of preservation of the very specific historical wooden structures (floor and floorings), which are poorly submitted to standard evaluation procedures [80,81,82] and compares the functional properties of modern and antique wood elements. The results of the evaluation verify that the proposed methodologies are reasonable and will help to elaborate assessment criteria to decide between the restoration or replacement of a given antique parquet.

5. Conclusions

The study and conservation of antique parquets, approached holistically with the example of Tarnowiec Manor House (a typical example of vernacular architecture, representative of the entire group of several thousand Polish manor houses) is one of the important elements of sustainable development of rural areas in Poland.
The antique parquet panels were produced manually (with manufacturing methods) and their dimensions differ even by around 15 mm. Therefore, each panel has its specific place within the parquet, which will be impossible to preserve after disassembling and reinstalling the panels (after eliminating many of the elements).
Floors made with the use of antique parquet panels will not be perfectly flat or perfectly water-tight—there will be gaps between panels and individual panel elements. Those gaps do not have a negative impact on parquet functionality and are a characteristic feature of antique floors with wooden, single-layer parquets. Such parquets are stabilized in the horizontal plane thanks to profiled carpentry joints: tongues and grooves, as well as other kinds of connecting elements such as splines.
Historic parquet reacts more dynamically to changes in relative air humidity, which is why it requires the use of an effective membrane (covering the surface with an appropriate finishing coat).
Prolonged exposure to water, increased humidity and exposure to light caused hydrolysis and photolytic degradation of carbohydrate components of wood, to which hemicelluloses and the amorphous part of cellulose were particularly exposed.
These processes were most intense on the surface of wood, hence the characteristic degradation of its structure visible to the naked eye, resulting in more intense changes in color and gloss after applying natural finishing coatings (linen varnish, wax) than in the case of contemporary wood. Therefore, in the maintenance of historic floors, wax is recommended to finish the surface, which reduces surface roughness, fills defects in the structure, causes fewer color changes, does not intensify discoloration and stains, protects the wood from moisture, and reduces abrasion.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.R. and W.K.; methodology, A.R. and P.K.; investigation, A.R. and W.K.; writing—original draft preparation, A.R. and W.K.; writing—review and editing A.R., W.K. and P.K.; visualization, A.R., W.K. and P.K.; supervision, P.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data included in this study are available upon request by contact with the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Map of Poland and the Subcarpatia region with marked manors where floor inventories were made: (1) Boguchwała, (2) Bieździedza, (3) Dydnia, (4) Falejówka, (5) Hyżne, (6) Julin, (7) Kolbuszowa, (8) Kopytowa, (9) Krosno, (10) Łańcut, (11) Niwiska, (12) Ostrowy Tuszowskie, (13) Przeworsk, (14) Przewrotne, (15) Szebinie, (16) Tarnowiec, (17) Witkowice, (18) Wydrna, (19) Zarzecze, (20) Żarnowiec.
Figure 1. Map of Poland and the Subcarpatia region with marked manors where floor inventories were made: (1) Boguchwała, (2) Bieździedza, (3) Dydnia, (4) Falejówka, (5) Hyżne, (6) Julin, (7) Kolbuszowa, (8) Kopytowa, (9) Krosno, (10) Łańcut, (11) Niwiska, (12) Ostrowy Tuszowskie, (13) Przeworsk, (14) Przewrotne, (15) Szebinie, (16) Tarnowiec, (17) Witkowice, (18) Wydrna, (19) Zarzecze, (20) Żarnowiec.
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Figure 2. Views of typical Polish bricked (a,c) and wooden (b) manor houses from the Subcarpatia region: (a) Komborna Manor, (b) Kopytowa Manor, (c) Witkowice Manor.
Figure 2. Views of typical Polish bricked (a,c) and wooden (b) manor houses from the Subcarpatia region: (a) Komborna Manor, (b) Kopytowa Manor, (c) Witkowice Manor.
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Figure 3. View of the Tarnowiec Manor House (a) and original layout with room numbers according to the 2011 stocktaking (b).
Figure 3. View of the Tarnowiec Manor House (a) and original layout with room numbers according to the 2011 stocktaking (b).
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Figure 4. Diagram of floor construction in the Tarnowiec Manor House in rooms 1, 2, 6 ((a) A—panel, B—boarding-decking, C—beams, D—sand with clay) and in rooms 4, 5 ((b) A—panel, B—beams, C—sand with clay).
Figure 4. Diagram of floor construction in the Tarnowiec Manor House in rooms 1, 2, 6 ((a) A—panel, B—boarding-decking, C—beams, D—sand with clay) and in rooms 4, 5 ((b) A—panel, B—beams, C—sand with clay).
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Figure 5. Diagram of structure and wood type in parquet panels of the Tarnowiec Manor House: (a,b)—Rooms No. 1,2,6 and 4; (c,d)—Room No. 5 {Sustainability 15 11343 i001—oak (Quercus sp.), Sustainability 15 11343 i002—elm (Ulmus minor Mill.)}.
Figure 5. Diagram of structure and wood type in parquet panels of the Tarnowiec Manor House: (a,b)—Rooms No. 1,2,6 and 4; (c,d)—Room No. 5 {Sustainability 15 11343 i001—oak (Quercus sp.), Sustainability 15 11343 i002—elm (Ulmus minor Mill.)}.
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Figure 6. Microscopic image of the front surface (a) and the bottom surface (b) of parquet elements placed on boarding in Room no. 1.
Figure 6. Microscopic image of the front surface (a) and the bottom surface (b) of parquet elements placed on boarding in Room no. 1.
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Figure 7. Microscopic image of the front surface (a) and the bottom surface (b) of parquet elements placed on boarding in Room no. 5.
Figure 7. Microscopic image of the front surface (a) and the bottom surface (b) of parquet elements placed on boarding in Room no. 5.
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Figure 8. Macroscopic image of damages caused by insects and fungi on the front surface (a) and bottom surface (b) of elm parquet elements placed directly on beams in Room no. 5.
Figure 8. Macroscopic image of damages caused by insects and fungi on the front surface (a) and bottom surface (b) of elm parquet elements placed directly on beams in Room no. 5.
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Figure 9. Macroscopic image of the brown rot on oak parquet elements on bottom surface (a) and placed directly on beams (b) in Room no. 4.
Figure 9. Macroscopic image of the brown rot on oak parquet elements on bottom surface (a) and placed directly on beams (b) in Room no. 4.
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Figure 10. The measurement of transverse curvature (height map of the surface) of panels from Room 1 of the Tarnowiec Manor House; deformation values have been given in mm.
Figure 10. The measurement of transverse curvature (height map of the surface) of panels from Room 1 of the Tarnowiec Manor House; deformation values have been given in mm.
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Figure 11. Measurements of transverse curvature (height map of the surface) of contemporary copies of parquet panels from Room 4 in the Tarnowiec Manor House before the cycle of sorption and desorption: panel A (a) and panel B (b); deformation values given in mm.
Figure 11. Measurements of transverse curvature (height map of the surface) of contemporary copies of parquet panels from Room 4 in the Tarnowiec Manor House before the cycle of sorption and desorption: panel A (a) and panel B (b); deformation values given in mm.
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Figure 12. Measurements of transverse curvature (height map of the surface) of contemporary copies of parquet panels from Room 4 in the Tarnowiec Manor House after swelling: panel A (a) and panel B (b); deformation values given in mm.
Figure 12. Measurements of transverse curvature (height map of the surface) of contemporary copies of parquet panels from Room 4 in the Tarnowiec Manor House after swelling: panel A (a) and panel B (b); deformation values given in mm.
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Figure 13. Wettability curves of the antique and contemporary oak and elm wood.
Figure 13. Wettability curves of the antique and contemporary oak and elm wood.
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Figure 14. Equilibrium moisture of antique oak wood from Room no. 1 and Room no. 4, as well as elm from Room no. 5 of the Tarnowiec Manor House compared to contemporary oak and elm.
Figure 14. Equilibrium moisture of antique oak wood from Room no. 1 and Room no. 4, as well as elm from Room no. 5 of the Tarnowiec Manor House compared to contemporary oak and elm.
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Table
Table 1. Results of bending strength and modulus of elasticity tests, as well as the density of and Brinell hardness and mass loss (abrasion resistance) of oak wood in structural elements.
Table 1. Results of bending strength and modulus of elasticity tests, as well as the density of and Brinell hardness and mass loss (abrasion resistance) of oak wood in structural elements.
OriginStatistical ValuesFailure StrengthBending StrengthModulus of ElasticityDeflection at Maximum ForceDensityBrinell HardnessMass Loss
[N][MPa][MPa][mm][kg × m−3][N/mm2][g]
Room 1 average value195694.4813,03011.8772034.890.994
standard deviation43518.8713382.72506.300.238
Room 4 average value202576.0011,32214.7765036.650.302
standard deviation71428.8630292.19377.030.156
Room 5 average value200980.16--65030.540.422
standard deviation37915.65--356.770.173
Table
Table 2. Visual assessment of antique wooden parquet samples.
Table 2. Visual assessment of antique wooden parquet samples.
Location/Sampling PointDescription
Tarnowiec, Room1no traces of rot, heavy organic and mineral contamination, small mycelium of Serpula lacrymans, mold fungi mycelium
Tarnowiec, Room 4not exceeding cracks in the wood—the depth of 10 mm, heavy organic and mineral contamination, surface mycelium of Antrodia sinuosa, visible infestation of Xestobium rufovillosum
Tarnowiec, Room 5not exceeding cracks in the wood—the depth of 5−10 mm, heavy organic and mineral contamination, small mycelium of Antrodia sinuosa, signs of Xestobium rufovillosum infestation
Table
Table 3. Absorption of ergosterol (alcohol extract).
Table 3. Absorption of ergosterol (alcohol extract).
LocationSample Collection PointAverage ValueStandard DeviationDifference Significance Analysis
α = 0.05
FempiricalFtabular
antique–oakRoom 14.0040.32041,077.2319.00
Room 22.8190.05915,177.00
Room 41.3390.0985477.36
Room 53.8430.09840,105.50
antique–elmRoom 51.7240.00331,838.28
control–oak-0.3090.018
-0.1370.001
control–elm-0.1370.001
Table
Table 4. Share of structural and non-structural compounds of contemporary oak and antique oak from Room 4.
Table 4. Share of structural and non-structural compounds of contemporary oak and antique oak from Room 4.
SampleMoisture
[%]		Content in Wood [%]
ExtractiveSoluble in
1%NaOH		LigninCelluloseHolocelluloseHemicelluloses *
Contemporary oakx3.8–6.119–2624.9–34.339.5–42.873.2–78.734
Oak Tarnowiec7.51.937.730.136.268.732.4
* hemicellulose content has been calculated from the difference between the content of holocellulose and cellulose.
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Różańska, A.; Koryciński, W.; Kozakiewicz, P. Holistic Methods of Assessing the Historical Wooden Structure on the Example of the Floor of the Polish Manor House in Tarnowiec. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11343. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411343

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Różańska A, Koryciński W, Kozakiewicz P. Holistic Methods of Assessing the Historical Wooden Structure on the Example of the Floor of the Polish Manor House in Tarnowiec. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):11343. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411343

Chicago/Turabian Style

Różańska, Anna, Wojciech Koryciński, and Paweł Kozakiewicz. 2023. "Holistic Methods of Assessing the Historical Wooden Structure on the Example of the Floor of the Polish Manor House in Tarnowiec" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 11343. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411343

APA Style

Różańska, A., Koryciński, W., & Kozakiewicz, P. (2023). Holistic Methods of Assessing the Historical Wooden Structure on the Example of the Floor of the Polish Manor House in Tarnowiec. Sustainability, 15(14), 11343. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411343

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