Environmental and Economic Analysis of Heating Solutions for Rural Residences in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Assessment Methodology
2.1. Selection of Typical Cities and Heating Load Calculation
2.2. Primary Energy Consumption
2.3. Environmental Impact Assessment Model
2.3.1. Pollutant Emissions Model
2.3.2. Classification and Characterization
2.3.3. Standardization and Weighting
2.4. Economic Cost Model
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Energy Consumption Analysis
3.2. Environmental Impact Assessment Results of Heating Solutions
3.3. Economic Cost Analysis of Different Heating Solutions
4. Conclusions
- (1)
- The PEC of GBHS and ASHPS is obviously lower than that of CBHS, with a decrease of about 33% and 6–43%, respectively. The PEC of DEHS is higher than that of CBHS, with an increase of about 115%.
- (2)
- Compared with CBHS, GBHS and ASHPS can reduce the emissions of the pollutants effectively, and the emissions, such as CO2, SO2, NOX, and PM2.5, can reduce by about 57–99% by using GBHS for the six typical cities. By using ASHPS, these emissions can reduce by about 5–93%, 33–95%, and 42–95% for the severe cold regions, the cold regions and the hot summer and cold winter regions, respectively. DEHS cannot reduce PM2.5 emission effectively, but increases the emissions of CO2, SO2, and NOX significantly.
- (3)
- The weighted EMP of DEHS is the largest and that of GBHS is the smallest. The weighted EMP of GBHS is about 6% of CBHS for all six typical cities. The weighted EMP of ASHPS is 92%, 77%, 65%, 60%, 56%, and 56% of CBHS for Harbin, Shenyang, Beijing, Xi’an, Wuhan, and Chongqing, respectively. The weighted EMP of DEHS is about 108% higher than that of CBHS for all six typical cities.
- (4)
- The life cycle cost of GBHS is about 33% higher than that of CBHS for the six typical cities. The life cycle cost of ASHPS is about 33–57% higher than CBHS for the severe cold region, but not much different or even less than CBHS for the cold region and hot-summer and cold-winter region. The life cycle cost of DEHS is increased by 194–230% compared with that of CBHS.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Nomenclature
A | Area |
AP | Acidification potential |
COP | Coefficient of heating performance |
DR | Discount rate |
E | Heating demand or energy consumption |
EC | Ecological cost |
ec | Unit ecological cost |
EM | Emissions |
EMP | Environmental impact |
EP | Eutrophication potential |
FC | Fuel cost |
INV | Initial investment |
GWP | Global warming potential |
L | Lifetime |
LCC | Life cycle cost |
MC | Maintenance cost |
OC | Operating cost |
POFP | Photochemical ozone formation potential |
PV | Present value |
RI | Respiratory inorganics |
q | Heating load |
RR | Rising rate |
T | Temperature |
t | Time |
η | Efficiency |
μ | Emission conversion factor |
Abbreviations | |
ASHPS | Air source heat pump system |
CBHS | Coal-fired boiler heating system |
DEHS | Direct electric heating system |
GBHS | Wall-hung gas-fired boiler heating system |
LCA | Life cycle assessment |
PEC | Primary energy consumption |
Subscripts | |
Add | addition |
ambi | ambient |
desi | design |
e | electricity |
h | heating |
hle | heating limit external temperature |
ng | natural gas |
sc | standard coal |
trans | transmission |
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Cities | Harbin | Shenyang | Beijing | Xi’an | Wuhan | Chongqing |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tdesi (°C) | −24.2 | −16.9 | −7.6 | −3.4 | −0.3 | 4.1 |
qhdesi (W/m2) | 140 | 116 | 109 | 89 | 105 | 69 |
Natural Gas (kg/m³) | Electricity (kg/kWh) | Standard Coal (kg/kg) | |
---|---|---|---|
CO2 | 1.94 | 0.997 | 2.493 |
SO2 | 0.00124 | 0.03 | 0.075 |
NOx | 0.00496 | 0.015 | 0.0375 |
PM2.5 | 0.00002844 | 0.0002035 | 0.00577 |
Emissions | GWP (kg CO2 eq) | AP (kg SO2 eq) | EP (kg PO43 eq) | POFP (kg C2H4 eq) | RI (kg PM2.5 eq) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CO2 | 1 | - | - | - | - |
SO2 | - | 1 | - | 0.08 | 0.08 |
NOx | 265 | 0.7 | 0.13 | 1 | 0.13 |
PMs | - | - | - | - | 0.54 |
Types of Pollutants | CO2 | SO2 | NOX | PM2.5 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ecological cost unit price | 1.11 | 68.06 | 46.78 | 168.3 |
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Zhang, Z.; Wang, J.; Yang, M.; Gong, K.; Yang, M. Environmental and Economic Analysis of Heating Solutions for Rural Residences in China. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5117. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095117
Zhang Z, Wang J, Yang M, Gong K, Yang M. Environmental and Economic Analysis of Heating Solutions for Rural Residences in China. Sustainability. 2022; 14(9):5117. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095117
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Zhenying, Jiaqi Wang, Meiyuan Yang, Kai Gong, and Mei Yang. 2022. "Environmental and Economic Analysis of Heating Solutions for Rural Residences in China" Sustainability 14, no. 9: 5117. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095117