The Role of Self-Efficacy as a Mediating Variable in CareerEDGE Employability Model: The Context of Undergraduate Employability in the North-East Region of Nigeria

Abstract

(1) Background: Tertiary institutions are facing increasing pressure to produce employable undergraduates who can drive the sustainability of strong economic growth and development. As such, responsibility lies with the higher education sector in ensuring undergraduates’ readiness for entry to the labor market, thus joining the ranks of those already employable. Thus, this study applied the CareerEDGE model as a theoretical basis to investigate the factors associated with undergraduate employability. The mediating effect of self-efficacy on the predictive relationships was also examined. (2) Methods: Data were collected from a sample of 264 from six universities in the North-East region of Nigeria. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to perform the data analysis in this study. (3) Results: Results revealed that the five constructs of the CareerEDGE model (career development learning; work experience; degree subject knowledge, skills, and understanding; generic skills; and emotional intelligence) are positively associated with undergraduate employability. Self-efficacy was found to mediate this relationship. Altogether, these results signal that the CareerEDGE model contributes to undergraduate employability and that self-efficacy is instrumental in elucidating this relationship. The results add to the extant knowledge on the impact of the CareerEDGE constructs on students’ approaches to careers. (4) Conclusions: The findings have significant implications for higher education institutions and career practitioners in identifying ways of enhancing undergraduates’ career planning strategies within a more challenging labor market context.

1. Introduction

One of the key concerns of higher education institutions (HEIs) is the professional standing of their graduates [1]. Continuous scrutiny has been placed on the design and workings of mechanisms that transition students from HEI campuses to contemporary workplaces. Public expectations essentially spur the creativity and ability of HEIs to demonstrate their obligation to grow, nurture, and unleash talents for economic and human development. As the monetary value of time dictates market demands, its rapid evolution impacts the talent market [2]. Therefore, HEIs need to know the required social talents and capacities expected to be shown by undergraduates to develop these talents at par with public expectations. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the systems that assess undergraduate employability.

Pauceanu et al. [3] defined employability as one’s sustained mobility within the job market to achieve their full potential. An individual’s employability depends on key assets, namely, knowledge, skill sets, and attitudes, which must be presented when seeking potential employers, and in the contexts of personal events and job market conditions [4]. To our knowledge, several studies have attempted to develop models (e.g., the USEM and DOTS model) to enhance graduate employability [5,6]. Among these models, the CareerEDGE model, introduced by Pool and Sewell [6], has been widely employed as a general model for studying factors that influence the development of graduate employability. In their CareerEDGE model, Pool and Sewell [6] recognized five main dimensions of employability: (1) career development learning; (2) work and life experience; (3) degree subject knowledge, skills, and understanding; (4) generic skills; and (5) emotional intelligence.

Career practitioners believe CareerEDGE has practical application in designing career interventions because the model focuses on individual factors. Edwards et al. [7] suggested that career interventions impact individual factors—they can go as far as assisting an individual’s reflection on past experiences and not make any impact at the local or national labor market levels. Herein, our focus is on self-efficacy, which is a key individual factor identified by CareerEDGE. Sufficient empirical evidence has been published to suggest that the self-efficacy of the unemployed population positively relates to job search behavior, employment outcomes [8,9], and students’ future employment outcomes [10]. Furthermore, prior studies have shown that self-efficacy can act as a potential mediator in the context of employability, e.g., [11].

Heretofore, concrete empirical research in undergraduate employability remains insufficient. Also, there is a growing demand for more investigation into the association of CareerEDGE with undergraduate employability [12]. In response, in this study, we examined the said relationship using an undergraduate sample in the North-East region of Nigeria. Additionally, we sought to provide a more comprehensive view of undergraduate employability by studying the constructs of the CareerEDGE. The primary premise of CareerEDGE is that it will result in positive employability interventions [13]. Having said that, most studies conducted qualitative reviews and model validation, which typically suffer from a lack of generalizability, instead of investigating the effect on undergraduate employability, e.g., [14]. It is not surprising that the extrapolation and comparison of findings remains challenging. With this study, we aim to contribute to the employability literature by providing a relationship analysis between CareerEDGE and undergraduate employability, as well as the mediating effect of self-efficacy. Hence, we pursued a dual-purpose study. First, we determined the effect of five CareerEDGE dimensions on undergraduate employability from the six universities in the North-East region of Nigeria. Second, we explored whether self-efficacy mediates the association between the five dimensions of CareerEDGE and the employability of the undergraduates.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Employability in the North-East Region of Nigeria

North-East Nigeria comprises six states, namely, Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba, and Yobe (Figure 1). Since 2009, the onslaught of extremist groups, such as Boko Haram, has caused dire situations for the communities in this poor and arid region. They suffer from physical and food insecurity, displacement, and unsustainable livelihoods. From 2015 to 2018, efforts were made by the Nigerian government and its military to subjugate the group. Yet, the region still suffers from intense insecurity and violence, and, in fact, these threats have been expanding since 2018. The rise of Boko Haram is fundamentally driven by the profound poverty and deprivation amongst the youths in the northern region. At the peak of the crisis, the poverty rate in the North-East climbed to 76.3%, which marks a big gap from the South-West, which reported an, albeit still high, figure of 59.1% [15]. As reported by Richard Hamilton, BBC analyst, Boko Haram remains popular in the North because of persistent and severe poverty and underdevelopment [16].

Nigeria has attempted to rejuvenate its economy with the creation of new development opportunities. Yet, the region in concern has not benefited from economic restructuring efforts because of the adverse impacts of recurrent droughts, malign agricultural growth, industrialization contraction, and job cuts within the public sector. These have pushed the northern rural and urban economy [17] toward a possible collapse as the educated youth fail to be gainfully employed and competition is stiff in the informal job sectors. Thus, the informal economy sees unemployed graduates crowding out the traditional job seekers who previously dominated this sector. This leads to the perception that an unemployed youth is undesirable among the Nigerian public, even more pronounced in the North-East, where they are considered a threat to national development. This is because the youth, as a result of their exuberance, could be exploited to undermine the stability and development of the region and the nation at any point in time [18]. Against this background, both the government and Nigerian universities must embark on massive job creation efforts to lift the youth out of the crisis. A study on undergraduate employability was deemed necessary in this context. As a result, to better understand the industry and graduate needs for employable skills, including commercial, vocational, and soft skills, this study examined the factors that affect undergraduate employability in Nigeria’s North-East region.

2.2. Employability in Higher Education

Employability refers to one’s job assets that consist of a specific skill set, knowledge, and personal traits that qualify one to be gainfully employed [19]. In the last few decades, HEIs have been examining mechanisms to improve employability among their graduates and are implementing various measures to expand and solidify these mechanics. As the main purpose of HEIs is to produce individuals with qualities that are highly demanded by the labor market [20], the concept of graduate employability takes center stage [21].

Yorke [22] described graduate employability as a combination of accomplishments—understandings, personal attributes, and capabilities—that make graduates more likely to gain and retain employment and succeed in their chosen career paths. Globally, governments have reemphasized the criteria of HEIs effectiveness to step up and meet labor market needs. Therefore, HEIs must understand these needs and further develop graduate employability accordingly, whereby opportunities for students to promptly acquire the necessary skills are created and provided [23].

This level of interest in employability shows that Becker’s [24] human capital theory remains relevant and significant among stakeholders of national development. At an institutional level, this theory encourages the government to endeavor to foster key conditions that spur human capital growth, wherein sufficient stock of quality human capital drives the performance of the 21st century knowledge-based economies. Tertiary institutions hold the same view by embedding employability development in their educational systems and culture such that their students can gain knowledge, develop skills and experiences, establish desirable behaviors, attributes, attitudes, and academic achievements, all leading them toward a successful campus-to-workplace transition to the benefit of the economy, their communities, and themselves [25]. At the individual level, university students hold employability as one of the most vital aspects of their lives, and this is even more pronounced among undergraduates.

2.3. CareerEDGE Employability Model

A broad range of theoretical models were employed to explain undergraduate employability in the related literature, including DOTS [26], the Skills-Efficacy Beliefs-Metacognition (USEM) model [27], Journey to Employment (JET) [28], a model of course provision [29], and the CareerEDGE model of employability [6]. Comparing all these models, the CareerEDGE model has been an influential model in the undergraduate employability literature, and draws upon a different theoretical tradition of career development (see Figure 2) [30]. Researchers have used the CareerEDGE model of employability empirical studies on jobs and employability because it supports the clarification of employability determinants. This model focuses on the development of HEI students. There is evidence of CareerEDGE’s superiority relative to other models, namely, USEM, the course providers model, and employability skills [31], in terms of complex problem solving and research support.

In the CareerEDGE model, five employability constructs (i.e., career development learning, work and life experience, degree subject knowledge and understanding, generic skills, and emotional intelligence) are linked to psychological factors (i.e., self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-efficacy) through reflection and evaluation [32]. Self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-efficacy are key components in relation to employability development [12]. Self-esteem and self-confidence, unlike self-efficacy, highlighted in the CareerEDGE model, are not given as much weight and attention in the context of employability [33], and, hence, were not included in our model.

Self-efficacy belief can influence self-concepts, motor confidence and competence, general feelings, and commitment levels, as well as a student’s readiness to take on a complex and difficult task [33]. In addition, self-efficacy belief in acquiring necessary abilities for employment is critical, because it can greatly influence employees’ success [34]. It can be accomplished through high-quality higher education (HE), which provides students with the confidence and skills required to enter the labor market [12]. Warburton [35] also mentioned how HE may help students develop this belief so that they can reach their highest potential in life.

Acknowledging this and the related literature, in this study, we used the CareerEDGE variables; that is, the independent variables being career development learning, work and life experience, degree subject knowledge and understanding, generic skills, and emotional intelligence; the dependent variable is employability, and self-efficacy acts as a mediator that affects employability indirectly through its impact on the CareerEDGE variables.

2.3.1. Career Development Learning and Employability

This refers to organized curriculum activities that aim to increase student employability through self-awareness, transitional learning, and decision making [32,36]. Watt [37] affirmed that career development learning in HE can improve students’ employability. Salape and Cuevas [38] found career development learning to be associated with the employability skills of high school students in the Philippines. In Malaysia, Ariffin et al. [39] also realized that work-integrated learning and career development learning has a significant impact on the employability of hospitality graduates. Along these lines, the first hypothesis was developed:

Hypothesis 1

(H1). Career development learning is positively related to undergraduate employability.

2.3.2. Work and Life Experience and Employability

This refers to the activities that young people engage in outside HEIs, often including life experience, perceptions of work experience, the development of social networks, and community involvement [28]. Several studies have shown pre-graduate working experience to be positively associated with graduates’ employability [40,41,42,43]. Results from a comparative study on four European countries indicated that in Italy, and particularly in Spain, work activities during tertiary education are linked with better labor market entry after graduation [44]. Barnes [45] also asserted that undergraduate students of any age can benefit from their work and life experiences to improve their capabilities and skills, as well as their employability. Therefore, the second study hypothesis was developed:

Hypothesis 2

(H2). Work and life experience are positively related to undergraduate employability.

2.3.3. Degree Subject Knowledge and Understanding and Employability

Degree subject knowledge, understanding, and skills are also important factors that lead to graduates’ employability [46]. Pool [47] noted that the major motives for many students to pursue HE are often to study a specific subject in depth and to obtain the degree certificate, which are expected to ultimately lead to improved employment prospects. A qualitative study conducted in the UK discovered that degree course design had a positive effect on graduates’ outcomes, specifically their ability to locate graduate-level jobs six months after graduation [48]. Brown [49] also claimed that all graduates’ employability is intimately tied to the discipline-specific skills and knowledge they gain during their university years. This construct has direct pertinence to a student’s degree, and thus, it is critical to identify the key importance of this construct of graduate employability. Therefore, a third study hypothesis was developed:

Hypothesis 3

(H3). Degree subject knowledge and understanding are positively related to undergraduate employability.

2.3.4. Generic Skills and Employability

Generic skills such as critical thinking, communication skills, and team working are key capabilities and may be used to accomplish a variety of tasks and tackle situations outside the HEI [50]. These skills are also generally referred to as soft skills, transferable skills, core skills, and key competencies [51]. Previous studies conducted in the UK and Australia demonstrated that employers appear to place a higher priority on generic skills than subject knowledge in their graduate recruits [52,53]. Zhao and Kularatne [54] found that most graduates begin their studies at New Zealand Tertiary education with some generic skills, but they all agree that study at New Zealand tertiary education improves these skills. In a similar vein, Sarkar et al. [55] revealed that science graduates from a research-intensive Australian institution believe that generic abilities are more beneficial in the workplace. Therefore, the fourth study hypothesis was developed as follows:

Hypothesis 4

(H4). Generic skills are positively related to undergraduate employability.

2.3.5. Emotional Intelligence and Employability

Emotional intelligence can be defined as the ability to recognize emotions in others, in addition to processing, managing, and using information about emotions [56]. Findings from a number of studies have substantiated the claim that emotional intelligence can predict key outcomes such as improved psychological well-being and quality social relationships at work, workplace success, better decision-making, academic achievement, and leadership qualities [57,58]. These outcomes are likely to have a significant impact on a graduate’s overall employability. The ability to develop stronger social ties can lead to more peaceful working relationships with supervisors and colleagues [59]. Improved mental and emotional well-being can help graduates avoid some of the harmful effects of organizational stress, and employers typically value a graduate’s leadership potential. Additionally, a recent study in Malaysia showed that emotional intelligence among undergraduate students is strongly linked to career adaptability, which is significant for graduate employability [60]. Therefore, raising student awareness of emotional intelligence and assisting them in developing their abilities in this area is critical. Along these lines, the fifth study hypothesis was developed as follows:

Hypothesis 5

(H5). Emotional intelligence is positively related to undergraduate employability.

2.3.6. The Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy, an element central to the theoretical construct of employability, has been defined by Bandura [61] as the degree to which an individual feels he or she can successfully complete a task to achieve the desired results. Vroom’s [62] effort–performance expectancy introduces the expectation that a person’s effort will result in good job performance. Self-efficacy may play an essential role in graduate employability because individuals who are more confident in their ability to fulfill educational requirements for certain occupational responsibilities are more inclined to consider and express interest in a wider range of career prospects [60]. Pool and Qualter [63] averred that self-efficacy had the greatest influence on graduate employability. According to social cognitive career theory [64], self-efficacy also serves as a mediating factor in career outcomes. Liu et al. [65] discovered that self-efficacy has a strong mediating effect on these associations. In the same vein, a cross-sectional study of postgraduates in China found that self-efficacy has a mediating influence on the association between servant supervision and employability [66]. Accordingly, the sixth study hypothesis was developed as follows:

Hypothesis 6

(H6). Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between the predictors and undergraduate employability.

Hypothesis 6a

(H6a). Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between career development learning and undergraduate employability.

Hypothesis 6b

(H6b). Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between degree subject knowledge and understanding and undergraduate employability.

Hypothesis 6c

(H6c). Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between emotional intelligence and undergraduate employability.

Hypothesis 6d

(H6d). Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between generic skills and undergraduate employability.

Hypothesis 6e (H6e).

Self-efficacy mediates the relationship between work and life experience and undergraduate employability.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Research Design, Sampling, and Data Collection

This study used a cross-sectional method. According to the sample size calculator [67], a sample size of 264 is required for a small effect size with 80% power and a 5% significance level. Full-time undergraduate students in their final year from six public universities in North-Eastern Nigeria were recruited using cluster random sampling. Internships and programs that promote employability skills are available at all six universities.

As can be seen in

Table 1. Demographic Profile of the Samples (n = 264).

Variables	Frequency	Percent
Age (years)
16–20	111	42.0
21–25	67	25.4
30	54	20.5
>30	32	12.1
Gender
Male	140	53.0
Female	124	47.0
Marital Status
Single	153	58.0
Married	69	26.1
Widowed	27	10.2
Divorced	15	5.7
University
Maiduguri	60	22.7
Damaturu	50	18.9
Gashua	30	11.4
Bauchi	43	16.3
Gombe	33	12.5
Yola	48	18.2
Faculty
Agriculture	50	18.9
Engineering	32	12.1
Management	182	68.9
Parent’s Occupation
Civil servant	18	6.8
Business	26	9.8
Farmer	220	83.3

, the majority of respondents were males (53%). The majority of participants (25.4%) were between the ages of 21 and 25 years. In total, 58% of those polled are single. Finally, yet importantly, the vast majority of respondents’ parents (83.3%) work in agriculture.

3.2. Measures

All scales are on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating strongly agree and 5 indicating strongly disagree. The five items of career development learning, eleven items of emotional intelligence, five items of degree subject knowledge understanding skills, and two items of life and work experience were developed by Pool et al. [12]. The Cronbach’s alpha value for these measures were 0.072, 0.83, 0.868, and 0.868, respectively.

The generic skills scale, developed by Pool et al. [12] and Raybould and Wilkins [68], is comprised of five items that assess three interrelated components of problem-solving skills, analytical skills, and interpersonal skills and groups. An example item was “I feel confident in dealing with a wide range of people.” The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was 0.918. Furthermore, Chen et al.’s [69] eight-item scale was used to assess self-efficacy (e.g., “I am certain that I can perform effectively on many different tasks”). This scale had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92.

Finally, Rothwell et al. [70] developed the employability scale, which consists of 16 items that measure perceived employability of undergraduate students according to their competencies, skills, and job market perceptions. Examples of items include: “I can easily find out about opportunities in my chosen area of work” and “I feel I could get any job as long as my skills and experiences are reasonably relevant.” The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was 0.75.

4. Data Analysis

In this study, the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was applied. The measurement and structural models were evaluated using SmartPLS 3.3.7. Bootstrapping (5000 samples) technique was used to assess standard errors and t-values for the parameters. Furthermore, the amount of missing data was computed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS version 26) program before doing analyses in the SmartPLS 3.3.7 software, Oststeinbek, Germany. In this study, the regression imputation method was employed to investigate missing data. The result revealed that the rate of missing data for items was less than 2%.

5. Findings

5.1. Descriptive Analysis of the Study Variables

Table 2. Mean, Standard Deviation, and Inter-Correlation Among Variables.

Construct	Mean	SD	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. SE	3.78	1.1	1
2. DSKS	3.57	1.25	0.472 **	1
3. GS	3.15	1.35	0.618 **	0.350 **	1
4. CDL	3.28	1.43	0.662 **	0.324 **	0.867 **	1
5. EI	3.1	1.05	0.423 **	0.281 **	0.474 **	0.469 **	1
6. EMP	3.08	1.14	0.819 **	0.548 **	0.774 **	0.801 **	0.471 **	1
7. WE	3.23	1.39	0.344 **	0.158 **	0.482 **	0.439 **	0.617 **	0.354 **	1

Note. SE = self-efficacy, DSKS = degree subject knowledge and understanding, GS = generic skills, CDL = career development learning, EI = emotional intelligence, WE = work and life experience, EMP = employability, ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed).

shows the means, standard deviations, and inter-correlations for the variables in this study. The findings of this study showed that there is a positive association between all of the constructs, which vary from 0.158 to 0.867.

5.2. Measurement Model Assessment

Construct reliability, convergent validity, and discriminate validity were employed to evaluate the measurement model [71]. The composite reliability (CR) for each construct should be more than 0.70 to determine CR (Hair et al., 2017). After excluding all factor loadings less than 0.7 from further analysis, the CR of all constructs ranged from 0.940 to 0.966, confirming the reliability of each construct (see

Table 3. Measurement Model Assessment.

Constructs	α	Rho_A	CR	AVE
CDL	0.95	0.957	0.962	0.837
DSKS	0.955	0.957	0.966	0.849
EI	0.953	0.953	0.964	0.841
EMP	0.978	0.979	0.98	0.793
GS	0.949	0.953	0.961	0.831
SE	0.923	0.942	0.94	0.67
WE	0.907	0.915	0.956	0.915

Note. SE = self-efficacy, DSKS = degree subject knowledge and understanding, GS = generic skills, CDL = career development learning, EI = emotional intelligence, WE = work and life experience, EMP = employability.

).

The measurement’s convergent validity was determined by assessing the average variance extracted (AVE) [72]. According to the findings, the AVE for each construct was greater than 0.5, indicating that all constructs were valid (see Table 3). To examine discriminant validity, the Fornell and Larcker [73] criterion and the heterotrait–monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) were used. The Fornell and Larcker criterion results revealed that the square root of the AVE for each construct was greater than the correlation between constructs, and the HTMT results revealed that all of the HTMT values were considerably below 0.85. According to the findings, discriminant validity was confirmed (see

Table 4. Fornell−Larcker Criterion.

Constructs	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1. CDL	0.915
2. DSKS	0.324	0.921
3. EI	0.641	0.427	0.917
4. EMP	0.806	0.542	0.743	0.89
5. GS	0.865	0.353	0.68	0.787	0.911
6. SE	0.679	0.483	0.65	0.831	0.641	0.818
7. WE	0.007	0.221	−0.027	0.109	0.028	0.057	0.957

Note. SE = self-efficacy, DSKS = degree subject knowledge and understanding, GS = generic skills, CDL = career development learning, EI = emotional intelligence, WE = work and life experience, EMP = employability.

and

Table 5. HTMT Criterion.

	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. CDL
2. DSKS	0.342
3. EI	0.679	0.445
4. EMP	0.835	0.561	0.768
5. GS	0.814	0.368	0.717	0.809
6. SE	0.722	0.521	0.692	0.687	0.682
7. WE	0.016	0.237	0.036	0.117	0.039	0.077

Note. SE = self-efficacy, DSKS = degree subject knowledge and understanding, GS = generic skills, CDL = career development learning, EI = emotional intelligence, WE = work and life experience, EMP = employability.

).

5.3. Structural Model Assessment

This study used the path coefficient (β), t-values, and the coefficient of determination (R²) to test the structure model [74]. Meanwhile, the predictive relevance (Q²) and effect sizes were reported in this study (f²).

The R² for the exogenous variables on the endogenous variable was 0.847, indicating that the exogenous variable career development learning (β = 0.271, p = 0.00), degree subject knowledge and understanding (β = 0.138, p = 0.00), emotional intelligence (β = 0.169, p = 0.001), generic skills (β = 0.15, p = 0.031), self-efficacy (β = 0.371, p = 0.000), and work and life experience (β = 0.056, p = 0.028) together explained the 84.7% variance in undergraduate employability. Thus, H1–H5 were proved (

Table 6. Hypotheses Testing.

Hypotheses	Relationships	Std β	T Statistics (|O/STDEV|)	P	BC 95% LL	BC 95% UL	Decision
H1	CDL→EMP	0.271	3.857	0	0.145	0.399	SU
H2	DSKS→EMP	0.138	4.81	0	0.078	0.206	SU
H3	EI→EMP	0.169	3.830	0.001	0.077	0.267	SU
H4	GS→EMP	0.15	2.390	0.031	0.013	0.291	SU
H5	WE→EMP	0.056	2.191	0.028	0.009	0.106	SU
H6a	CDL→SE→EMP	0.156	3.876	0	0.082	0.237	SU
H6b	DSKS→SE→EMP	0.082	3.424	0.001	0.04	0.132	SU
H6c	EI→SE→EMP	0.104	3.200	0.001	0.045	0.164	SU
H6d	GS→SE→EMP	0.003	0.097	0.922	−0.069	0.073	NS
H6e	WE→SE→EMP	0.005	0.280	0.776	−0.026	0.037	NS

Note. SE = self-efficacy, DSKS = degree subject knowledge and understanding, GS = generic skills, CDL = career development learning, EI = emotional intelligence, WE = work and life experience, EMP = employability, SU = supported, NS = not supported.

and Figure 1). While self-efficacy, with an R² of 0.572, indicated self-efficacy can explain 57.2% of the variance in undergraduate employability.

The effect of self-efficacy as a mediator was then examined. Table 6 shows that career development learning → self-efficacy → employability (β = 0.156, p = 0.000, BC 0.95% LL = 0.082 and UL= 0.237), degree subject knowledge and understanding → self-efficacy → employability (β = 0.082, p = 0.001, BC 0.95% LL = 0.04 and UL = 0.132), and emotional intelligence → self-efficacy → employability (β = 0.104, p = 0.001, BC 0.95% LL = 0.045 and UL = 0.164) were all significant. Thus, it can be concluded that the mediation effect is statistically significant, indicating that H6a–H6c were also supported (Table 5 and Figure 3).

Additionally, the model’s predictive relevance was assessed using the blindfolding method [75]. All the Q² values in this study were greater than zero, with Q² = 0.626 for employability and Q² = 0.359 for self-efficacy, indicating that the model is sufficiently predictive.

6. Discussion and Implications

This paper presents an overview of the current literature and practical knowledge on employability that can be implemented in HEIs to improve undergraduates’ employment prospects and employability. However, despite the wealth of information and models that provide insight into undergraduate employability, there has been little empirical research in this area. Furthermore, the majority of employability studies have been carried out in other demographic regions around the world, which may not be reflective of the Nigerian environment. This study delved into the factors that influence undergraduate employability in Nigeria, with a special emphasis on undergraduates in the North-East region. This study was guided by the Career EDGE employability model, which provided empirical evidence on individual graduate employability factors (i.e., career development learning, work experience, degree subject knowledge, skills, and understanding, generic skills, and emotional intelligence). Besides, we believe that CareerEDGE provides a complete and comprehensive model for analyzing employability of undergraduates, as stated by Baruch et al. [76]; the field of career development suffers from multiple concepts and fragmentation that frequently cause confusion rather than clarity [76].

This paper also provides an account of the cumulative knowledge of how the impact of the predictors on undergraduate employability was explained by the mediating role of self-efficacy.

To evaluate the hypotheses, the PLS-SEM was used. Career development learning, work experience, degree subject knowledge, skills, understanding, generic skills, and emotional intelligence were found to represent 57.2% and 84.7% of the variance in self-efficacy and employability, respectively. Career development learning is the first individual factor that was assumed to be a positive predictor of employability. The results confirmed this hypothesis. This finding is congruent with other studies by Watts [37] and Salape and Cuevas [38], who found career development learning a strategy to improve students’ employability. In other words, career development learning is providing students with the opportunities to build their employability. As a result, providing a varied range of professional experiences is critical in encouraging students to engage in work-related learning. Access to career development and work-related learning should be made easier with the use of learning tools and resources.

Similar to Pool and Sewell’s [6] study, degree subject knowledge and skill had a significant impact on employability. The findings, along with those of Cranmer’s [48] study, imply that academics are equally devoted to improving their graduates’ employability through subject knowledge instead of the development of job-related skills. These results confirmed that graduates who secure employment in professions that make good use of the skills and information acquired during their university studies are often successful in the graduate labor market. Furthermore, this study revealed that working experience was a significant predictor of the employability, which is consistent with the previous research of O’Leary [77]. Though the experiences of the graduates in this study were found to vary, they all indicated a significant need for employability-related support to be included in undergraduate degree programs. The findings were in agreement with the findings of Stiwne and Jungert [78], who discovered that the most beneficial learning experience was a thesis project in a company, which is an example of a well-managed approach to employability support.

Given these results, it would seem logical for universities to shift some of their resources away from classroom-based initiatives, aimed at developing employability skills, and toward increasing employment-based training and experience, as well as employer involvement in courses, which were found to positively affect immediate graduate prospects in the labor market and, thus, support graduates in the transition from HE to work.

Furthermore, this study found that generic skills were a strong predictor of employability, which is consistent with previous studies [77,79]. Other studies have demonstrated that to gain generic skills, students must constantly practice communicating with others and participating in group activities [80]. It means that incorporating soft skills into HEIs [81] will allow graduates to acquire specialized labor-market abilities [82]. According to human capital theory, there is a need to strengthen the connection between soft skill development, competencies, and content learning to ensure that graduates create the knowledge and skills required to pursue education for social development and cognitive processes [83,84]. This is a significant element, given the need for HEIs to transform and develop the younger generation by reorienting education programs [79].

The findings also show that emotional intelligence is emerging as a useful and promising individual difference in predicting employability. This finding is consistent with prior studies by Coetzee and Beukes [85], Pool [86], and Udayar et al. [87]. According to the findings, higher levels of emotional intelligence (specifically the ability to manage one’s own emotions) are associated with more confidence in exhibiting employability behaviors. These findings substantiate Salovey and Mayer’s [88] notion that emotions aid in the creation of multiple future plans, the improvement of decision-making processes, the facilitation of creative thinking, and the improvement of persistence in challenging tasks. The findings also imply that those who reported a stronger ability to self-regulate their emotions are more likely to be satisfied with the help they received in preparing for their careers. Brown et al. [89] discovered that increased ability to perceive emotions, use emotions to aid in thought, understand emotions, and regulate emotions in oneself and others is associated with emotional and intellectual growth. As a result, career preparation assistance programs should include emotional intelligence as a major component of the curriculum.

Finally, the analysis also revealed that self-efficacy mediated the effects of career development learning, subject degree knowledge, and emotional intelligence on employability. The results of this study support previous research that shows positive relationships between career development learning, subject degree knowledge, emotional intelligence, and employability, with self-efficacy as a mediator [60,63,90]. This finding also confirmed that self-efficacy influences career development learning, subject degree knowledge, and emotional intelligence, all of which are essential for the employability of undergraduates. In addition, it is critical to underline the importance of parents in developing undergraduate employability and self-efficacy. Current research reveals that self-efficacy is the main mediator of employability perceived by undergraduates. Parents need to provide youth with adequate support and resources at this stage to develop their self-efficacy and ensure their employability in the future. As a result, this study makes important recommendations on how to build sustained HEIs and labor market partnerships to foster the employability of HE undergraduates by implementing the CareerEDGE constructs in all HEIs in the North-East region of Nigeria.

7. Conclusions and Future Research Directions

In conclusion, the CareerEDGE employability model is an effective model that can be employed to investigate the factors influencing undergraduate employability in six universities in North-East Nigeria. The results contribute to the employability and career transitions literature by adding to the empirical evidence for the capacity of the CareerEDGE constructs (i.e., work experience skills; career development learning; degree subject knowledge and understanding; generic skills; and emotional intelligence) in predicting undergraduate employability. The results also indicate that self-efficacy mediates the relationship between career development learning, degree subject knowledge and skills, emotional intelligence and employability. It is anticipated that career practitioners will use these constructs to improve undergraduates’ future employability in dealing with employment challenges in Nigeria’s North-East area.

There are five limitations to this study that should be considered in future research. Since we only focus on the CareerEDGE model, there is a high risk of inference in this study. Future studies might compare other models’ explanatory ability of understanding undergraduate employability. Second, two variables found in CareerEDGE (self-confidence and self-esteem) were not included in this study. As a result, future research should include these two variables in its findings. Self-reported data collection and the use of a cross-sectional method are two other limitations of the current study. Future research should use the longitudinal technique, in addition to other data-gathering methods, such as interviews and observation. In addition, this study acknowledges that non-measurable factors, also known as soft indicators, are one of the most important resources for determining undergraduate employability. However, this study did not take into account soft indicators such as students’ ambitions, their expectations, workplace values and others. Thus, further research needs to investigate how those soft indicators affect undergraduate employment.