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Review

A Review of the Existing Potentials in Biodiesel Production in Iran

by
Behdad Shadidi
1,*,
Gholamhassan Najafi
2 and
Mohammad Ali Zolfigol
3
1
Department of Biosystem Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan 6517838695, Iran
2
Department of Biosystem Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran 14115111, Iran
3
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan 6517838695, Iran
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(6), 3284; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063284
Submission received: 23 January 2022 / Revised: 16 February 2022 / Accepted: 21 February 2022 / Published: 11 March 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Renewable and Sustainable Energy Technologies)
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Abstract

:
Petroleum fuel plays an important role in industry, transportation, agriculture and other related industries in Iran. Iran has about 9.5% of the world’s total oil reserves in 2020 and is ranked 4th in the world. The presence of sufficient conventional fossil fuels for internal combustion engines has caused environmental problems. If these Iranian fossil fuels were to run out right now, there is no suitable alternative that is just as effective. The need to research alternative fuels in Iran is therefore unavoidable. In this study, the potential and available resources of raw materials, including rapeseed oil, palm oil, fish oil, waste oil, algae, animal fat, olive oil and jatropha oil for biodiesel production in different regions of Iran, have been reviewed. Given the potentials and resources described in this study, it is hoped that the findings of this study will play an important role in biodiesel production in Iran in the future and stimulate more researchers to create biodiesel from existing sources. It is also expected that this study will increase the attention of the governmental and non-governmental organizations in Iran to the existing resources for biodiesel production and development of these resources and get rid of the existing problems of fossil fuels by investing in this field.

1. Introduction

Transportation has been powered by fossil fuels for many decades [1]. Petroleum fuel plays an important role in industry, transportation, agriculture and other related industries in Iran and meets Iran’s major energy needs. This sort of fuel provides about 93% of Iran’s power and 95% of the country’s total energy demands, including heating and other purposes. After Canada and Germany, Iran is the 11th largest consumer of fossil fuels in 2019. International sanctions against Iran in recent years have negatively affected its oil production capacity. Iran had about 9.5% of the world’s total oil reserves by 2020 and is ranked 4th in the world [2]. In addition to its benefits, the presence of this amount of reserves would create many problems in the present and future of the country.
In the transportation and agriculture sector in Iran, diesel engines are used to save better fuel consumption and more efficient power, by mainly using diesel fuel. In addition to the impacts of global warming, the presence of adequate conventional fossil fuels for internal combustion engines has resulted in environmental difficulties and air pollution as a result of fossil fuel combustion. Global warming can eventually lead to global cooling [3,4,5,6,7]. The use of fossil fuels increases the emission of environmental pollutants. For example, the amount of diesel fuel that burns daily throughout Iran leads to increased emissions of CO2, HC, NOx, SOx and many other harmful gases [8,9,10,11,12]. These gases impact the respiratory and neurological systems in addition to causing several skin illnesses [13]. According to global air quality reports, in 2019, Iran was ranked 27th among the most polluted countries in the world and its capital, Tehran, was ranked 24th among the most polluted cities in Iran. Even in 2021, on January 11, it was ranked among the 7th most polluted cities in the world [14]. Sometimes the level of air pollution in metropolitan areas is so high that the government is forced to close schools, universities and government centers and warn the elderly and people with cardiovascular disease not to leave the house.
The oil crisis is the next topic that is critical and challenging. The oil crisis, according to an American oil scientist named Hubbert, would not begin with the extraction of the last drop of oil, but rather shortly after the peak of global production. Supply and demand can no longer meet after the peak [15,16,17,18,19,20]. With the advancement of technology in the world, more energy is consumed, and fossil fuel consumption is carried out faster and will end soon. If these Iranian fossil fuels were to run out right now, there is no acceptable replacement that would be just as effective [21]. The need to research alternative fuels in Iran is therefore unavoidable.
Energy sources are often divided into two categories: renewable and non-renewable. There is a global effort to promote the use of renewable bioenergy in transportation to address issues, such as limited fuel supplies and a polluted environment [22]. Renewable energy has the ability to supply communities with affordable energy without the need for extra funding for fossil fuels [23].
Alternative fuel research is an important area of study that can help improve the performance of internal combustion engines while also lowering pollution [24,25]. Biodiesel is the name given to the biofuels that are best suited for use in diesel engines [26]. This substance is prepared from the oils of various oilseeds, such as rapeseed, waste cooking oil, Jatropha and olive [13]. One of the benefits of biodiesel is that it can be used in internal combustion engines in the same way petrodiesel can be used without requiring any changes to the engine geometry [23]. In diesel engines, biodiesel can be used pure or blended with diesel fuel and will reduce environmental pollutants [27,28]. Biodiesel has been around for almost as long as diesel engines. Rudolf Diesel successfully ran an engine for several hours on peanut oil in 1900. In 1912, he anticipated that vegetable oil will one day be used as a fuel comparable to diesel [29].
Given the foregoing, Iranian researchers have shown a strong interest in biodiesel as a renewable alternative to diesel fuel over the last two decades. Therefore, the research conducted in this field in Iran must be summarized and presented as a collection so that these results can be used for the development and utilization of biodiesel in the near future, according to the results and potential in the country. Due to so far no review paper on the production of biodiesel from various raw materials in Iran being conducted, this research must be presented in a centralized manner. Therefore, in this study, the potential and available resources of raw materials for biodiesel production in different regions of Iran have been studied, and studies conducted by Iranian researchers from universities across Iran in the field of each of these raw materials, including rapeseed oil, palm oil, fish oil, waste oil, algae, animal fat, olive oil and Jatropha oil have been reviewed. It is also expected that this study will increase the attention of the governmental and non-governmental organizations in Iran to the existing resources for biodiesel production and development of these resources and get rid of the existing problems of fossil fuels by investing in this field.

2. Production of Biodiesel

For the commercialization of biodiesel as a fuel, several biodiesel manufacturing technologies should be devised and made accessible to persons working in this field. The raw materials required for its manufacture may change from country to country. Researchers are aiming to create a range of biodiesel production processes using locally available feedstocks, such as edible and non-edible vegetable oils, animal tallow, waste cooking oil and algae with this in mind. The first stage is to lower the viscosity of the oils and fats extracted from the above-mentioned feedstocks, which is substantially higher and unsuitable for use in CI engines without modifications. Pyrolysis, dilution with hydrocarbons mixing, microemulsion, and transesterification are four methods for resolving these issues [30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37]. Transesterification is regarded as the best procedure among others [38,39,40,41] because of its low cost and simplicity. In the presence of alcohol (methanol or ethanol), the triglyceride in the oil or fat combines with an alkalime catalyst (sodium or potassium hydroxide). Glycerol (also known as glycerin) is produced as a by-product. The whole reaction of the transesterification process is depicted in Figure 1 [42,43,44].
Methanol is commonly used to make biodiesel because of its availability and quick reaction time, and the resultant product (biodiesel) is known as the methyl ester of the source oil used. Ethyl alcohol is commonly used to make biodiesel, and it is referred to as the matching oil’s ethyl esters. Propanol, isopropanol, tert-butanol, branched alcohols, octanol and butanol are additional viable options [45,46,47]. In theory, transesterification is a less expensive technique of turning the bio-big oil’s branched chemical structure into smaller, straight-chain molecules. In this reaction, 100 kg of fat or oil were combined with 10 kg of short-chain alcohol in the presence of a catalyst to produce 10 kg of glycerin and 100 kg of biodiesel. In the transesterification reaction, three moles of methanol were required to react with the vegetable oil [48].

3. Production of Biodiesel in Iran

Iran is a Middle Eastern country having a land area of around 1,648,000 square kilometers. The total area of forest lands and other wooded lands is 16,415,000 hectares, the total land area is 16,362,000 hectares and inland water bodies of Iran are about 1,200,000 hectares. For more information on the location of provinces in Iran, Figure 2 shows a map of Iran [21].
The presence of such resources, including land and water bodies, has given Iranians a great opportunity to produce biodiesel feedstock. Iran’s development must be planned in accordance with the above resources in order to achieve its goals (Figure 3). This means that Iran must prepare everything from bioenergy farms to biorefineries to fuel stations.
The nature of renewable biodiesel feedstock is one of its advantages [49]. Iran’s diverse geography and environment (average summer and winter temperatures of 19–38 and 10–25 °C, respectively) have enabled the production of a wide range of biodiesel feedstock products.

3.1. Production of Biodiesel from Rapeseed (Canola) Oil

Rapeseed is an oil crop with a 40% oil content that is commonly grown in Iran for animal feed and edible oils that may also be used to make biodiesel. Rapeseed oil is favored for biodiesel production over other oilseeds because it produces more per unit area. Due to good meteorological conditions in Iran, rapeseed farming has expanded dramatically in recent years, with production reaching 145,900 tons per year in 2010 and 400,000 tons per year by 2020. The area under cultivation and rapeseed production in Iran’s provinces are shown in Table 1.
Iranian researchers from the Tehran University of Science and Technology [51], Tarbiat Modares University [52], the University of Science and Technology Mazandaran [53], Shahrekord University [54], Gilan University [55], AmirKabir University of Technology [56], the University of Mashhad and Tabriz [57], and Sharif University of Technology [58,59] have been working to optimize the biodiesel production process in recent years, in tandem with the expansion of rapeseed production in Iran. Table 2 summarizes Iran’s activities in the field of rapeseed oil biodiesel production.

3.2. Production of Biodiesel from Palm Oil

Another biodiesel feedstock that can be easily extracted in Iran is palm oil. Iran has 24% of the area under palm cultivation in the world, which gives Iranians the potential to produce palm oil. Due to the warm climate in most of the southern regions of Iran, palm trees are mostly found in the southern provinces. Table 3 shows the area under palm tree cultivation in the provinces of Iran.
Iranian researchers from Mashhad University [60], Abureyhan University [61], Bushehr University [62], Tarbiat Modares University [63], Gonabad University [64], and Shahid Beheshti University [65,66] have conducted numerous studies on the production of biodiesel from palm oil using various methods, which are summarized in Table 4.

3.3. Production of Biodiesel from Fish oil

Iran has a 740-km coastline on the Caspian Sea and a 2440-km coastline on the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, which has strengthened the country’s fishing industry. In 2020, the amount of aquatic output in Iran by province is indicated in Table 5.
Table 6 also shows the amount of aquatic production from fishing and aquaculture. According to Table 5 and Table 6, there is a lot of potential in this industry for producing fish oil, which can also be used as a feedstock for biodiesel manufacturing.
In Iran, fish processing industries manufacture significant amounts of fish oil as a by-product. This by-product is a renewable energy source with the same calorific value as oil distillates. In local fish markets in Iran, whether in coastal towns or metropolitan cities, there is an abundance of fish waste. Experiments found that 53% of fish wastes were in the liquid phase (a mix of water, oil, and suspended particles), with extracted oil accounting for around 11% of the total weight of the waste [67].
According to the existing potential, researchers from Tarbiat Modares University [67,68], Razi University of Kermanshah [69] and Iran University of Science and Technology [70] have conducted research on the production of biodiesel from fish oil and have succeeded in extracting biodiesel from fish oil (Table 7).

3.4. Production of Biodiesel from Waste Oil

Agricultural residues, as well as waste oils, have great potential for biodiesel production in Iran. Sugarcane bagasse is one of the major agricultural residues in Iran, which according to the amount of sugarcane production in the country (Table 8) and citing that 17–20% of its production is sugarcane bagasse, 570–670 tons of sugarcane bagasse waste per year can be used to produce biodiesel.
Fresh and pure oils are more suitable for biodiesel production but are not economically viable. In contrast, the use of waste oil is cost-effective due to its ease of access and low cost [44]. According to research conducted in Iran, over 300,000 tons of waste oil (about 20% of the 1.5 million tons consumed) can be easily turned into biodiesel each year [21].
Because the cost of biodiesel fuel is mostly determined by the cost of its raw materials (oil and alcohol), choosing a cheap and non-edible oil will have a big impact on the growth and development of biodiesel fuel use. The use of waste oils obtained from the food sector, lubricants and restaurants is one of the cheapest sources. In addition to lowering the price of biodiesel produced, the usage of these vegetable oils helps to preserve the environment. The synthesis of biodiesel from waste cooking oil by Iranian academics from various colleges has received a lot of interest in recent years. Table 9 provides a summary of the research.
In addition to the research presented in Table 9, other researchers from Zanjan University [85], Kermanshah University [86,87], Kerman University [88], Tabriz University [89], the University of Tehran [90] and Tarbiat Modares University [91] have published articles on biodiesel production using waste oil.

3.5. Production of Biodiesel from Algae

Algae is a renewable energy source that can be transformed directly into biodiesel. There is increased interest in manufacturing biofuels from algae [92,93,94,95] due to the higher efficiency of non-edible oil production and its rapid development, which does not compete with land for food production. Algae oil accounts for about half of the weight of the algae and can be utilized to manufacture biodiesel. Iran has sufficient territory to cultivate algae that does not compete with food production [96,97]. Maharloo Lake, a salt lake in the Fars region, lies 18 km from Shiraz (Figure 4). Lake Urmia is located in northwestern Iran in the province of West Azerbaijan and has an approximate area of 60,000 km (Figure 5).
A new kind of algae for biofuels has emerged from the lake. The lake has turned crimson as a result of the “red tide,” an environmental phenomenon. Algae-produced foam has begun to redden Urmia, which is located off the coast of East Azerbaijan, and will eventually cover the entire lake. Algal blooms, which occur when seaweed or freshwater accumulates rapidly in water, are the cause of the “red tide” [98]. There is also Qom Lake, a seasonal saline lake with an area of around 2400 acres in the south of Tehran and in Qom Province, where algae can be farmed (Figure 6).
Because the Tigris and Euphrates rivers transfer significant volumes of sewage to the Persian Gulf, Iranian scientists have gathered two red algae, Gracilaria salicornia and Hypnea flagelliformis, from the Persian Gulf to make biodiesel. There are also 87 tiny cell species and several green algae species in the Caspian Sea (Figure 7) [98].
Microalgae of Dunaliella sp. [99], Scenedesmus sp. ISC 94 [100], Haematococcus Pluvialis [101] and Chlorella Vulgaris [102,103,104,105] by researchers of Tehran University, microalgae of Chlorella Vulgaris by researchers of Urmia University [106], microalgae of Chloropsis Oculata by researchers of Kerman University [107] and microalgae of Cyclotella by researchers of Mazandaran University [108] have been studied for biodiesel production.

3.6. Production of Biodiesel from Animal Fat

Animal fats, such as chicken, sheep and goat fat, which can be acquired from slaughterhouse waste, are one of the sources of biodiesel production. One of Iran’s most widely practiced industries is poultry farming, of which chicken farming is the most important component. Chicken slaughterhouses are operating in most districts of Iran, producing enormous volumes of trash every day. One of these wastes is chicken skin and fats inside the chicken abdominal cavity, where enormous amounts of fat build due to the specialized diet and inactivity of the chickens during the growth stage, to the point where processing this fat yields 2–12% oil [109].
According to figures from the Iranian Ministry of Agriculture, the amount of chicken produced in Iran is approximately 1.75 million tons, and the amount of red meat produced in Iran is approximately 1.75 million tons, and by including mutton, lamb, beef and goat meat, there are about 950,000 tons per year, including the import of about 100,000 tons of red meat per year; the total amount of meat in Iran reaches about 2.8 million tons. About 300,000 tons of animal fat waste is produced annually from this amount of meat during the production to consumption processes (slaughter and storage, processing and packaging, distribution and supply and eventually consumption).
In Iran, there is a large amount of waste animal fats available that has little nutritional value and can be utilized to make biodiesel. Based on this information, researchers from Neyshabour University [110], Bushehr University [111,112], Sharif University of Technology [113], Tarbiat Modares University [114,115], Tabriz University [116] and the University of Tehran [117] have conducted studies on livestock waste for biodiesel production, which are summarized in Table 10.

3.7. Production of Biodiesel from Olive Oil

Olive is an evergreen tree. This plant is one of the oldest plants in the Mediterranean region, especially in the Middle East. Olives thrive in arid and semi-arid areas with plenty of water, soil and light, as well as mild winters and long, hot, dry summers. Due to the suitable climatic conditions for the cultivation of this plant, this tree has been cultivated in Iran for more than thousands of years. The area under cultivation and the amount of production of this plant in Iran in 2020 are shown in Table 11.
Olive production yields two primary products: olives and olive oil, as well as olive pomace, a by-product. Olive pomace is a non-edible waste product that was once used to generate biodiesel [118]. One of the criticisms of biodiesel production today is that the production of agricultural products for energy competes with the production of these products for food, and as a result, this competition will lead to food shortages and rising prices [119]. Olive is a plant that the percentage of extracted edible oil is 18% to 30% and the rest is pomace [120]. Therefore, it is very logical to use this pomace to produce biodiesel. Although this source will not be able to completely replace diesel fuel, it can be used as a renewable fuel source.
According to the statistics given in Table 11, the total production of the country in 2020 was about 159,000 tons, from which it is possible to extract about 110,000 to 129,000 tons per year of non-edible olive pomace.
Based on the potential for the production of olive pomace, Rajaeeifar et al. from Tehran University [121,122] has conducted research on biodiesel production using olive pomace. It is hoped that given the potential in Iran, more researchers in the coming years will focus on the biodiesel production of this product.

3.8. Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil

Biodiesel made from Jatropha is a possible alternative to diesel fuel [123]. Iran is a vast country with special geographical features that are very different and variable in terms of climate. The average rainfall in Iran is 250 mm, which is about one-third of the world’s average (840 mm). Looking at the climate of the southern cities of Iran, we find that the Jatropha species (another biodiesel feedstock) is suitable for the conditions there. This region includes the cities of southern Iran, such as the provinces of Khuzestan, Bushehr, Hormozgan and southern Sistan and Baluchestan, as well as the islands of the Strait of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf. By examining the average rainfall in different parts of Iran, it can be seen that southern cities are suitable for planting Jatropha in terms of rainfall (Table 12). The soil of the southern regions of Iran is mostly calcareous and saline and due to the high adaptation of Jatropha to a wide range of soils, including sandy, saline and eroded soils, it can grow in the southern lands of Iran.
Due to the favorable weather conditions, especially in the south of Iran for Jatropha cultivation, Iranian researchers are expected to extensively focus on Jatropha cultivation and biodiesel extraction from this feedstock in the near future.

4. Conclusions

Iran, being among the top four countries in the world in terms of the world’s total oil reserves, should not cause the existing potential in the production of biofuels in this country to be neglected. Air pollution in densely populated cities, the annual mortality due to air pollution and such problems are the disadvantages of using fossil fuels in Iran. Moreso, fossil fuels are non-renewable and will run out one day. Therefore, existing capacities in the production of biofuels, including biodiesel, should be given more attention. Using available resources of raw materials, including rapeseed oil, palm oil, fish oil, waste oil, algae, animal fat, olive oil and Jatropha oil for biodiesel production in different regions of Iran, which were discussed in detail in this review paper, it is possible to easily use this type of fuel in the country’s fuel chain by producing biodiesel and minimize the problems of using biofuels. Instead of closing government offices, schools and universities and imposing restrictions on vehicle traffic, it is possible to improve the air pollution in Iran’s metropolises by investing in this sector. It is also suggested that such a review be done regarding the available resources for the production of other biofuels, such as alcohols, in order to determine the existing capacities in Iran in this sector for the exploiters.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.S. and G.N.; methodology, B.S.; software, G.N.; validation, B.S., G.N. and M.A.Z.; formal analysis, M.A.Z.; investigation, B.S.; resources, B.S.; data curation, G.N.; writing—original draft preparation, B.S.; writing—review and editing, M.A.Z.; visualization, M.A.Z.; supervision, B.S.; project administration, B.S.; funding acquisition, B.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

This research was conducted in collaboration with the Faculty of Agriculture, Bu Ali Sina University.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Transesterification reaction equation [42].
Figure 1. Transesterification reaction equation [42].
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Figure 2. Map of Iran [21].
Figure 2. Map of Iran [21].
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Figure 3. Biodiesel from feedstock to fuel [23].
Figure 3. Biodiesel from feedstock to fuel [23].
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Figure 4. Maharlu salt lake in Fars Province [98].
Figure 4. Maharlu salt lake in Fars Province [98].
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Figure 5. Urmia salt lake in West Azarbayjan Province [98].
Figure 5. Urmia salt lake in West Azarbayjan Province [98].
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Figure 6. Qom salt lake in Qom Province [98].
Figure 6. Qom salt lake in Qom Province [98].
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Figure 7. Algae in Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea [98].
Figure 7. Algae in Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea [98].
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Table
Table 1. The area under cultivation and rapeseed production in 2020 in Iran [50].
Table 1. The area under cultivation and rapeseed production in 2020 in Iran [50].
ProvinceArea Under Cultivation (Hectare)Rapeseed Production (Ton)
West Azarbayjan45305536
East Azarbayjan494010,421
Ardabil805018,383
Isfahan5601270
Alborz4591120
Ilam10,38921,679
Bushehr400554
Tehran10702296
Charmahal and Bakhtiari137120
South Khorasan6164
North Khorasan29103200
Razavi Khorasan36118012
Khuzestan23,20049,318
Zanjan8601289
Semnan4701680
Sistan and Baluchestan480490
Fars12,39726,295
Qazvin60009054
Qom7361900
Kurdistan34006900
Kerman16602918
Kermanshah10,20015,941
Kohgiluyeh and Buyer-Ahmad
Golestan		1526
83,720		2057
168,000
Gilan90573
Lorestan20203218
Mazandaran18,55026,582
Markazi11002250
Hormozgan12121400
Hamedan40757080
Yazd260400
Whole Country214,094400,000
Table
Table 2. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from rapeseed oil in Iran [50].
Table 2. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from rapeseed oil in Iran [50].
Name of ResearchersAlcohol TypeMolar Ratio of Alcohol to OilCatalyst UsedCatalyst AmountReaction ConditionsBiodiesel Yield (%)
Mirabdoli et al. [51]Methanol1:6NaOH0/31% wt59.95 °C for 1 h78.65
Almasi et al. [52]Methanol1:4.87KOH0/1 mol55 °C89.26
Yazdanian et al. [53]Methanol1:15K2CO3/Al2O31% wt65 °C for 2 h99
Hosseinzadeh Samani et al. [54]Methanol1:6KOH1% wt60 °C for 9 min93
Salehi et al. [55]Methanol1:4.75NaOH0/1 mol50 °C-
Hajar et al. [56]Methanol1:3Novozym 4355% wt38 °C86
Nayebzadeh et al. [57]Methanol-KOH/Ca12Al14O33-C4% wtMicrowave, 270 w for 30 min-
Khatibi et al. [58]Methanol1:9Na-K/CaO3% wt50 °C for 3 h97.6
Yousefi et al. [59]Methanol1:9Silica-exposy-50 °C98
Table
Table 3. The area under cultivation of palm tree in 2020 in Iran [50].
Table 3. The area under cultivation of palm tree in 2020 in Iran [50].
ProvinceArea under Cultivation (Hectare)
Isfahan367
Ilam93
Bushehr33,969
South Khorasan1532
Khuzestan41,085
Semnan123
Sistan and Baluchestan57,108
Fars28,752
Kerman58,855
Kermanshah726
Kohgiluyeh and Buyer-Ahmad246
Hormozgan35,567
Yazd1921
Whole Country260,209
Table
Table 4. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from palm oil in Iran.
Table 4. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from palm oil in Iran.
Name of ResearchersAlcohol TypeMolar Ratio of Alcohol to OilCatalyst UsedCatalyst AmountReaction ConditionsBiodiesel Yield (%)
Abdolrahman Karim et al. [60]Methanol1:9H2SO41% wt56 °C97.75
ZareSani et al. [61]Methanol1:6KOH1% wt45 °C88.1
Foroutan et al. [62]Methanol-KOH-60 °C for 1 h-
Zarein et al. [63]Methanol-KOH2% wt45 °C for 1 h91.1
Pourhoseini et al. [64]Methanol-Fe3O4-70 °C for 4 h-
Shahedi et al. [65]t-butanol1:2.3Novozym 4350/02% w/w47 °C94
Shahedi et al. [66]t-butanol1:5.9Novozym 435-35.6 °C78.3
Table
Table 5. The amount of aquatic production by province in 2020 in Iran [50].
Table 5. The amount of aquatic production by province in 2020 in Iran [50].
ProvinceProduction (Ton)
West Azarbayjan6812
East Azarbayjan15,425
Ardabil9655
Isfahan10,220
Alborz2500
Ilam10,098
Bushehr22,267
Tehran6772
Charmahal and Bakhtiari22,115
South Khorasan1495
North Khorasan2250
Razavi Khorasan12,290
Khuzestan80,938
Zanjan17,218
Semnan1262
Sistan and Baluchestan15,944
Fars10,601
Qazvin3998
Qom1714
Kurdistan10,638
Kerman5816
Kermanshah21,590
Kohgiluyeh and Buyer-Ahmad
Golestan		16,960
19,870
Gilan50,684
Lorestan23,980
Mazandaran80,824
Markazi6348
Hormozgan29,069
Hamedan6301
Yazd1076
Whole Country526,730
Table
Table 6. The amount of aquatic production from fishing and aquaculture in 2020 in Iran [50].
Table 6. The amount of aquatic production from fishing and aquaculture in 2020 in Iran [50].
DescriptionProduction (1000 Ton)
Fishing in southern waters720/2
Fishing in northern waters35/5
Aquaculture526/7
Whole Country1282/4
Table
Table 7. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from fish oil in Iran.
Table 7. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from fish oil in Iran.
Name of ResearchersAlcohol TypeMolar Ratio of Alcohol to OilCatalyst UsedCatalyst AmountReaction ConditionsBiodiesel Yield (%)
Yahyaei et al. [67]Methanol1:4KOH1% wt60 °C for 2 h91
Zarein et al. [68]Methanol-H2SO41% wt60 °C for 1 h90.8
Yari et al. [69]Methanol1:5.33KOH1% wtMicrowave time 0/5 min and reaction time 24.61 min92.62
Khanjani et al. [70]Methanol1:6KOH1% wt55 °C for 2 h-
Table
Table 8. The area under cultivation and sugarcane production in 2020 in Iran [50].
Table 8. The area under cultivation and sugarcane production in 2020 in Iran [50].
ProvinceArea Under Cultivation (Hectare)Sugarcane Production (Ton)
West Azarbayjan401873
East Azarbayjan26,9841,164,474
Ardabil243193,708
Isfahan128751,058
Ilam28515,100
Charmahal and Bakhtiari102245,851
South Khorasan70029,923
North Khorasan161076,850
Razavi Khorasan11,799650,530
Khuzestan11,268625,759
Semnan160372,225
Fars2700126,879
Qazvin47916,760
Kurdistan75032,935
Kerman1937870
Kermanshah6301305,790
Golestan90844,583
Lorestan3899178,128
Markazi31016,462
Hamedan5512277,117
Whole Country80,0813,383,875
Table
Table 9. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from waste oil in Iran.
Table 9. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from waste oil in Iran.
Name of ResearchersAlcohol TypeMolar Ratio of Alcohol to OilCatalyst UsedCatalyst AmountReaction ConditionsBiodiesel Yield (%)
Zenuzi et al. [71]Methanol1:9KOH1% wt--
Hajy Heidar and Tahvildari [72]Methanol1:6NaOH/Al2O31.5% wt70 °C for 3 h92.5
Hasheminezhad et al. [73]Methanol1:15KOH1% wt60 °C95.81
Alavi et al. [74]Methanol1:6NaOH1% wt65 °C for 70 min89.48
Khoobbakht and karimi [75]Methanol1:6KOH-60 °C for 1 h95
Shadidi et al. [76]Methanol1:6KOH1% wt60 °C for 1 h96.81
Pirouzmand et al. [77]Methanol1:8MCM-41-50 °C92
Aghbashlo et al. [78]Methanol1:8KOH1% wtUltrasonic reactor (F = 1.7 MH)96.5
Mohadesi et al. [79]Methanol1:2.25KOH/Clinoptilolite8.1% wt65 °C97.45
Helmi et al. [80]Methanol1:6Phosphomolybdic acid/graphene oxide0/5% wtelectrolysis method
(V = 60, T = 24 h)		90.39
Babaki et al. [81]t-butanul1:3Rhizomucor miehei (RML) Candida antarctica (CALB)22.5% wt50 °C91.5
Fereidooni and Mehrpooya [82]Methanol1:7KOH/zeolite/chitosan2% wtelectrolysis method
(V = 40)		93
Mohadesi et al. [83]n-hexane1:14.75CaO/scoria1% wt59.7 °C97.7
Dehghani Soufi et al. [84]Methanol1:4K2CO31% wtVertical pulsed column (F = 3.6 Hz)83.3
Table
Table 10. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from waste animal fats in Iran.
Table 10. Summary of activities carried out in the field of biodiesel production from waste animal fats in Iran.
Name of ResearchersAnimal Fat TypeAlcohol TypeMolar Ratio of Alcohol to FatCatalyst UsedCatalyst AmountReaction ConditionsBiodiesel Yield (%)
Didar [110]BeefMethanol1:6NaOH1% wt78 °C for 2 h-
Keihani et al. [111]ChickenMethanol1:9CaO Nanocatalyst1% wt65 °C for 5 h94.4
Seffati et al. [112]Chicken fatMethanol1:15CaO/CuFe2O43% wt70 °C for 4 h94.52
Karimi Alavijeh et al. [113]Beef tallowMethanol1:6H2SO48% wt-95
Ansari Ardali et al. [114]Chicken fatMethanol1:6KOH1.25% wt60 °C for 1 h93
Fayyazi et al. [115]Chicken fatMethanol1:7KOH1% wtUltrasonic waves for 9 min94.8
Foroutan et al. [116]Chicken fatMethanol1:14.5Na2SiO35% wt70 °C for 132 min98.77
Abedi et al. [117]Beef tallowMethanol1:6KOH1% wtUltrasonic amplitude of 60% and 9 min at 45 °C-
Table
Table 11. The area under cultivation of olive in 2020 in Iran [50].
Table 11. The area under cultivation of olive in 2020 in Iran [50].
ProvinceArea Under Cultivation (Hectare)Olive Production (Ton)
Ardabil529170
Isfahan986935
Ilam621878
Bushehr8070
Tehran1230913
South Khorasan3221
North Khorasan20017
Khuzestan19592591
Zanjan20,15645,010
Semnan435212,253
Sistan and Baluchestan423339
Fars944025,433
Qazvin952026,800
Qom621412
Kerman32794390
Kermanshah10013740
Kohgiluyeh and Buyer-Ahmad
Golestan		851
7137		353
11,004
Gilan915117,550
Lorestan5952189
Mazandaran844167
Markazi819285
Hormozgan8992
Yazd23642340
Whole Country77,382158,378
Table
Table 12. The average rainfall in different parts of Iran [50].
Table 12. The average rainfall in different parts of Iran [50].
Main AreasAverage Rainfall (mm) (2020)Average 11 YearsAverage 50 Years
Caspian Sea279/9273/7255/1
Persian Gulf and Oman Sea332/1242/3287/2
West217/4220/3208/7
Central Plateau126/8101/4114/7
East86/260/176/1
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Shadidi, B.; Najafi, G.; Zolfigol, M.A. A Review of the Existing Potentials in Biodiesel Production in Iran. Sustainability 2022, 14, 3284. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063284

AMA Style

Shadidi B, Najafi G, Zolfigol MA. A Review of the Existing Potentials in Biodiesel Production in Iran. Sustainability. 2022; 14(6):3284. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063284

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shadidi, Behdad, Gholamhassan Najafi, and Mohammad Ali Zolfigol. 2022. "A Review of the Existing Potentials in Biodiesel Production in Iran" Sustainability 14, no. 6: 3284. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063284

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