Pollutants Emitted from 3D Printers onto Operators
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Very volatile organic compounds (VVOCs).
- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
- Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs).
2. Research Methodology
- (a)
- For the operator standing in front of the printer:
- Element order: Linear → first-order elements—these are elements which only have a node at the vertex; they are sufficient for the purpose of this study, because a large model with many nodes is assumed.
- Type of elements used: Tet4 (4 Nodes tetrahedral).
- Global element size: 100 mm.
- Number of nodes = 222,314.
- Number of finite elements = 1,202,884.
- Thanks to the introduction of a parameter controlling the desired skewness = 0.5, a mesh of high overall quality with a small number of deformed elements was obtained.
- (b)
- For the operator leaning in front of the printer:
- Element order: Linear → first-order elements—these are elements which only have a node at the vertex; they are sufficient for the purpose of this study, because a large model with many nodes is assumed.
- Type of elements used: Tet4 (4 Nodes tetrahedral).
- Global element size: 100 mm.
- Number of nodes = 20,6957.
- Number of finite elements = 1,118,843.
- Thanks to the introduction of a parameter controlling the desired skewness = 0.5, a mesh of high overall quality with a small number of deformed elements was obtained.
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
3D | Three-Dimensional |
FDM | Fused Deposition Modelling |
FFF | Fused Filament Fabrication |
VOCs | Very Volatile Organic Compounds |
VVOCs | Volatile Organic Compounds |
SVOCs | Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds |
ABS | Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene |
ASA | Acetylsalicylic Acid |
PLA | Polylactic Acid |
PET | Polyethylene Terephthalate |
PET-G | High Density Polyethylene Terephthalate |
HIPS | High Impact Polystyrene |
PS | Polystyrene |
LD50 | Lethal Dose, 50% |
LC50 | Lethal Concentration, 50% |
WHO | World Health Organization |
CFD | Computational fluid dynamics |
HEPA | High-Efficiency Particulate Air |
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ABS Emission | CAS Number | NDS (Poland) | NDSch (Poland) | OSHA TWA | OSHA C | NOISH TWA (USA) | NOISH ST (USA) | Odour Threshold | Conversion |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg/m3 | mg/m3 | ppm | ppm | ppm | ppm | ppm | mg/m3/ppm | ||
Styrene | 100-42-5 | 50 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 50 | 100 | 0.016 | 4.26 |
Ethylbenzene | 100-41-4 | 200 | 400 | 100 | - | 100 | 125 | 0.27 | 4.34 |
Benzaldehyde | 100-52-7 | 10 | 20 | No limits | No limits | No limits | No limits | 0.042 | 5.18 |
Trichloroethene | 79-00-5 | 40 | - | 10 | - | 10 | - | 0.5 | 5.46 |
Acetaldehyde | 75-07-0 | - | 45 | 200 | - | 200 | - | 0.067 | 1.18 |
Formaldehyde | 50-00-0 | 0.37 | 0.74 | 0.16 | 0.1 | 0.75 | 2 | 0.5 | 1.23 |
1-butanol | 71-36-3 | 50 | 150 | 100 | - | 50 | - | 0.83 | 3.03 |
p.m-Xylene | 1330-20-7 (isomer mix) | 100 | 200 | 100 | - | 100 | 150 | 1 | 4.35 |
Ethanol | 64-17-5 | 1900 | - | 1000 | - | 1000 | - | 84 | 1.89 |
Acetone | 67-64-1 | 600 | 1800 | 1000 | - | 250 | - | 42 | 2.38 |
Propylene glycol | 107-21-1 | 15 | 50 | No limits | No limits | No limits | No limits | 39 | 2.49 |
Hexenal | 66-25-1 | 40 | 80 | 500 (PEL) | - | No limits | No limits | 5.2 | - |
Emitted Substance | CAS Number | Route of Exposure | Symptoms and Effects | Toxicity |
---|---|---|---|---|
Styrene | 100-42-5 | Eye, skin contact, ingestion, inhalation |
| LD50 oral rat: 2650 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rat: 12 mg/m3/4 h |
Ethylbenzene | 100-41-4 | Inhalation, eye contact |
| LD50 oral, rat: 3500 mg/kg LD50 dermal, rabbit 15.4 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rat: 17.2 mg/L/4 h |
Benzaldehyde | 100-52-7 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 oral, rat: 1300 mg/kg LD50 dermal, rabbit: 1250 mg/kg |
Trichloroethene | 79-00-5 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LC50 inhalation, rat: 140,700 mg/m3 LD50 oral, rat: 4920 mg/kg |
Acetaldehyde | 75-07-0 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 dermal, rat: 3540 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rabbit 13,300 ppm/kg |
mFormaldehyde | 50-00-0 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 oral, rat: 500 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rat: 0.578 mg/L |
1-butanol | 71-36-3 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 oral, rat: 700 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rat: 8000 ppm |
p,m-Xylene | 1330-20-7 (isomer mix) | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 oral, rat: 3608 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rat: 4330 ppm |
Ethanol | 64-17-5 | Ingestion, inhalation |
| LD50 oral, rat: 7.060 mg/kg LC50 inhalation, rat: 95.6 mg/L/4 h |
Acetone | 67-64-1 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 oral, rat: 9570 mg/kg |
Propylene glycol | 107-21-1 | Eye, skin contact |
| LD50 oral, rat: 30,000 mg/kg LD50 dermal, rat: 10,000 mg/kg |
Hexenal | 66-25-1 | Eye, skin contact, inhalation, ingestion |
| LD50 oral, rat: 4890 mg/kg |
Property | Units | Value (s) |
---|---|---|
Density | kg/m3 | 1.225 |
Viscosity | kg/ms | 1.7894 × 10−5 |
Molecular weight | kg/kmol | 28.966 |
Property | Units | Value (s) |
---|---|---|
Density | kg/m3 | 1.225 |
Viscosity | kg/ms | 1.7894 × 10−5 |
Molecular weight | kg/kmol | 28.966 |
Property | Units | Value (s) |
---|---|---|
Density | kg/m3 | 0.6679 |
Viscosity | kg/ms | 1.087 × 10−5 |
Molecular weight | kg/kmol | 16.04303 |
Property | Units | Value (s) |
---|---|---|
Density | kg/m3 | 1.7878 |
Viscosity | kg/ms | 1.37 × 10−5 |
Molecular weight | kg/kmol | 44.00995 |
Outflow Time [s] | Pollutant Density [kg/m3] | ||
---|---|---|---|
1.225 Density the Same as Ambient Density | 0.6679 Lighter than Air | 1.7878 Heavier than Air | |
0.5 | |||
1.0 | |||
1.5 | |||
2 | |||
2.5 |
Outflow Time [s] | Pollutant Density [kg/m3] | ||
---|---|---|---|
1.225 Density the Same as Ambient Density | 0.6679 Lighter than Air | 1.7878 Heavier than Air | |
0.5 | |||
1.0 | |||
1.5 | |||
2 | |||
2.5 |
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Karwasz, A.; Osiński, F.; Łukaszewski, K. Pollutants Emitted from 3D Printers onto Operators. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1400. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031400
Karwasz A, Osiński F, Łukaszewski K. Pollutants Emitted from 3D Printers onto Operators. Sustainability. 2022; 14(3):1400. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031400
Chicago/Turabian StyleKarwasz, Anna, Filip Osiński, and Krzysztof Łukaszewski. 2022. "Pollutants Emitted from 3D Printers onto Operators" Sustainability 14, no. 3: 1400. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031400