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Article

Ecological Insight, Anatomical Features, and Fiber Characterization of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forrsk.) Decne. as a Promising Resource

by
Ahmed M. Abd-ElGawad
1,2,*,
Abdulaziz M. Assaeed
1,
Giuliano Bonanomi
3 and
Yasser A. El-Amier
2,*
1
Plant Production Department, College of Food & Agriculture Sciences, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
2
Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
3
Department of Agriculture, University of Naples Federico II, Portici, 80055 Naples, Italy
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(24), 16895; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416895
Submission received: 5 October 2022 / Revised: 5 December 2022 / Accepted: 12 December 2022 / Published: 16 December 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Agriculture, Forestry and Urban Ecosystems)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Wild plants are considered promising natural eco-friendly resources for fibers. Leptadenia pyrotechnica is a xerophytic shrub that flourishes in a sandy desert habitat with high biomass production; therefore, it could be a potential resource for fibers. The present study aimed to investigate the vegetation composition of L. pyrotechnica communities and their correlation with soil variables. Additionally, this study aimed to evaluate the anatomical features of the stem as well as fiber characteristics, including chemical, biometry, morphological, and optical properties. The vegetation analysis showed the presence of 60 species belonging to 22 families, with a prevalence of therophytes. Four communities were determined, dominated by L. pyrotechnica and with co-dominance of the shrubs Haloxylon salicornicum, Ochradenus baccatus, and Retama raetam. The soil organic matter, salinity, texture, and cations were parameters that substantially affect the L. pyrotechnica community. The anatomical investigation showed the structural (anatomical) adaptation of L. pyrotechnica to arid habitats. Chemical analysis of the raw plant material revealed satisfactory levels of cellulose and hemicellulose (48.61% and 18.59%), while lignin and ash contents were relatively low, compared to hardwoods and softwoods. The fiber characterization revealed that fibesr length was 0.72 mm, while width and cell wall thickness were 20.46 and 6.48 μm, respectively. The optical properties revealed a birefringence of 0.028, indicating a good refractive index. These fiber characteristics showed that L. pyrotechnica could be used as raw material for the production of good-quality paper. A further feasibility study is recommended for the evaluation of L. pyrotechnica fibers, as a promising resource for papermaking at a large scale.

1. Introduction

Plant natural resources provide people with many commodities other than food such as building materials, furniture, medicines, herbicides, gums, and resins, as well as raw material for paper, textiles, and other fiber industries [1]. People have been using plant fibers as sustainable biomaterials for thousands of years in order to meet human needs such as clothes, bags, ropes, paper, and baskets [2]. All plant families contain fibers that vary greatly in their physical properties to be used in various industries including in paper-making and even in medical applications as promising biodegradable biomaterials [3,4]. Recently, the optical characteristics as well as fiber biometry have played a significant role in the characterization and performance of natural and synthetic fibers. Refractive indices, birefringence, thickness, and transverse sectional shape of a single fiber are basic parameters that specify the transmission characteristics of that fiber [5].
Asclepiadaceae, the milkweed family, attained the eightieth order of the Natural System of Plants, with approximately 315 genera and 2900 plant species. This family entails erect herbs, shrubby climbers, and some succulent species. Most plants of this family are widely disseminated in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. They are especially found in the drier parts of Africa and South America [6]. Plants of this family have been widely utilized either in the past or today for their medicinal properties as they possess many biological activities such as antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, insecticide, astringent, and anabolic activities [7,8]. Additionally, some species of Asclepiadaceae are characterized by good fibers [9].
Leptadenia pyrotechnica (syn. Cynanchum pyrotechnicum Forrsk.) is a xerophytic, erect leafless shrub (up to 3 m high). It belongs geographically to the old World Tropics [10]. The plant bears numerous long, virgate, spinescent branches close to the ground that have a minute and deciduous leaves. L. pyrotechnica is growing in the sandy desert of Saudi Arabia and Egypt [10,11]. This plant is a strong soil binder and among the pioneer shrubs that fix sand dunes due to prolonged and extensive root system. The branches are dried and soaked in water and woven for rope making and are used in thatching huts [12]. Medicinally, the aqueous extract of L. pyrotechnica was reported to be given to cows and goats after delivery for the expulsion of the placenta [13]. The preliminary phytochemical examination of L. pyrotechnica shows the presence of steroidal glycosides, cardenolides, alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenes, and polyoxypregnane derivatives [14,15,16].
Due to the exponential increase in the human population, and increasing demand for raw materials, the search for sustainable eco-friendly natural resources is necessary nowadays [17]. The ecology and fiber potentiality of Leptadenia species are not well studied yet. Therefore, the research objectives were (i) assessment of the vegetation composition of the habitat dominated by L. pyrotechnica in the desert ecosystem, (ii) determining the soil variable supporting the growth of L. pyrotechnica population, (iii) investigating the anatomical and fiber features (fiber chemistry, dimensions, and optical properties) of L. pyrotechnica stem, and (iv) evaluating the suitability of fibers as a natural resource for the paper industry using fiber indices.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Vegetation Analysis

Twenty stands were randomly chosen along the Wadi Arabah, northeastern Desert of Egypt (Figure 1). Within each stand (30 × 30 m), the density and cover of all species associated with L. pyrotechnica were determined [18,19]. The importance value of each species (out of 200) was calculated for each species upon on the relative values of density and cover. The taxonomic nomenclature and identification as well as the chorotypes of plant species were assessed according to Boulos [6,20]. The plant life forms were identified based on the system of Raunkiaer [21].

2.2. Soil Analysis

Three soil samples were collected from each stand and mixed in the field to obtain one composite sample. Hence, a total of 20 samples were collected, packed in polyethylene bags, and transferred to the laboratory for further chemical and physical analyses. Soil samples were ground and passed through a 2 mm sieve to eradicate any impurities. Soil texture, porosity, water holding capacity (WHC), sulphate, and organic carbon were determined according to Piper [22]. The content of calcium carbonate was assessed in the dry soil following the protocol by Jackson [23]. Soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and chloride were measured in water suspension (1:2.5) as described by Jackson [23]. The content of bicarbonates and carbonates was measured by titration using 0.1 N HCl [24]. According to Allen et al. [25], Na+ and K+ contents were measured in soil solution by a flame photometer (PHF 80B Biologie Spectrophotometer); meanwhile, Ca2+ and Mg2+ were estimated using the atomic absorption spectrometer (A Perkin-Elmer, Model 2380, Wellesley, MA, USA).

2.3. Anatomical Analysis

The anatomical investigation was performed according to the methods designed by Jensen [26] and Peacock and Bradbury [27]. In brief, the fresh stem of L. pyrotechnica was taken from the healthy plants and cut into small strips (2.0 cm in length and 0.5–1.0 cm in width), then directly placed in vials containing a fixative (Formalin-Aceto-Alcohol, 10:5:85, v/v). The specimens were dehydrated, sectioned, and fixed on the slides following the standard methods of Esau [28] and Fahn [29]. The slides were examined and photographed using an Olympus microscope coupled with a digital camera described previously in El-Amier and Abd El-Gawad [30].

2.4. Fiber Characteristics

2.4.1. Chemical Properties

The stems of L. pyrotechnica were collected from different populations of the studied area during March (the flowering stage) and merged as a composite sample. The stems were washed with distilled water several times and dried at room temperature (25 ± 3 °C) until complete dryness. The dried samples were ground into a powder using a grinder and preserved in a paper bag in a refrigerator (4 °C) until use.
The ash and lignin contents of L. pyrotechnica sample were assessed according to T222 cm-99 and T211 om-02 [31], while holocellulose (cellulose + hemicelluloses) content was determined by degrading the lignin polymer according to Allen et al. [25] method. The Inductivity Coupled Plasma optical emission spectrometer (Thermo Scientific™ iCAP™ 7000 Plus Series ICP-OES, Waltham, MA, USA) was used for the determination of seven metals (N, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al and Si) of plant tissue with a standard calibration method. The different metals were extracted by wet oxidation with concentrated HNO3 under pressure in a microwave digester. The wavelengths used in ICP-OES were selected according to the method of ISO [32].

2.4.2. Biometry and Morphological Properties of Fiber

Fresh stems L. pyrotechnica were collected, cut into small pieces, and immersed in a maceration solution consisting of glacial acetic acid and H2O2 (1:1 v/v) in the screw cap glass tubes. The tubes were incubated in an oven at 65 °C for 24–28 h. The pulp is rinsed with distilled water and shaken well to separate fiber cells of xylem tissue to be ready for measuring [33,34]. The macerated fragments were stained with safranin for 30 min, loaded on clean microscopic glass slides, and examined by a full automatic Olympus microscope.
Fiber length and width were measured and photographed at 100× and 400×. The thickness of cell walls and lumen diameters were measured using the system consisting of Leica DMLS microscope connected to a camera Leica DFC490 at 400×. A total of 50 fibers were measured to achieve the accuracy of the properties. From the data, the average fiber dimensions were calculated and the following derived indices were calculated according to the formulas of Albert et al. [35] and Pirralho et al. [36] the follows:
F i b e r   s l e n d e r n e s s   r a t i o = F i b e r   l e n g t h f i b e r   d i a m e t e r
F l e x i b i l i t y   r a t i o = 100 × F i b e r   l u m e n   d i a m e t e r F i b e r   d i a m e t e r
R u n k e l   r a t i o = F i b e r   c e l l   w a l l   t h i c k n e s s × 2 F i b e r   l u m e n   d i a m e t e r
R i g i d i t y   c o e f f i c i e n t = 100 × C e l l   w a l l   t h i c k n e s s F i b e r   d i a m e t e r
F e l t i n g   o r   i n f l e c t i o n   i n d e x = f i b e r   l e n g t h F i b e r   w i d t h

2.4.3. Optical Properties

The optical properties of fibers are used to give information about the structural properties of natural and synthetic fibers, and regular and irregular fibers. The Pluta microscope provides an easy and quick method for measuring the mean refractive indices and the mean birefringence (∆n) of heterogeneous fibers [37,38]. The measurement of birefringence is crucial for studying the molecular orientation in polymer fibers (Figure 2). The Pluta interference microscope is considered as a two-beam polarizing interference system [38] with the aid of a stretching device, and a CCD camera was used to carry out the experimental work. In this work, the modified automatic stretching device has been used [39]. The stretching device consists of two-step motors rotating in a reverse direction to produce extension with a fixed sample length. The motors were controlled using a suitable interfacing circuit, connected to the parallel port of the PC, and driven using software designed to control the two stepper motors, and recording the various strain values in their real-time during the stretching process up to about fracture. Birefringence (∆n) of fibers was calculated using the equation of Simmens [40] as follows:
Δ n = Δ F ʎ b A
where ∆F is the measured enclosed area under the fringe shift, ʎ is the wavelength (546.1 nm) of light used, b is the inter-fringe spacing, and A is the cross-sectional area of the fiber.

2.5. Treatment of Data

The data of soil analysis were subjected to one-way ANOVA followed by Duncan’s post hoc test at a significance level of 0.05 using the COSTAT software program (CoHort Software, Monterey, CA, USA). The plant species diversity indices (richness and evenness) of the different identified vegetation groups was calculated based on the data of density analysis using the following equations:
Shannon − Wiener   diversity   index   ( H ) = ∑ i − 1 s P i ln ( P i )
Shannon   evenness   index   ( E ) = H ln s
Simpson   diversity   index   ( D ) = ∑ i [ n i × ( n i − 1 ) ] [ N × ( N − 1 ) ]
where Pi = ni/N, which is the proportional abundance of species “i” in a community of “s” species. The “ni” is the number of stands containing species “i”.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Floristic Composition of the L. pyrotechnica Habitat

The floristic analysis of the inland desert region (Wadi Arabah) revealed the presence of 60 plant species (23 annuals, two biennials, and 35 perennials) belonging to 51 genera and related to 22 families (Table S1). The diverse species of the wadi system is attributed to the drainage system and wide watercourses of the wadi, which provide wild plants with water and in consequence generate dense vegetation of perennials as dominants and other annuals as associated species [41,42]. On the other hand, the rainy season provides a better opportunity for the appearance of a considerable number of annuals, which constitute the second component of the floristic composition in the present study.
Asteraceae is the major identified family in the present study, which is represented by 15 species. The second identified major family is the Fabaceae (7 species), followed by Poaceae (6 species), Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Zygophyllaceae (4 species, each) (Table S1). These six families constituted 66.67% of the recorded species, and represent most of the floristic structure in the study area, while the other 16 families shared 33.33% of the species and 12 families were monospecific. In harmony with other related studies, these families were also reported as major families in the North African flora [43], and within the same phytogeographical region [41,42,44]. Poaceae is the fifth-largest family of flowering plants, following the Asteraceae and Fabaceae in the world [43].
The life-form analysis of the recorded species according to [21] showed that therophytes are the most represented life form (40%), followed by chamaephytes (35%), hemicryptophytes (13%), and nanophanerophytes (10%). However, geophytes were represented by one species only (Table S1). The prevalence of therophytes over other forms could be ascribed to their short life cycle that permits them to resist the instability of the habitat, resources, and biotic impact [44]. In Egyptian flora, therophytes represent about 50%. Moreover, the relatively high value of chamaephytes of the plant species in the present study may be attributed to the ability of these plant species to resist drought, salinity, and grazing [45]. The widespread of the Saharo-Sindian species (73%) in the study area is a good indicator of harsh desert environmental conditions. This observation is in accordance with the results obtained by Danin and Plitmann [46] on the phytogeographical analysis of the flora of Israel and Sinai, and [44] on vegetation analysis and species diversity in Wadi Hagul in the northern sector of the Eastern Desert.

3.2. Vegetation Analysis of L. pyrotechnica Communities

Based on the importance values of the identified plant species, the classification analysis revealed four plant communities (Table 1). Firstly, community-I has consisted of 29 species, represented by four stands, and co-dominated by L. pyrotechnica and Haloxylon salicornicum. In addition, this habitat has an average Shannon evenness value of 0.84 and Simpson diversity value of 0.96 (Table 1).
The other important associated species were desert plants including both perennials (Fagonia mollis, Diplotaxis harra, Astragalus spinosus, and Zygophyllum coccineum) and annuals (Bassia muricata, Rumex vesicarius, and Senecio glaucus) that flourished during the rainy season. The soil of this community is characterized by a high content of sand, organic materials, and a higher level of porosity compared to other communities, while it attained a lower content of silt, Cl−, and SO42− (Table 2). Secondly, community-II was co-dominated by Zilla spinosa and Retama raetam. It was the most diversified community among all groups (33 species) with an average Simpson diversity value of 0.98 and Shannon evenness value of 0.87 (Table 1). The other important associated species were L. pyrotechnica, Emex spinosa, Zygophyllum coccineum, Zygophyllum simplex, Launaea nudicaulis, and Fagonia mollis. The soil composition of this community is characterized by higher WHC, CaCO3, and SO42−, compared to other communities (Table 2).
Thirdly, community III is the largest (containing seven stands), and it was dominated by L. pyrotechnica. This community has an average Shannon evenness value of 0.85 and a Simpson diversity value of 0.94 (Table 1). The other important species were Ochradenus baccatus, Retama raetam, Zygophyllum coccineum, Pulicaria undulata, Lavandula coronopifolia, Zilla spinosa, and Launaea spinosa. The soil of this community exhibited the lowest content of the most determined parameters, except for the pH (Table 2). Finally, community IV was co-dominated by Retama raetam and Ochradenus baccatus. It was the least diverse community among the recognized communities, where it attained an average Simpson diversity value of 0.93 and a Shannon evenness value of 0.79 (Table 1). The other important species which attain relatively high importance values in this group were L. pyrotechnica, Launaea spinosa, Echinops spinosus, Astragalus spinosus, Haloxylon salicornicum, and Deverra tortuosa. The soil of the stands representing this habitat is characterized by the highest content of most measured parameters (EC, silt, clay, organic materials, Cl−, HCO3, Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+), except for pH, sand, and porosity (Table 2).

3.3. Anatomical Investigation of L. pyrotechnica Stem

The light microscopy observation of the transverse sections of L. pyrotechnica stems revealed the prevalence of four distinct tissue systems, including vessels, fibers, parenchyma, and collenchyma cells (Figure 3). The stem of L. pyrotechnica is more or less circular (Figure 3b).
Sclereids were prevalent in the cortex, which appear to be almost characteristic of the Asclepiadaceae family, and they are present throughout all life forms [47]. There are continuous cylinders of collenchyma cells and sclerenchyma below the epidermis. A cell-layered hypodermis was apparent and composed of compactly arranged thin-walled parenchyma (Figure 3c). The cortex is composed of morphologically two distinct types of cells. The outer cortex has relatively small cells, while the innermost part of the cortex is composed of large cells with irregular shapes and sizes. The portion between the outer and inner cortex possesses a discontinuous layer of cortical fibers (Figure 3c).
As the secondary growth progresses further, the xylem of the stem forms a closed circle. The secondary xylem is diffuse-porous with indistinct growth rings and composed of vessels, fiber tracheids, and ray parenchyma cells (Figure 3d). A special feature is the presence of phloem islands (interxylary phloem) of various dimensions embedded irregularly within the thick-walled xylem derivatives in L. pyrotechnica. Sieve-tube groups in the xylem are surrounded by parenchymatic cells (Figure 3d). Vessels are predominantly solitary, but radial or tangential multiples of 2–3 vessels are occasionally observed. The secondary xylem of L. pyrotechnica shows vessel dimorphism, i.e., some of the vessels are wide or narrow with small lumen diameter showing exceptionally thick walls. It is interesting to note in some regions in the secondary xylem are devoid of vessels and are exclusively composed of rays and fiber tracheids (Figure 3b,d). Fiber tracheids are thin- to thick-walled fibers and lignified.
Xylem rays are heterogeneous, which are composed of vertically upright cells, and are mostly uniseriate, while multiseriate rays are observed occasionally (Figure 3d). Ray cells passing through the lignified derivatives are thick walled and lignified, while they are thin walled when passing through the phloem islands. The occurrence of a thin walled and randomly distributed parenchyma is a characteristic feature of the pith (Figure 3d).

3.4. Fiber Characteristics of L. pyrotechnica

3.4.1. Chemical Properties

The chemical composition of L. pyrotechnica in comparison with some common representatives of lignocellulosic plants is shown in Table 3.
The combination of cellulose and hemicelluloses is called holocellulose and usually accounts for 65–70% of the plant’s dry weight [51]. L. pyrotechnica shows a relatively high cellulose content of 48.61%, compared to the Sudanese L. pyrotechnica [9] and sunflower [49], but higher than that of date palm leaves [48] and lower than that of rice straw [49]. Large amounts of cellulose are suitable for the pulp and paper industry (above 40%) [52]. On the other hand, L. pyrotechnica shows a relatively reasonable amount of hemicellulose (18.59%), compared to rice straw and sunflower values of 21.33% and 21%, respectively [49]. The utilization of hemicelluloses is based on their effective fractionation from lignocellulose of plant cell walls [53]. The obtained result may explain the higher solubility of L. pyrotechnica fibers in alkali solvent in paper-producing processes [54]. These results are not in line with Sudanese L. pyrotechnica and palm leaves [9,48]. Lignin content was found in L. pyrotechnica (15.77%) compared with those of the listed plants (15.34–21.70%) in Table 3. Ash content in L. pyrotechnica was low (2.26%), and compatible with hardwoods plants (1–3%) and Sudanese L. pyrotechnica, but lower than that of rice straw and sunflower listed in Table 3. The high ash content in materials was unfavorable for papermaking, which caused chemical recovery problems, and increased alkali consumption and wood damage, thus reducing the efficiency of the pulping process [55].
The content of undesirable minerals in the pulping process can be minimized by choosing suitable raw fiber materials in pulp and paper production [56]. The results of elemental analysis are listed in Table 3. L. pyrotechnica exhibited the following levels: N (1.48) > Na (0.61) > K (0.41) > Ca (0.24) > Mg (0.09) > Al (0.06) > Si (0.05). High levels of trace elements are undesirable, which interfere with the bleaching of chemicals and alkali metals in pulp processes. From the elemental analysis, silicon is negligible in L. pyrotechnica (0.05%), which is the most harmful element in the raw material used in papermaking, because it complicates the process of chemical recovery, cooking and can affect paper quality [57]. Similar results were observed for Eucheuma cottonii [58], Pennisetum glaucum, and date palm leaves [48].
There are wide variations of chemical composition among different plant species and within different parts of the same plant. Additionally, the chemical composition also varies within plants from different geographic locations, ages, climate, and soil conditions [59].

3.4.2. Biometry Properties

Macerated plant fragments from L. pyrotechnica were studied on microscopic slides and examined by a full automatic Olympus microscope (Figure 4). The basic biometry that affected the physical properties of fibers for the paper industry is fiber dimensions including fiber length, fiber width, and fiber cell wall thickness [60]. The basic dimensions of L. pyrotechnica and their comparison with some annual fiber-producing plants are summarized in Table 4.
The results show that the fiber length of L. pyrotechnica ranged from 0.61 to 0.87 mm. The fiber length in this study is lower than 2.7–4.6 mm for softwood fibers and in the range of hardwood (0.7–1.6 mm), as reported by Comlekcioglu et al. [61]. According to the Association of Wood Anatomists, the fibers of L. pyrotechnica are classified as short natural fibers [62]. These fibers were similar to Sudanese L. pyrotechnica [9] and non-wood plants such as rice straw [49], but lower than sunflower and sugarcane bagasse [49,50]. In previous studies on lignocellulosic materials, Amode and Jeetah [63] and Nasser et al. [64] reported that short fibers would give a smoother paper because they will fill the voids in the paper sheet, while the handsheet formed from long fibers would result in higher strength properties. Watson and Dadswell [65] showed that the higher the fiber length, the better the tearing resistance of paper. Therefore, paper made from these materials showed good mechanical strength. In the present study, the average fiber width and lumen diameter of L. pyrotechnica (20.46 and 10.87 μm, respectively) are consistent with those found in previous studies carried out for different lignocellulosic materials but thinner than those of sunflower fibers (Table 4). On the other hand, the average cell wall thickness of L. pyrotechnica (6.48 μm) is thicker compared to that of rice straw, sunflower and sugarcane bagasse [49,50]. However, longer fiber with lower cell wall thickness showed significant advantages in the physical properties of the produced paper [66].

3.4.3. Morphological Properties

In this study, values derived from the fiber biometrics help to predict the suitability of biomaterial for the paper industry, are listed in Table 4. The slenderness ratio of L. pyrotechnica fibers ranged from 31.87 to 40.81, and it was reported that the acceptable value for the slenderness ratio of fibrous material is more than 33, the lignocellulosic material is considered to be good for papermaking [52]. Rigid fibers do not have efficient elasticity; they are not suitable for paper production. Therefore, they are usually used for fiber plate and cardboard production [67]. L. pyrotechnica fibers showed an average higher rigidity of 31.67, compared to 30.44 for Cymodocea serrulata [52] and 26.4 gor Ricinus communis [9]. Anoop et al. [68] stated that the rigidity coefficient values adversely affect the burst, tear, tensile and double-fold resistance of the paper. Moreover, it was reported that if the felting power of fibrous material is less than 70, it can be utilized in the paper industry [69].
The flexibility ratio is among the most important factors for evaluating the strength properties of paper and is influenced by the thickness of fiber walls. This characteristic determines the degree of fiber-fiber bonding in paper sheets [70]. It has been reported that flexibility ratio values range from 50 to 75 for hardwood and softwood species [71]. The flexibility ratio of L. pyrotechnica ranged from 52.30% to 55.53%, thus the selected biomaterial was suitable for paper production (Table 4). Runkel’s ratio is another important measure for evaluating the degree of fiber collapse during its product transformation process. Previous studies stated that the raw material with Runkel’s ratio ˂ 1 is considered ideal for the paper industry, being more flexible. In contrast, a higher Runkel’s ratio showed lower tear, burst, and tensile indices [70]. In this work, the value of Runkel’s ratio ranged between 1.16 and 1.22. Similar results were also observed in other past studies listed in Table 4.

3.4.4. Optical Properties

The birefringence and the directional refractive indices are generally accepted as good indicators of molecular orientation, structural homogeneity, crystallinity, and other physical properties, which determine the functional behavior of fibers. The high birefringence (highly oriented fiber) gives an indication that the fibers have a good tensile strength function [5]. The result showed that the birefringence of L. pyrotechnica is 0.028, which can be used as raw material for the production of good-quality paper (Table 4).

4. Conclusions

The chemical properties of L. pyrotechnica showed high cellulose and moderate lignin contents, which boost its suitability as an economically justifiable raw material for pulp/paper production. L. pyrotechnica exhibited the following levels of elemental analysis: N (1.48) > Na (0.61) > K (0.41) > Ca (0.24) > Mg (0.09) > Al (0.06) > Si (0.05). Silicon is tiny in L. pyrotechnica, which is the most harmful element in the raw material used in papermaking and can affect paper quality. According to the Association of Wood Anatomists, the fibers of L. pyrotechnica are classified as short natural fibers. These fibers were similar to non-wood plants such as rice straw. Previous studies on lignocellulosic materials reported that short fibers would give a smoother paper, while the handsheet formed from long fibers would result in higher strength properties. The light microscope examinations indicated that the secondary xylem of L. pyrotechnica is exclusively composed of rays and fiber tracheids; these fibers are thin to thick walled and lignified. Although the vegetation analysis indicated that L. pyrotechnica dominated or co-dominated the study area’s habitats, reflecting the high biomass production of this shrub that could be a promising resource for the fiber production industry, a further study is recommended for evaluating the sustainable cultivation of this promising fiber-producing plant at a large scale.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su142416895/s1, Table S1: Vegetation composition of Leptadenia pyrotechnica habitat in Wadi Arabah, Egypt, and the life forms of different associated plants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M.A.-E. and Y.A.E.-A.; formal analysis, A.M.A.-E. and Y.A.E.-A.; investigation, A.M.A.-E., A.M.A., G.B. and Y.A.E.-A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.M.A.-E. and Y.A.E.-A.; writing—review and editing, A.M.A.-E., A.M.A., G.B. and Y.A.E.-A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project no. (IFKSURG-2-77).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their appreciation to the Deputyship for Research & Innovation, Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia for funding this research work through the project no. (IFKSURG-2-77).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 14 16895 g001 550
Figure 1. Map showing the studied area in the Eastern Desert and sampling sites (1–20 showed as red circle) in Wadi Arabah.
Figure 1. Map showing the studied area in the Eastern Desert and sampling sites (1–20 showed as red circle) in Wadi Arabah.
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Figure 2. Schematic diagram illustrating the optical system of a two-beam Pluta interference microscope with one birefringent prism, where A—source of light, B—polarizer, C—slit diaphragm, D—condenser, E: stretching device, F: fiber sample, G—microscope stage, H—objective lens, I—a Wollaston prism, J—analyzer, K: condenser lens, L—eyepiece, and M—microinterferogram (non-duplicated image of the fiber).
Figure 2. Schematic diagram illustrating the optical system of a two-beam Pluta interference microscope with one birefringent prism, where A—source of light, B—polarizer, C—slit diaphragm, D—condenser, E: stretching device, F: fiber sample, G—microscope stage, H—objective lens, I—a Wollaston prism, J—analyzer, K: condenser lens, L—eyepiece, and M—microinterferogram (non-duplicated image of the fiber).
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Figure 3. Shrub of L. pyrotechnica and transverse section in the stem. (a) L. pyrotechnica habitat, hyperarid climate, Egypt desert, Sahara. (b) Cross-sections of stem showing phloem islands in secondary xylem. (c) Magnified part of stem showing cortical fibers. (d) A portion of xylem showing the composition of secondary xylem and intraxylary phloem. Ep: Epidermis, F: fibers, PhI: phloem islands, SX: Secondary xylem, P: pith, EC: external cortex, IC: internal cortex, CF: cortical fibers, Ph: phloem, XV: xylem vessels, ST: sieve tube, PC: parenchyma cells, VR: vascular rays, and PX: protoxylem.
Figure 3. Shrub of L. pyrotechnica and transverse section in the stem. (a) L. pyrotechnica habitat, hyperarid climate, Egypt desert, Sahara. (b) Cross-sections of stem showing phloem islands in secondary xylem. (c) Magnified part of stem showing cortical fibers. (d) A portion of xylem showing the composition of secondary xylem and intraxylary phloem. Ep: Epidermis, F: fibers, PhI: phloem islands, SX: Secondary xylem, P: pith, EC: external cortex, IC: internal cortex, CF: cortical fibers, Ph: phloem, XV: xylem vessels, ST: sieve tube, PC: parenchyma cells, VR: vascular rays, and PX: protoxylem.
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Figure 4. Longitudinal view of the fiber microscopy for L. pyrotechnica stem.
Figure 4. Longitudinal view of the fiber microscopy for L. pyrotechnica stem.
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Table
Table 1. Plant diversity, dominant and important species of Leptadenia pyrotechnica community.
Table 1. Plant diversity, dominant and important species of Leptadenia pyrotechnica community.
GroupStandsTotal
Species		Shannon EvennessSimpson
Diversity		Dominant
Species		Other Important Species
I5, 6, 7, 20290.840.96Leptadenia pyrotechnica (31.45 ± 2.13)
Haloxylon salicornicum (29.52 ± 1.82) *		Diplotaxis harra (20.21 ± 2.47) *
Senecio glaucus (16.09 ± 0.87)
Rumex vesicarius (12.85 ± 1.37)
Zygophyllum coccineum (11.80 ± 2.09)
Bassia muricata (9.89 ± 0.43)
Astragalus spinosus (9.54 ± 0.47)
Fagonia mollis (7.93 ± 0.56)
II13, 17, 18, 19330.870.98Zilla spinosa (26.60 ± 2.48)
Retama raetam (25.98 ± 1.39)		Leptadenia pyrotechnica (24.97 ± 3.10)
Emex spinosa (17.62 ± 2.54)
Zygophyllum coccineum (9.41 ± 1.77)
Zygophyllum simplex (9.05 ± 0.86)
Launaea nudicaulis (8.93 ± 0.78)
Fagonia mollis (8.10 ± 0.46)
III1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 15230.850.94Leptadenia pyrotechnica (40.84 ± 2.88)Ochradenus baccatus (21.15 ± 1.27)
Retama raetam (17.71 ± 1.69)
Zygophyllum coccineum (15.83 ± 0.49)
Pulicaria undulata (14.62 ± 0.83)
Lavandula coronopifolia (12.99 ± 0.76)
Zilla spinosa (12.52 ± 0.88)
Launaea spinosa (10.14 ± 0.37)
IV2, 8, 11, 14, 16200.790.93Retama raetam (35.20 ± 2.09)
Ochradenus baccatus (34.95 ± 2.17)		Leptadenia pyrotechnica (15.43 ± 0.98)
Launaea spinosa (15.24 ± 0.67)
Echinops spinosus (14.96 ± 1.85)
Astragalus spinosus (14.23 ± 0.36)
Haloxylon salicornicum (13.43 ± 0.67)
Deverra tortuosa (8.55 ± 0.51)
* Values are the means ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 2. Soil variables (Mean values ± standard error) of different identified communities of Leptadenia pyrotechnica.
Table 2. Soil variables (Mean values ± standard error) of different identified communities of Leptadenia pyrotechnica.
Soil VariablesPlant GroupF-Value
A (n = 4)B (n = 4)C (n = 7)D (n = 5)
pH8.03 ± 0.068.03 ± 0.078.09 ± 0.037.95 ± 0.030.21
EC (mS cm−1)0.83 ± 0.160.82 ± 0.080.74 ± 0.040.84 ± 0.110.05
Sand (%)86.74 ± 1.5485.45 ± 1.9286.02 ± 0.9282.01 ± 0.990.65
Silt (%)10.88 ± 1.4412.15 ± 1.7412.16 ± 0.8415.42 ± 0.980.64
Clay (%)2.38 ± 0.242.40 ± 0.221.83 ± 0.112.57 ± 0.081.29
Porosity (%)34.51 ± 1.6831.48 ± 0.5133.34 ± 0.2329.95 ± 0.611.09
WHC (%)24.26 ± 0.6729.79 ± 1.9427.80 ± 0.8726.48 ± 0.400.85
CaCO3 (%)18.75 ± 1.4520.84 ± 1.1117.29 ± 1.0917.84 ± 1.080.08
OC (%)0.26 ± 0.010.25 ± 0.010.24 ± 0.000.26 ± 0.010.02
Cl− (%)0.08 ± 0.000.12 ± 0.020.09 ± 0.000.14 ± 0.011.45
SO42− (%)0.26 ± 0.020.45 ± 0.050.29 ± 0.020.34 ± 0.011.25
HCO3− (%)1.33 ± 0.071.37 ± 0.081.16 ± 0.031.53 ± 0.071.02
Na+ (mg g−1)353.75 ± 110.97352.85 ± 53.89286.60 ± 30.10369.03 ± 74.880.05
K+ (mg g−1)50.37 ± 11.5745.97 ± 4.7942.26 ± 3.1850.79 ± 7.810.08
Ca2+ (mg g−1)114.30 ± 31.67113.05 ± 15.8295.65 ± 8.63115.46 ± 21.440.04
Mg2+ (mg g−1)60.94 ± 15.1354.89 ± 6.1750.76 ± 4.1961.46 ± 10.340.09
EC: electrical conductivity, WHC: water holding capacity, and OC: organic carbon.
Table
Table 3. Chemical properties of L. pyrotechnica and some other common fibrous plant species.
Table 3. Chemical properties of L. pyrotechnica and some other common fibrous plant species.
Plant SpeciesChemical CompositionsElemental AnalysisReference
Holocellulose (%)Cellulose (%)Hemicelluloses (%)Lignin (%)Ash (%)N (%)Na (%)K (%)Ca (%)Mg (%)Al (%)Si (%)
L. pyrotechnica67.2048.6118.5915.772.261.480.610.410.240.090.060.05Current study
L. pyrotechnica66.4044.3022.1021.702.401.19N/AN/A0.130.050.120.07[9]
Date palm leaves61.6339.0022.6315.342.06N/A1.86N/A0.680.260.300.37[48]
Rice straw71.6650.3321.33N/A15.73N/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/A[49]
Sugarcane bagasseN/A55.75N/A20.501.85N/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/A[50]
Sunflower67.0046.0021.00N/A7.60N/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/AN/A[49]
N/A: not available.
Table
Table 4. Morphological and optical properties of L. pyrotechnica fiber and some annual common plants.
Table 4. Morphological and optical properties of L. pyrotechnica fiber and some annual common plants.
PropertiesL. pyrotechnicaL. pyrotechnicaRice StrawSunflowerSugarcane
Bagasse
RangeMean±SD
Biometry properties
Fiber length (mm)0.61–0.870.720.030.700.830.961.5
Fiber width (μm)19.14–21.3220.462.3218.2010.8922.8420.96
Lumen diameter (μm)10.01–11.8410.871.4111.404.5711.129.72
Cell wall thickness (μm)5.81–7.226.481.837.003.165.855.64
Morphological properties
Felting power31.87–40.8135.191.6138.4676.5842.0375.86
Rigidity coefficient30.4–33.931.670.9238.46N/AN/AN/A
Slenderness ratio31.87–40.8135.191.6438.4676.5842.0375.86
Flexibility ratio52.30–55.5353.132.4162.6441.9648.6846.37
Runkel ratio1.16–1.221.190.111.231.381.051.16
Optical properties
Birefringence (Ana)0.0018N/AN/AN/AN/A
ReferenceCurrent study[9][49][49][50]
N/A: not available.
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Abd-ElGawad, A.M.; Assaeed, A.M.; Bonanomi, G.; El-Amier, Y.A. Ecological Insight, Anatomical Features, and Fiber Characterization of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forrsk.) Decne. as a Promising Resource. Sustainability 2022, 14, 16895. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416895

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Abd-ElGawad AM, Assaeed AM, Bonanomi G, El-Amier YA. Ecological Insight, Anatomical Features, and Fiber Characterization of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forrsk.) Decne. as a Promising Resource. Sustainability. 2022; 14(24):16895. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416895

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Abd-ElGawad, Ahmed M., Abdulaziz M. Assaeed, Giuliano Bonanomi, and Yasser A. El-Amier. 2022. "Ecological Insight, Anatomical Features, and Fiber Characterization of Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forrsk.) Decne. as a Promising Resource" Sustainability 14, no. 24: 16895. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142416895

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