Mobility Disruptions in Accra: Recurrent Flooding, Fragile Infrastructure and Climate Change
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Methodology
2.2. Survey Design
2.3. Sampling Strategy
2.4. Profile of Respondents
3. Results
3.1. Type and Magnitude of Mobility Disruptions
3.2. Mobility Disruptions across Neighborhoods
3.3. Mobility Disruptions across Travel Patterns
3.4. Mobility Disruptions across Traveler Characteristics
3.5. Implications for Livelihoods and Access to Markets and Services
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Location | North-Western Consolidated Areas | Western Coastal Area | North-Eastern Peripheral Areas | North-Western Peripheral Areas | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Neighborhood | Santa Maria | Kwashiebu | Antiaku | Glefe | Frafraha | New Legon | New Legon Hills | Ampax/River Estate | Pokuase Old Village | Windy Hills | Total |
Neighborhood characteristics | |||||||||||
Geophysical characteristics | Low-lying riverine terrain | Low-lying riverine terrain | Hilly, undulated terrain | Narrow sand strip, along coastal lagoons | Low-lying riverine terrain | Low-lying riverine terrain | Low-lying riverine terrain | Marshy wetland terrain | Low-lying riverine terrain | Hilly, undulated terrain | |
Inclusion into the urban extent | 1990s | 1990s | 1990s | 1990s | 2000s | 2000s | 2010s | 2000s | 2000s | 2010s | |
Stage of consolidation | Consolidated | Consolidated | Consolidated | Consolidated | Recently developed | Recently developed | Newly developing | Recently developed | Consolidated | Newly developing | |
Characteristics of main respondents | |||||||||||
Male (%) | 40.4 | 53.9 | 53.0 | 48.2 | 42.2 | 50.5 | 50.0 | 40.6 | 49.1 | 54.2 | 48.1 |
Female (%) | 59.6 | 46.1 | 47.0 | 51.8 | 57.8 | 49.5 | 50.0 | 59.4 | 50.9 | 45.8 | 51.9 |
Average age (years) | 42.3 | 39.9 | 39.1 | 38.5 | 38.7 | 41.0 | 40.1 | 39.0 | 41.4 | 39.4. | 39.9 |
Ave. length of residence in neighborhood (years) | 12.7 | 13.3 | 13.1 | 11.5 | 7.5 | 6.4 | 4.9 | 7.6 | 16.0 | 7.4 | 10.0 |
Highest level of schooling completed by main respondent | |||||||||||
Primary school/no education received (%) | 11.2 | 16.7 | 11.2 | 23.2 | 11.9 | 11.9 | 23.6 | 19.0 | 17.1 | 112 | 15.8 |
Technical/vocational training (%) | 12.1 | 2.0 | 5.1 | 5.4 | 2.8 | 6.9 | 2.8 | 1.0 | 7.6 | 7.5 | 5.3 |
Secondary school (%) | 44.9 | 49.0 | 42.9 | 63.4 | 56.0 | 55.4 | 54.7 | 63.0 | 58.1 | 52.3 | 54.1 |
Tertiary education (%) | 31.8 | 32.4 | 40.8 | 8.0 | 29.4 | 25.7 | 17.9 | 17.0 | 17.1 | 29.0 | 24.7 |
Vehicle ownership | |||||||||||
Household owns one or more vehicles (%) | 38.5 | 35.3 | 36.7 | 12.5 | 45.9 | 47.5 | 37.7 | 26.0 | 24.5 | 37.7 | 34.1 |
Dwelling type | |||||||||||
Separate house (%) | 45.9 | 43.1 | 55.0 | 14.3 | 59.6 | 61.4 | 57.5 | 47.5 | 28.3 | 57.0 | 46.7 |
Semi-detached house (%) | 7.3 | 14.7 | 11.0 | 3.6 | 9.2 | 9.9 | 6.6 | 4.0 | 4.7 | 9.3 | 8.0 |
Apartment (%) | 8.3 | 4.9 | 3.0 | 0.9 | 4.6 | 4.0 | 3.8 | 5.9 | 0.9 | 7.5 | 4.4 |
Compound house (%) | 37.6 | 35.3 | 30.0 | 81.3 | 15.6 | 18.8 | 20.8 | 39.6 | 66.0 | 24.3 | 37.2 |
Other (%) | 0.9 | 2.0 | 1.0 | - | 11.0 | 6.0 | 11.3 | 3.0 | - | 1.8 | 3.0 |
Dwelling size | |||||||||||
1 bedroom (%) | 42.2 | 51.0 | 34.0 | 70.5 | 34.6 | 28.3 | 46.2 | 36.4 | 62.3 | 35.2 | 44.4 |
2 bedrooms (%) | 22.0 | 12.0 | 23.7 | 17.9 | 21.5 | 27.3 | 18.9 | 38.4 | 22.6 | 26.7 | 23.0 |
3–4 bedrooms (%) | 25.7 | 24.0 | 28.8 | 8.1 | 31.8 | 31.3 | 30.2 | 21.2 | 10.3 | 29.5 | 23.9 |
5 or more bedrooms (%) | 10.1 | 13.0 | 13.4 | 3.6 | 12.0 | 13.2 | 4.7 | 4.0 | 4.7 | 8.6 | 8.7 |
Tenure form | |||||||||||
Owner-occupier (%) | 41.7 | 42.6 | 51.0 | 34.8 | 43.1 | 39.6 | 32.1 | 51.5 | 40.6 | 53.3 | 42.9 |
Tenant (%) | 46.3 | 41.6 | 32.0 | 51.8 | 20.2 | 27.7 | 21.7 | 36.6 | 36.8 | 21.5 | 33.7 |
Living rent-free (%) | 6.5 | 11.9 | 14.0 | 11.6 | 18.3 | 17.8 | 18.9 | 5.0 | 20.8 | 16.8 | 14.2 |
Caretaker (%) | 5.6 | 4.0 | 3.0 | - | 17.4 | 14.9 | 26.4 | 5.9 | 1.9 | 8.4 | 8.8 |
Dwelling outfitted with the following amenities: | |||||||||||
Piped water (%) | 74.3 | 75.5 | 62.0 | 31.3 | 36.7 | 47.5 | 14.2 | 34.7 | 20.8 | 17.8 | 41.2 |
Electricity meter (%) | 100 | 95.1 | 99.0 | 99.1 | 93.6 | 95.0 | 88.7 | 95.0 | 99.1 | 92.5 | 95.7 |
WC/ Improved Pit Latrine (%) | 97.2 | 100 | 98.0 | 27.7 | 79.8 | 78.2 | 65.1 | 87.1 | 73.6 | 88.8 | 79.1 |
Security gate/wall | 64.2 | 70.6 | 55.0 | 11.6 | 51.4 | 45.5 | 29.2 | 35.6 | 17.9 | 30.8 | 40.9 |
Valid Responses | Not at Home/Not Willing to Participate | None of the Occupants Fit Inclusion Criteria | Partially Completed, Unoccupied Structure | Non-Residential Building | Total No. of GPS Points Visited | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Santa Maria | 109 | 10 | 9 | 6 | 3 | 137 |
Kwashiebu | 102 | 19 | 9 | 6 | 8 | 144 |
Antiaku | 100 | 22 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 139 |
Glefe | 112 | 4 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 121 |
Frafraha | 109 | 20 | 13 | 5 | 1 | 148 |
New Legon | 101 | 9 | 18 | 3 | 0 | 131 |
New Legon Hills | 106 | 14 | 14 | 28 | 2 | 164 |
Ampax/River Estate | 101 | 20 | 12 | 25 | 9 | 167 |
Pokuase Old Village | 106 | 5 | 10 | 3 | 12 | 136 |
Windy Hills | 107 | 16 | 18 | 39 | 11 | 191 |
Total | 1053 | 139 | 113 | 120 | 53 | 1478 |
Type of Mobility Disruption | Prolonged Travel Time | Modified Travel Patterns | Inability to Travel | Damage to Roads | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Variable * | I Waited Somewhere along the Road for the Rain to Stop or the Water to Recede | I Experienced Severe Traffic Congestion Due to Heavy Rains | I Used an Alternative or Longer Route to My Destination | I Used an Alternative Mean of Transportation than I Normally Would | I Avoided or Postponed Leaving My Home for a Planned Trip | I Rushed to Pick up Children from School before the Rains ** | I Was Unable to Travel in or out of My Neighborhood for One or More Days | I Was Unable to Access Public Transport Due to the Rains | It Was Too Difficult or Dangerous to Travel Due to the Rains | I Could Not Travel Because Roads Elsewhere in the City Were Blocked by Water | The Roads around My Home or Leading in/out of My Neighborhood Were Not Passable | Roads in My Neighborhood Suffered Severe Erosion Due to the Rains | My Vehicle Was Damaged by Water or Mud on the Roads |
Total | 68.4 | 48.2 | 32.8 | 36.0 | 63.5 | 21.3 | 55.5 | 31.5 | 46.2 | 23.3 | 55.2 | 54.0 | 7.4 |
Neighborhoods | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** |
Santa Maria | 80.7 | 57.8 | 41.3 | 41.3 | 75.2 | 19.7 | 62.0 | 38.5 | 63.3 | 39.4 | 62.4 | 59.6 | 11.0 |
Kwashiebu | 48.0 | 50.0 | 30.4 | 43.1 | 52.0 | 25.0 | 54.5 | 27.5 | 33.3 | 23.5 | 53.9 | 38.2 | 6.9 |
Antiaku | 75.0 | 53.0 | 47.0 | 45.0 | 59.0 | 19.3 | 59.2 | 34.0 | 45.0 | 44.0 | 49.0 | 64.0 | 6.0 |
Glefe | 75.0 | 57.1 | 30.4 | 34.8 | 64.3 | 13.3 | 52.7 | 29.5 | 45.5 | 22.3 | 45.5 | 34.8 | 1.8 |
Frafraha | 62.4 | 46.8 | 26.6 | 36.7 | 58.7 | 28.4 | 56.9 | 26.6 | 44.0 | 13.8 | 59.6 | 55.0 | 8.3 |
New Legon | 68.3 | 54.5 | 29.7 | 34.7 | 69.3 | 31.8 | 60.0 | 41.6 | 54.5 | 26.7 | 66.3 | 65.3 | 14.9 |
New Legon Hills | 78.3 | 52.8 | 51.9 | 49.1 | 84.0 | 29.0 | 80.0 | 60.4 | 67.0 | 30.2 | 90.6 | 69.8 | 12.3 |
Ampax/River Estate | 76.2 | 35.6 | 27.7 | 26.7 | 58.4 | 27.1 | 41.8 | 21.8 | 37.6 | 13.9 | 49.5 | 40.6 | 3.0 |
Pokuase Old Village | 62.3 | 43.4 | 30.2 | 32.1 | 67.0 | 9.4 | 47.1 | 20.8 | 40.6 | 13.2 | 34.0 | 46.2 | 3.8 |
Windy Hills | 57.0 | 30.8 | 13.1 | 16.8 | 46.7 | 12.0 | 41.3 | 15.0 | 29.9 | 6.5 | 41.1 | 67.3 | 6.5 |
Travel intensity—no. of hours in transit on a normal weekday | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | ||||||||
0–1 h | 60.1 | 40.4 | 29.8 | 37.2 | 56.0 | 20.5 | 45.3 | 30.7 | 44.5 | 20.2 | 52.8 | 45.4 | 6.0 |
1–2 h | 72.5 | 46.3 | 31.7 | 37.2 | 59.2 | 18.9 | 58.5 | 31.4 | 47.4 | 21.2 | 53.4 | 49.6 | 3.3 |
2–3 h | 69.2 | 53.6 | 33.6 | 32.7 | 62.6 | 23.2 | 60.7 | 31.3 | 44.1 | 26.1 | 54.0 | 55.9 | 10.4 |
3–4 h | 69.3 | 55.3 | 36.8 | 36.0 | 63.2 | 25.6 | 59.3 | 26.3 | 47.4 | 25.4 | 57.9 | 70.2 | 7.0 |
> 4 h | 68.3 | 57.4 | 40.6 | 44.6 | 55.4 | 21.5 | 58.9 | 40.6 | 48.5 | 27.7 | 65.3 | 68.3 | 14.9 |
Travel frequency—no. of trips in relation to primary livelihood activities | *** | ||||||||||||
Less than once a week | 72.5 | 46.1 | 27.5 | 32.4 | 66.7 | 17.9 | 57.4 | 32.4 | 50.0 | 18.6 | 53.9 | 55.9 | 4.9 |
1–2 times a week | 68.6 | 47.0 | 28.0 | 36.0 | 58.7 | 21.3 | 56.0 | 32.2 | 42.0 | 20.1 | 54.9 | 49.6 | 4.2 |
3–4 times a week | 67.1 | 46.7 | 32.3 | 34.1 | 61.7 | 19.8 | 58.8 | 29.3 | 48.5 | 24.0 | 58.7 | 52.7 | 5.4 |
5–7 times week | 68.0 | 49.9 | 36.3 | 37.0 | 57.3 | 22.3 | 54.5 | 32.0 | 47.4 | 25.9 | 54.8 | 56.3 | 10.3 |
Vehicle ownership | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | |||||||
Non-vehicle owners | 70.6 | 46.9 | 31.4 | 37.5 | 60.1 | 18.3 | 53.5 | 31.1 | 45.7 | 20.5 | 53.0 | 50.7 | 1.9 |
Vehicle owners | 64.2 | 50.6 | 34.9 | 32.7 | 57.5 | 26.9 | 56.6 | 32.1 | 46.9 | 28.5 | 59.8 | 60.1 | 17.9 |
Gender | *** | ||||||||||||
Male | 68.6 | 50.5 | 32.7 | 34.9 | 56.8 | 24.0 | 54.7 | 30.4 | 46.9 | 25.2 | 55.4 | 55.0 | 10.5 |
Female | 68.1 | 46.2 | 32.8 | 37.0 | 61.4 | 19.5 | 56.3 | 32.6 | 45.4 | 21.4 | 54.9 | 53.1 | 4.6 |
Age | *** | *** | *** | ||||||||||
Below 30 | 67.6 | 46.8 | 34.3 | 34.7 | 55.6 | 19.8 | 51.0 | 31.0 | 42.1 | 22.2 | 54.2 | 52.3 | 8.3 |
Between 30–60 | 69.0 | 50.3 | 32.9 | 38.7 | 59.3 | 23.3 | 56.7 | 32.0 | 48.1 | 24.0 | 56.7 | 56.1 | 7.4 |
Above 60 | 57.6 | 47.0 | 25.8 | 22.7 | 60.6 | 8.8 | 56.1 | 25.8 | 30.3 | 25.8 | 40.9 | 47.0 | 4.5 |
Educational level | *** | *** | *** | *** | *** | ||||||||
Primary school/no education received | 77.0 | 52.7 | 26.1 | 38.2 | 26.1 | 24.0 | 64.6 | 35.8 | 49.1 | 22.4 | 61.2 | 49.1 | 2.4 |
Technical/vocational training | 69.4 | 44.3 | 32.7 | 36.4 | 28.6 | 20.8 | 56.5 | 31.3 | 44.6 | 21.7 | 54.9 | 51.4 | 6.0 |
Secondary school | 69.6 | 46.4 | 37.5 | 35.7 | 28.6 | 9.1 | 48.2 | 28.6 | 44.6 | 26.8 | 48.2 | 50.0 | 8.9 |
Tertiary education | 60.6 | 54.1 | 35.1 | 34.0 | 27.8 | 23.4 | 49.4 | 30.1 | 48.3 | 26.3 | 53.3 | 63.7 | 13.5 |
Indicators * | Inability to Purchase Food or Household Necessities Outside Neighborhood | Inability to Procure Supplies from Bulk Goods Markets in Central Accra | Inability to Access Health Services Outside Neighborhood (i.e., Hospitals or Health Clinics) | School-Going Children in the Household Missed One or More School Day(s) ** | Adult Household Members Had to Stay Home to Watch Children ** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Santa Maria | 28.4 | 27.5 | 12.8 | 24.2 | 18.2 |
Kwashiebu | 27.7 | 25.7 | 7.9 | 41.7 | 36.7 |
Antiaku | 20.4 | 22.7 | 9.2 | 35.1 | 29.8 |
Glefe | 19.8 | 22.5 | 7.2 | 40.7 | 34.5 |
Frafraha | 44.8 | 32.1 | 13.2 | 38.0 | 33.8 |
New Legon | 44.0 | 37.6 | 10.9 | 47.6 | 33.3 |
New Legon Hills | 43.1 | 33.7 | 16.7 | 69.1 | 51.5 |
Ampax/River Estate | 11.1 | 27.0 | 6.9 | 46.4 | 31.9 |
Pokuase Old Village | 13.2 | 23.6 | 7.5 | 27.9 | 21.0 |
Windy Hills | 12.5 | 9.3 | 4.7 | 21.6 | 10.8 |
Total | 26.5 | 26.1 | 9.7 | 39.2 | 30.2 |
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Andreasen, M.H.; Agergaard, J.; Møller-Jensen, L.; Oteng-Ababio, M.; Yiran, G.A.B. Mobility Disruptions in Accra: Recurrent Flooding, Fragile Infrastructure and Climate Change. Sustainability 2022, 14, 13790. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113790
Andreasen MH, Agergaard J, Møller-Jensen L, Oteng-Ababio M, Yiran GAB. Mobility Disruptions in Accra: Recurrent Flooding, Fragile Infrastructure and Climate Change. Sustainability. 2022; 14(21):13790. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113790
Chicago/Turabian StyleAndreasen, Manja Hoppe, Jytte Agergaard, Lasse Møller-Jensen, Martin Oteng-Ababio, and Gerald Albert Baeribameng Yiran. 2022. "Mobility Disruptions in Accra: Recurrent Flooding, Fragile Infrastructure and Climate Change" Sustainability 14, no. 21: 13790. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113790
APA StyleAndreasen, M. H., Agergaard, J., Møller-Jensen, L., Oteng-Ababio, M., & Yiran, G. A. B. (2022). Mobility Disruptions in Accra: Recurrent Flooding, Fragile Infrastructure and Climate Change. Sustainability, 14(21), 13790. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142113790