The TOEQCC Framework for Sustainable Adoption of Cloud Computing at Higher Education Institutions in the Kingdom of Jordan

Abstract

The extensive use of cloud computing influences changes in managing information technology and communication systems. The term “Cloud Computing” refers to a new management information system that emphasizes the distribution of various computer services across the internet, such as the World Wide Web. Security and privacy concerns and the deployment of resources in shared settings are only a few of the difficulties posed by cloud computing. This study’s overarching goal is to aid Jordanian higher education institutions (JHEIs) in making informed decisions about cloud computing by creating a framework that considers the most important elements influencing adoption. This study, therefore, presents a framework for the adoption of cloud computing in JHEIs by modifying the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory, the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), and the Technology, Organization, and Environment (TOE) framework. To better understand the elements influencing the adoption of cloud computing in the context of JHEIs, the authors offer a framework they call the Technology-Organization-Environment-Quality of Cloud Computing Adoption (TOEQCC), which builds on the fundamental theories and proposed models. The study aimed to solve the problem of cloud computing adoption at higher educational institutions through suggesting a new framework, which aims to improve the awareness of cloud computing factors as well as the roadmap for the adoption process. Eleven different Jordanian universities (both governmental and private) collaborated on this study. In addition to gathering data from the Jordanian Minister of Higher Education (JMHE) and the Jordanian Higher Education Accreditation Commission, the research team also performed three focus groups with Jordanian students and distributed three hundred questionnaires (JHEAC). NVivo was used to analyze the data following the steps: data reduction, data visualization, and conclusion drawing/verification. Statistics and frequency data are shown in tables, pie charts, bar charts, and column charts. Other tools were employed, such as Microsoft Visio and Microsoft Business Intelligence.

1. Introduction

Assistance in the form of information and communication technology (ICT) for education institutions has been the focus of study for quite some time. However, not much research has been done on how information and communications technology (ICT) based cloud computing is used in higher education institutions in developing countries, notably Jordanian universities. This research intends to assist Jordanian higher education institutions (JHEIs) embrace cloud computing technologies by analyzing the primary drivers and impediments to adoption of cloud computing technologies. This was achieved by using a conceptual framework that is both theoretical and practical. There has been a substantial amount of published work on the topic of cloud computing in recent years. Nevertheless, there have been relatively few studies on the role that cloud computing may play in enhancing the overall quality of higher education academic achievements in Jordanian institutions. This omission in the body of knowledge might be attributable to the cutting-edge nature of cloud computing technologies. The factors that influence the adoption of cloud computing technology by JHEIs and the role that cloud computing technology plays in improving the quality of educational outcomes have received little attention, so it is not surprising that there is a lack of research that suggests a conceptual framework for adopting innovative technology such as cloud computing. It is thus important to study the primary elements that impact the adoption of cloud computing at JHEIs and to design a conceptual framework based on these characteristics while considering the quality factor. Because of this, we can perhaps provide an adaptation roadmap for cloud computing at Jordan’s universities (JHEIs).

This research investigates the use of cloud computing in higher educational institutions. It focuses not only on the process of adoption but also on the role that cloud technology plays in enhancing the overall quality of educational results. As a result, the purpose of this research is to investigate the challenges associated with using the most recent information and communications technology (ICT), cloud computing applications, and their connection to the quality of education offered by Jordanian institutions. According to [1], there are a number of different indices that illustrate the inefficiency of higher education in Jordan, such as the high rate of unemployment among graduates and the low rate of return to higher education. The inability of higher education programs to include the most recent information technology is one of the most important elements that contributes to these deficiencies.

The students will gain familiarity with cloud computing technology, which is now being utilized widely in both local and worldwide markets. The use of cloud computing technology by JHEIs has the potential to bring about a number of benefits, including the following:

• Offering fresh, innovative, and unconventional pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning as an alternative to more conventional classroom practices.
• Increasing the opportunities for students to work together and share their knowledge outside of the classroom by making it possible for them to access the materials they need from any location and at any time.

Developing countries have usually been left behind in the adoption and implementation of cloud computing technology. Under-utilization of such technology has negatively affected economic growth, knowledge sharing, and the quality of higher education. Cloud computing can increase efficiency in education, improve its quality, and reduce overall ICT costs. This has been observed in several education institutions in East Africa (e.g., the University of Nairobi, the Kigali Institute for Education, and the Kenyan Methodist University), which collaborated with Google to gain significant benefits from Google Cloud applications for both students and lecturers.

In Ethiopia, Microsoft has supported education institutions by rolling out 250,000 laptops to lecturers. All of these laptops run Windows Azure, an operating system on PaaS. Lecturers may use Windows Azure to upload and download curricula, and securely transfer students’ records to the education system. This releases education institutions in Ethiopia from investing heavily in data centres or in the expensive hardware and software necessary for connecting such a large amount of transactions.

2. Research Problem and Questions

As was mentioned, the response of any nation to the requirements of social and economic growth is significantly influenced by the quality of its higher education system [2,3,4]. Many scholars have made the observation that the quality of education at JHEIs is not keeping up with worldwide trends, which may damage Jordan’s role in the global knowledge economy, given the social and developmental demands of the present and the future [5,6,7,8,9]. On the other hand, it has been noted that Jordanian institutions continue to use more conventional pedagogical practices in their classrooms. It is possible that one of the reasons junior colleges are falling behind is because they are not taking advantage of technological advances like cloud computing. This calls for more research into the elements that influence the adoption of innovative technology in JHEIs, as well as the proposal of a solution to boost the rate at which such adoption occurs. The establishment of a framework for the use of cloud computing would make it easier for Jordanian higher education institutions (JHEIs) to use this technology, which is one of the possible solutions that may be implemented to enhance the quality of HE in Jordan.

Research Questions

The primary research question:

How can Jordan’s higher education institutions successfully integrate the sustainable technology of cloud computing into the learning and teaching process?

The researcher was previously familiar with the existing restrictions and voids in the use of cloud computing education applications (CCEA), which characterized the issue that resulted in the main study topic. Because of the restrictions placed on the use of cloud computing at JHEI, more investigation should be conducted into the following secondary research questions:

• What opportunities does the use of cloud computing technology provide for Jordanian educational institutions?
• What are the primary considerations that lead JHEIs to utilize cloud computing?
• What are the drivers behind the use of cloud computing by JHEIs, as well as the obstacles standing in their way?
• What are the primary stages involved in the successful deployment of cloud computing technology in JHEIs?

3. Cloud Computing

Using distant servers rather than internal servers or personal computers, cloud computing is a new paradigm that enables applications and services that can be accessed over the internet to distribute, manage, and save data [10]. Technology advancements such as fast processing, distributed and grid computing, and large storage capacities are provided by cloud computing. Additionally, by using it, the widespread issues of limited processing power and restricted physical data storage may be resolved [11]. This synthesis combines hardware, software, networks, and storage choices to enable shared computing solutions that make use of the internet to provide applications and other services [12,13]. Cloud computing is a relatively recent innovation that aims to facilitate user-friendly services, trustworthy applications, and rapid reaction times in data processing. Cloud computing technology is based on the general belief that people will always choose the most convenient and least complicated option [14].

Public, private, community, and hybrid deployment strategies are available for cloud computing. As stated by Chou [15], the most well-liked cloud computing approach is the public cloud, which is offered by companies such as Google, Amazon, and IBM cheaply or even free [16]. However, it is generally accepted that this approach provides less security protection than previous models, despite the low cost and extensive availability of public cloud services. [11]. Additionally, unless the client decides to pay extra for a premium promotion, the shared resource pool made available to customers has a restricted physical capacity and processing performance [17]. In the public cloud paradigm, the service provider forbids the customer from exercising any kind of control over the physical resources. As a result, sharing physical servers might accidentally provide other customers access to an organization’s sensitive data.

By renting or owning the cloud infrastructure, the private cloud model allows the customer to have control over the physical resources, in contrast to the public cloud. This infrastructure is run by the service provider only for one particular customer [18].

Evidently, the private cloud concept is more costly to implement than the public cloud. The advantages of both while avoiding their drawbacks are often offered via integration between public and private cloud architectures. The hybrid cloud refers to such integration [11]. Finally, the community cloud model allows organizations to use the same cloud infrastructure if they have comparable concerns, such as security, purpose, and policy.

Software as a Service is one of the service models that may be used to classify cloud computing, including platform as a service, hardware as a service, and infrastructure as a service. Numerous studies have shown that in the context of education, these cloud computing users are seen as “late adopters,” in contrast to other industries such as government and healthcare [19]. The adoption of cloud technology may be taking longer than expected since university settings may have different considerations than those in other sectors.

Utilizing Cloud Computing in the Higher Education Sector

The integration of cloud computing into higher education infrastructure in industrialized nations aims to improve student knowledge exchange and to provide improved services for teaching and learning activities [3,20]. It has been found to raise educational standards [21]. Instead of relying on outdated computer technology, many universities and other educational institutions in industrialized nations have already embraced the promise of cloud computing to raise educational standards [2,22]. For instance, a number of UK higher education institutions, including the University of Westminster, the University of Glamorgan, Leeds Metropolitan University, and the University of Aberdeen, have embraced Google Apps [3]. Virginia Virtual Computing Lab is a collaborative system that many schools and institutions in Commonwealth nations have adopted. It helps them to save their IT costs by doing away with the need for software licensing and upgrading by adopting cloud computing services in its place [23].

A recent study by [24] claimed that the improvement of IT services was the most important consideration for nearly 70% of IT executives in HE who favored cloud computing over conventional computer technology. Furthermore, using cloud computing technology at any institution is expected to reduce overall operating costs by up to 25% to 30% [25]. Because it has the potential to significantly enhance structural efficiency, spur innovation, lower technology investment, and boost agility, cloud computing has become widely used in higher education.

As a consequence, the significance of cloud computing in higher education has quickly grown over time, and it is certain that both its usage and significance will continue to expand in the future [3,24], due to its advantages in terms of teaching and learning, among other things [15]. Regrettably, despite the positive impact cloud computing has on education, it is still underutilized in the majority of higher education institutions in developing countries. This is because of a number of things, such as a lack of knowledge about the benefits of this technology, a lack of opportunities for staff and students to improve their skills, budgetary constraints, and other problems. The Middle Eastern developing nation of Jordan serves as the study’s background, and it continues to underutilize cloud computing in the field of education [26,27].

4. Theoretical Foundation

This research examined the primary determinants of cloud computing adoption in Jordanian universities and created a framework to aid in that adoption. The purpose and goals of this study were met by using two theories and one framework to create a new framework that was appropriate for the research situation. These are the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) model [28,29,30], the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [31] and the Technology-Organization-Environment (T-O-E) framework [32]. The adoption framework characteristics were first determined by the researcher from study of the literature, which enabled comprehension of the difficulties in ICT adoption by HE institutions as well as of the most well-liked theories and frameworks in technology adoption. The methodology section outlines the procedure for gathering and analyzing the necessary data. However, it is crucial to note that the researcher has taken into account and rejected a number of hypotheses in addition to DOI, TAM, and TOE for a number of factors linked to the study’s subject. For instance, Fishbein and Ajzen established the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), which focuses on examining individual behavior in the adoption of innovative technologies (1975). The main problem with this theory is that it does not account for unexpected human behavior or irrational decisions about whether or not to use new technologies.

Since cloud computing is still a relatively new phenomenon in the context of higher education in Jordan, people may have illogical reasons for adopting or rejecting it, particularly when it comes to security and privacy issues. Because client data and operations are housed on the service provider’s side rather than utilizing internal technology that is hosted on the customer’s local workstations, cloud computing technology differs in fundamental ways from traditional IT infrastructure. Due to the need to examine both illogical and rational individual behavior surrounding the adoption of cloud computing, the TRA theory has been disregarded for this research. TAM, which developed from the Theory of Planned Behavior, also tackles the flaws of TRA theory and already addresses individual behavior in the adoption of new technologies.

The Web Adoption theory, which established and explained the different stages of adoption of institutional websites, is another example of an innovation theory that has been examined and eliminated in this research [33]. There are four levels of adoption. The lowest level, Level 0, indicates that the organization just uses e-mail and has no functional websites. Institutions at Level 1 choose to create a website, although it is still being put into use. By Level 2, organizations are offering consumers essential information, including news, events, and cutting-edge items. The third level is business integration, which links clients directly to the institution through the internet.

However, the Web Adoption Model mainly focuses on institutional websites and does not provide a whole picture of how innovative technologies will be adopted, such as taking into account the technological infrastructure of HEIs (e.g., servers, networks, and storage devices). One may argue that, for JHEIs, it is still too early to think about Web Adoption Theory, which would solely consider their websites. This research aimed to provide a framework to help JHEIs adopt cloud computing in the right way. Web Adoption Theory does not do a good job for this because it does not take into account all aspects of cloud computing (such as cost, compatibility, security, privacy, and scalability).

5. Research Methodology and Design

The nature of the research problem argued that a qualitative methodology aligned with the interpretive stance would apply to this study. This could be justified as follows:

• The research does not entail a deductive approach, nor does it test an existing theory. The emphasis is placed on the inductive approach, in which the research focuses on the generation of findings that are likely to contribute to the development of a new framework related to how cloud computing technology can be adopted and improved at JHEIs.
• The research focuses on the social reality of individuals and academic institutions, emphasising the actual factors affecting the decision to adopt cloud computing in an academic context.
• The research emphasises the factors affecting technology diffusion and adoption within JHEIs by studying both individual and organizational levels.

As a result, qualitative research is the appropriate choice for this research since qualitative research is recommended where little is known about the phenomena under study.

The research aims were achieved through interviewing HE stakeholders in Jordan, and through a qualitative survey, focus group, document analysis, and direct observation. Such methods enable the researcher to understand the meaning behind participants’ views, and to investigate the actual factors that influence the adoption of cloud technology within the Jordanian education context.

As the adoption of the latest ICT, such as cloud computing, may influence and affect HE institutions’ stakeholders, it is important to gain an in-depth understanding of actual technology usage and the vision for adopting information technology in this context, especially from the decision makers’ points of view.

This research is not interested in testing hypotheses to be accepted or rejected. The interpretive approach has been taken because it naturally enables the researcher to investigate in depth and uncover the main factors influencing the adoption of cloud computing technology in Jordanian HEIs.

Based on the above reasons, qualitative research with an interpretive stance was chosen as the most appropriate approach for achieving the aim of this study.

In accordance with the case study approach mentioned above, different methods were used to collect data. This process was informed by the research questions and the relevant background literature on IT in the HE context. The methods adopted were as follows:

• Interviewing individuals within the HE institutions involved in this research.
• Conducting a pilot study before the actual study had taken place.
• Use of flip charts, voice recorders and cameras.
• Direct observation of current ICT adoption and technology utilisation by lecturers, professors, decision makers and students. The combination of interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, and literature enabled the researcher to collate the data and to create a report describing the research from a wider perspective.

Thirty-one semi-structured interviews with key participants in Jordanian universities, including cloud computing and information technology professors, vice chancellors of universities, IT managers, heads of departments, and deans of schools, were conducted as part of an interpretive paradigm using triangulation methods. The researcher administered 100 questionnaires to Jordanian students and conducted three focus groups. In addition, information was gathered from the Jordanian Minister of Higher Education (JMHE) and the Jordanian Higher Education Accreditation Commission (JHEAC). Using the three-step methodology advocated by [34], data condensation, data presentation, and drawing/verifying conclusions, the data was analyzed using the NVivo program. To convey information about frequencies or statistics, Microsoft Excel was employed (e.g., in the form of tables, pie charts, bar charts, and column charts).

The respondents’ codes are included in

Table 1. Participants code and position.

Participants Code	Position
P1	Computer science/VR professor.
P2	Cloud computing and computer science professor.
P3	Lecturer in the field of E-government and management information systems.
P4	Engineer and expert in cloud-based robots holding a professorship.
P5	Expert in cloud computing, 3D imaging, and computer science academia.
P6	Expertise as a wireless programming and computer science professor.
P7	Expert in the field of computer technology and e-commerce as a professor.
P8	Full-time academic position in the field of systems engineering and telecommunications.
P9	Instructional leadership in the field of management information systems.
P10	Computer science faculty member.
P11	Electric engineering/telecom professor.
P12	Professor of MIS.
P13	Computer science department head.
P14	Software engineering department head.
P15	Cloud computing and IT professor.
P16	College level instructor for cloud computing and computer science.
P17	Professor of MIS.
P18	A renowned computer engineering professor.
P19	Software engineering department head.
P20	Expertise as an academic teaching about electronic commerce and management information systems.
P21	Computer science department head.
P21	Computer engineering professor.
P22	Administrator in charge of the field of computer engineering.
DM1	Manager of IT Operations and Strategy.
DM2	Professor in charge of a department specializing in computer systems.
DM3	Chief executive officer.
DM4	Vice Chancellor of the University.
DM5	Educator in the field of electrical engineering and mobile phone technology.
DM6	One who teaches information systems and manages the university’s computing resources.
DM7	Academic dean or professor in the field of computer science.
DM8	Manager of the campus computer lab.
DM9	Head of computer centre.

. Each interviewee’s university is correlated with them in the table, which divides them into two groups: P, which stood for professor, and (DM), which stood for decision-makers. It’s important to remember that in Jordanian institutions, academics can also make decisions.

No standard number of focus groups was recommended, since the number depends on the topic and the data required. In this case, the researcher conducted three focus groups, taking into consideration the limited time available and the uncertain acceptance rate of HE institutions in allowing focus groups to be conducted. The first group consisted of six Master’s degree students and one lecturer acting as a coordinator and monitor, from the School of Information Systems of the Amman Arab University for Higher Education Studies. The second group consisted of eight undergraduates and one lecturer as coordinator and monitor, from the Computer Science Department of Israa University, and the third of seven undergraduates from the School of Information Systems of Jerash University.

6. Main Results: Information Gleaned through Fieldwork

According to the theoretical underpinnings, this research adapted the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) framework [31] as a theoretical basis to classify the variables that might affect JHEIs’ adoption of cloud computing. The research employed additional criteria in addition to adopting the TOE framework, which were drawn from the fieldwork experience during the data gathering process and from the conclusions from data analysis. The research also suggested adding “quality” as a fourth element to the original TOE framework (Figure 1), which already had “value for money,” “employment level,” and “knowledge exchange”.

Definition of the TOEQ Factors

Table 2. Technological factors.

Factor	Description
Electric power stability and risk of unavailability	The sustainability of electrical infrastructure that supports cloud computing online services.
Technology availability and adoption level	Used to classify information about campus resources and market options for technology acquisition.
Awareness	Used to categorize information regarding how familiar certain parties are with the idea of cloud computing.
Infrastructure	Includes details on the infrastructure available at Jordanian universities and how well it works with cloud storage.
Trialability	How much of a pilot program may be set up at Jordanian institutions to test out cloud computing before it is rolled out nationwide.
Decentralisation of accessing IT resources	The availability of digital resources regardless of location
Backup and recovery of learning materials	The capacity to perform routine, automatic backups and set up a recovery procedure. As a result, considerable storage space must be readily available.
Data security	How safe customers’ information is from prying eyes.
Data privacy	Who is allowed access to consumer information and under what conditions is decided by permissions and rules.
Complexity and ease of use	Used to categorize information on the accessibility of the internal ICT system and usage of cloud computing. Includes how much work will be required to utilize cloud computing services at Jordanian institutions, and vice versa.
Compatibility with in-house technology	How well cloud computing might work with the current infrastructure of the institution.
Cloud computing relative advantage	Used to categorize information on the primary benefits and advantages of implementing cloud computing at JHEIs.
Vendor lock-in	Inability to switch cloud computing service providers due to reliance on a proprietary platform and service.

,

Table 3. Organizational factors.

Factor	Description
Higher education institution structure	Used to classify evidence showing how organizational make-up affects the likelihood of adopting cloud computing technologies.
Lack of cooperation between Jordanian universities	The possibility that many universities in Jordan may share a single cloud provider.
Lack of cloud computing adoption frameworks	Used to organize information on cloud computing adoption frameworks and their availability.
University resources and budget	To classify information that looks at how a university’s money and resources play into their choice to go to the cloud.
Cost benefits of cloud computing	To classify information that looks at how a university’s money and resources play into their choice to go to the cloud.
Higher education institution size	This will be used to organize information on the impact of school size on cloud computing uptake.
Overloaded students	Information on the outcomes of overcrowding amongst overseas students at JHEIs and the use of online courses delivered through cloud computing technologies to alleviate this issue.
Cloud computing and ICT usage by students	Organizes information on how college students in Jordan really use cloud computing and other forms of information and communication technology.

,

Table 4. Environmental factors.

Factor	Description
Spoon-feeding and teaching methods	Information on how the educational ethos of junior and senior high schools affects students’ adoption of cloud computing systems
Confidence in cloud computing service provider	Information examining the relationship between cloud computing service providers’ degree of assurance and their clients’ willingness to embrace the service.
Government support	Information on the government of Jordan’s efforts to assist academic institutions in the country in implementing cutting-edge IT.
Decision making process	Decision-making data from JHEIs that revealed how difficult and time-consuming it is for institutions to implement new forms of technological innovation.
Innovation resistance	Information on the impact of institutional resistance to adopting cloud computing among JHEIs.

and

Table 5. Quality factors.

Factor	Description
Quality of higher education in Jordan (excellence, perfection, value, fitness for purposes, and education quality).	Information on the degree to which recent college graduates are prepared for employment, particularly in the technology sector, and about the variables contributing to the quality of higher education.
Employability and its effects on adopting innovation technology	Information about how important it is to equip kids with cutting-edge ICT in preparation for the job market.
Knowledge sharing	Information on how cloud computing is being used to facilitate the transfer of know-how in the classroom.
Technology perfection	Information on how cloud computing services stack up against the present state of technology in JHEIs (including but not limited to downtime, usefulness, speed, and output quality).
Value for money	Information on the financial benefits gained by JHEIs by implementing cloud computing infrastructure.

below, arranged by category, show some of the key characteristics of each element. Some of these explanations are based on both the theory behind them and the results of fieldwork.

7. Main Results

7.1. ICT Use at Jordan’s Public and Private Universities

According to the findings of the qualitative survey, 52% of respondents said that Jordanian universities were underusing ICT and that the present state of ICT at JHEIs was inadequate to meet current educational objectives; 38% of students believed that the exesting usage of ICT help to achieve the goals of HE in Jordan and 10% had no answer (Figure 2).

A senior lecturer (P17) in the management information systems department countered the widespread belief that ICT was being underutilized by pointing out that cutting-edge technology, such as cloud computing, is actually widely accessible and that service providers are always willing to help universities with this technology. However, it is speculated that a lack of education regarding cloud technology is the primary barrier to its broad adoption.

A professor from the department of computer science (P10) demonstrated that the technologies now in use at the majority of Jordanian institutions are out-of-date and that lecturers run into technical issues while utilizing this technology in the classroom as she argued that:

My interactions with information and communication technology have mostly been bad. The equipment we use in the classroom is antiquated and takes a long time to function and connect to the internet. For instance, Microsoft Windows XP, which the company no longer supports, is still present on certain computers. Adopting Office 365 would enable us to utilize cloud-based programs like Google Drive directly.

Another professor (P28) added that:

Technical issues sometimes prevent us from connecting to the internet, which prevents us from viewing certain courses. As a result, we make an effort to leverage personal resources to help students achieve the course goals.

The results show that both students and faculty in Jordanian institutions are unhappy with the existing level of ICT usage. It is clear that ICT in general and cloud computing in particular are both significantly underutilized in JHEIs. Although the Jordanian government has made great efforts to enhance the use of ICT in education, more consistent and ongoing efforts are needed in this area. The fieldwork demonstrates that the appropriate technology is not easily accessible and that it is underutilized. This makes it harder for JHEIs to train the high-quality professionals that Jordan’s job market and economy need.

7.2. Cloud Computing Usage by Students

Numerous studies have shown that the amount of cloud computing consumption has a significant impact on whether or not institutions embrace cloud computing [22,35,36]. According to the survey results of this research, students now use cloud computing on average at a relatively low rate. An overview of cloud computing utilization during certain times is shown in Figure 3. Out of 100 students, 43 had never used cloud computing before, 18 had just recently begun using cloud computing via mobile apps, and 12 had just started. 19 students had started using cloud computing apps more than a year before, while 8 students started using them six months earlier.

On the other hand, the results demonstrate that student internet use was quite high. The capacity to employ cloud computing services, which mostly rely on internet access, is therefore already available to them. Despite the fact that students used cloud computing at a very low level, Figure 4 demonstrates that almost 92 percent of students used the internet every day. The qualitative survey revealed that none of the participants had never used the internet previously.

Additionally, Figure 5 displays the findings from the qualitative survey on students’ opinions about the potential to raise the caliber of JHEIs with the use of cloud computing. 109 participants, with valid responses totaling 100. According to the study, 74 participants thought that using cutting-edge technologies cloud computing will enhance both the teaching and learning process and student results. 9 individuals were unsure, and 17 people said that the implementation of cloud computing would not raise the caliber of education in Jordan.

However, there are issues in assessing the quality of JHEIs due to variations in student levels and rankings across Jordanian universities. The majority of research participants agreed that there is a mismatch between Jordanian university curricula and the demands of the labor market. Furthermore, nearly all participants agreed that using cutting-edge information technology will help close the gap and allow students to stay current with industry trends.

A Jordanian private university’s dean of management information systems (P3) said:

It is difficult to assess Jordan’s higher education system’s quality. Regarding the caliber of the research, the caliber of the students, and the caliber of the faculty, we are still not happy. The goal of each and every institution in Jordan is to bridge the gap between theory and practice, which is necessary for the market. In Jordan, there is no doubt that there is a big gap between the theoretical ideas taught to students and what the job market needs.

At the same context, a professor (P1) in a public university’s computer engineering program contended that the standard of graduate projects is not in line with changes in the job market:

One of the main causes of this gap is that institutions are not doing enough to provide students with the information needed to succeed in the workforce. We spoke with our university’s president about this issue. He even emphasized that before any department develops its curriculum and approves graduate students’ projects, it should consult with the leaders and professionals in the labor market about the outcomes they want to see in our graduate students. He is passionate about learning how to close the gap with the labor market.

According to almost all respondents, ICT in general and cloud computing in particular might have a positive impact on student quality. According to a professor (P4) in an engineering school:

Communication and Information: There is no question that using technology as a tool always improves the caliber of higher education. The most recent ICT generation is cloud computing. As a result, it will raise standards in both schooling and other areas.

A further information technology professor (P9) added:

Information technology’s focus is to enhance people’s performance. Investing in information technology is a win-win scenario that will improve output and quality at both the individual and institutional levels. I am certain that the introduction of cloud computing in higher education will significantly raise the standard of education in Jordan. Additionally, it could close the gap in research and publishing results between Jordanian institutions and other highly regarded foreign universities.

In addition, one professor (P11) asserted that:

The use of cloud computing may improve the learning environment. It may save time, like in the case of gathering the responses from 30 students in under 30 min, being able to remark on the findings in under 5 min, and ultimately improve the quality of instruction.

7.3. Spoon-Feeding

According to [37], spoon feeding is a traditional outdated teaching method that prevents students from becoming innovative and obtaining knowledge from many sources. It is a common method of instruction and learning at JHEIs [38]. Students anticipate that professors will teach them everything and provide them with all the necessary knowledge [39]. Students are prevented from utilizing ICT to look up and locate new materials by this method [40]. A participant in the interview (DM8) who was a former minister of higher education in Jordan said that the spoon-feeding approach discourages students from becoming independent researchers and taking responsibility for their studies:

In fact, we need to thoroughly reevaluate the teaching and learning approaches used in our colleges and adopt more efficient ones. Recently, we had conversations with the presidents of numerous colleges about a variety of topics, including spoon-feeding. Unfortunately, the way that pupils are being taught now prevents them from even thinking or creating. They always seek for direct dietary assistance from professors and behave like robots.

One of the professors (P14) backed up this assertion by stating that:

I have seen that students exclusively utilized the materials that the lecturers had supplied for completing homework. They are not looking through the university library’s printed or digital books and periodicals to locate new resources. The greatest way to address the spoon-feeding issue is to encourage pupils to utilize ICT to look for different sources of knowledge.

The previous minister of Jordanian higher education’s response emphasized the significance of including more exploratory and collaborative teaching and learning methods in JHEIs. (P14) backed up this claim with evidence of the detrimental effects of spoon-feeding on Jordanian pupils and suggested increasing ICT use as a way to help kids develop their inquisitive abilities. However, focus group responses from students revealed that JHEIs are struggling due to a lack of ICT resources. By giving students access to virtually limitless resources and services, cloud computing technology may enable Jordanian colleges to rent virtual servers and storage space. To minimize spoon-feeding, students should be encouraged to do research from a variety of sources using information technology [3]. By fostering more student cooperation, communication, and information sharing, it is anticipated to enhance the quality of HE results in Jordan.

7.4. A Sense of Trust in Cloud Service Providers

The adoption of cloud computing is influenced by a number of variables, including the customers’ security and privacy concerns as well as their trust in the cloud computing service provider [41]. The cloud computing service provider is thought to be responsible for the security and privacy of the customers’ data [42]. The survey found that JHEI decision-makers are more comfortable working with foreign ICT service providers than they are with local ones in Jordan. Almost all respondents at the decision-making level had the opinion that local businesses in Jordan may not provide a sustainable service and might shut down at any moment. One (DM3) decision-maker said:

It would be disastrous for our institution if we started working with local businesses for cloud computing services and one of them abruptly left the market. In this situation, switching from one cloud service provider to another would not be a simple technological operation.

Contrarily, gaining trust may be one of the biggest obstacles to using cloud computing, particularly when keeping sensitive data on cloud storage solutions. According to an IT manager (DM9) at a government-run institution in Jordan:

It is really tough for an IT manager to consider having your data stored by someone else. Of course, the only acceptable circumstance for such is complete faith in this source.

According to a cloud computing expert (P1) who has written much on the subject, there is a distinction between Jordan and England’s contexts as developing and developing nations in this regard:

I can share one intriguing finding from my recent study on cloud computing usage among Jordan’s small and medium-sized businesses. One of the key elements in my PhD study in England was the theoretical limitation, which meant that when I spoke with English respondents, they insisted that the data center be located in the UK and registered there rather than somewhere else, like the USA. It was quite the contrary in Jordan. They said that both the cloud computing service provider and the data center should be located outside of Jordan. They contend that Jordanian businesses now open and often shut after three months. Therefore, they had serious concerns about the reliability of local businesses in Jordan.

In short, trust in cloud service providers is a crucial element that affects the uptake of cloud computing. The results indicated that decision-makers are less comfortable working with regional cloud computing service providers and are more eager to work with global service providers. Additionally, there are issues with Jordan’s data protection regulations. These elements could have a detrimental impact on Jordanian universities’ use of cloud computing.

7.5. Government Assistance

This section examines how stakeholders see the connection between government assistance and the effective use of cloud computing in HEIs, as well as the consequences for educational quality that follow. Governments should constantly encourage high-quality HE since it directly affects socioeconomic growth, even if in certain circumstances (such as in public Jordanian universities) it is more vital than in others (e.g., private Jordanian universities). According to the results of this research, the Jordanian government’s assistance is essential for the adoption of new technologies. Still, many respondents agreed that the administration is still in the planning stage and does not have a clear plan for how to put the plan into action.

However, several participants said that the Jordanian government failed to adequately encourage the use of cloud computing and that it is its fault that JHEIs have not adopted cutting-edge technology. According to a professor (P3):

I believe the problem is with the administrators; the government was not aware of the key advantages of cloud computing services. I think that issues with government policy are mostly to blame for the slow adoption of cloud computing, rather than technological ones. However, the e-government initiative is receiving noteworthy attention. The administration decided to provide individuals an electronic ID card last month so they could access a variety of services. I’m hoping that this is a positive sign for using cloud computing. To the best of my knowledge, however, most of these services are not housed on the cloud but rather on internal government servers.

In summary, the Jordanian government’s backing is seen as a key element that might hasten the adoption of cloud computing in the educational sector, particularly at Jordanian public institutions, and so contribute to raising educational standards. Many participants feel that the assistance provided by the Jordanian government to enhance teaching and learning processes is insufficient and strongly advocate further measures to strengthen the emphasis on cutting-edge technology, such as cloud computing.

7.6. Security and Privacy

Security relates to preventing unauthorized access to customer data, while privacy is concerned with the permissions and regulations that specify who is permitted to access customers’ data [43]. The results of the qualitative survey, focus groups, and interviews indicate that JHEIs believe security and privacy issues to be the most significant barrier to the use of cloud computing. These issues might be ranked as the top priority for the Jordanian education sector’s decision-makers. It is noteworthy that the decision-makers who are not completely familiar with cloud computing technologies voiced serious privacy and security worries. Other respondents who are experts in cloud computing showed less worries about security and privacy when working with a well-known organization (e.g., Google, Microsoft, and Amazon). Since the data is kept outside of the university’s physical machines, almost all participants agreed that security and privacy are major issues.

8. Conception of the Framework (The TOEQCC Proposed Framework)

The theoretical underpinning emerged as a starting point for the suggested framework, which was then used to expand and combine the ideas used in this research. The theoretical underpinning and the empirical data were combined to create the suggested TOEQCC framework. Last but not least, the TOEQCC framework proposes a procedure for the real adoption of cloud computing by JHEIs by expanding the actual usage of TAM components and integrating them with DOI theory.

The new TOEQCC framework which is presented in Figure 6, has addressed missing factors in the TOE framework and integrates TAM and DOI theories for cloud computing technology in the context of JHEIs. In addition to adapting the TOE framework, the study added the factors which came from the fieldwork during the data collection process and the findings from data analysis. It also suggested quality as a fourth component in the original TOE framework for analysing excellence, perfection, fitness for purposes, and higher education outcomes. Such a component enhancing TOEQCC provides a theoretical and structured approach to presenting the factors that influence technology, organization, environment, and quality in the given context.

The goal of the TOEQCC framework is to address the third research sub-question, “What are the motivators for and impediments to cloud computing adoption in JHEIs?” The first portion of the framework, which reflects the TAM-related motivators and barriers, is meant to address this issue. The adoption of cloud computing by JHEIs is represented in the second section of the TOEQCC framework, which uses a process flow diagram to describe the phases of adoption. This graphic is an adaptation of the DOI theory with quality variables and new phases added. To address the research question, “How can JHEIs employ cloud computing technology to enhance the quality of the learning and teaching process?”, this section of the TOEQCC architecture is being developed. In order to embrace cloud computing technology in HE institutions in poor nations generally and the Jordanian educational system in particular, the new framework comprises both theoretical and practical methods.

JHEIs may utilize the TOEQCC framework as a guide to comprehend the adoption of cloud computing more fully. It outlines the key processes in deployment and the most significant variables influencing cloud computing adoption. It might also be used in circumstances comparable to those in Middle Eastern nations, which have similar characteristics in terms of their culture, language, economies, attitudes toward cloud computing, willingness to adopt new technologies, and degree of ICT usage.

9. Conclusions

The aim of this research was to improve JHEIs’ understanding of cloud computing technology and to identify the best methods for helping them embrace it. To achieve this, the researchers examined the primary determinants of cloud computing adoption at JHEIs and created a new paradigm based on the theoretical underpinnings examined in the literature study. This study was carried out together with 11 Jordanian universities, both public and private. A total of 31 high-level JHEI stakeholders were interviewed for the study. Three focus groups, 100 student questionnaires, and direct observation made up the study’s fieldwork. The study’s conclusions included a number of factors that affect whether or not JHEIs use cloud computing. These factors were put into the TOEQCC framework to show how they are related. Such factors include the usage of technology among students and lecturers, spoon feeding issues, a sense of trust in cloud service providers, government assistance, and security and privacy issues. Results from this study show that there was a limit on the use of cloud computing technology by students and lecturers. In addition, the problem of spoon feeding has a negative effect on the usage of ICT, especially in research practices. However, another negative influence on the adoption of cloud computing technology could be the security and privacy concerns.