Sustainable Renovation and Assessment of Existing Aging Rammed Earth Dwellings in Hunan, China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Research Case
2.2. Qualitative Analysis
2.2.1. Residential Function
2.2.2. Construction Tools
2.2.3. Construction Materials
2.2.4. Construction Process
2.2.5. Questionnaire Survey
2.3. Quantitative Analysis
2.3.1. Objective Measurement
2.3.2. Objective Simulation
3. Renovation of the Rammed Earth Dwelling
3.1. Function Improvement Results
3.2. Construction Tool Improvement Results
3.3. Construction Material Improvement Results
3.4. Construction Process Improvement Results
3.5. Assessment Results of the Renovation of Residential Dwellings
3.5.1. Indoor Physical Environment Measurement Results
3.5.2. Questionnaire Results
3.5.3. Carbon Emission
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- (1)
- The sustainable renovation method was successfully used to renovate aging rammed earth dwellings in Hunan Province. The floor plan function of the renovated dwelling maintains the owner’s living habits and local cultural customs, and meets their living needs. The improved tools can accommodate the construction of walls with different sizes and forms. These tools are significantly better than the traditional ones in terms of power duration and effectiveness. The construction materials make full use of waste materials from old homes, including green tiles, raw earth, and wood. The renovation materials were selected from local materials, effectively reducing costs and carbon emissions incurred during the transportation of building materials. In addition, the improved rammed earth wall materials have a more uniform and lower moisture content, which increases the construction efficiency. The improved construction process also contributes to the integrity of the wall and the construction results.
- (2)
- The assessment results of the renovated houses show that the average indoor temperature of the renovated houses is lower than that of the neighbouring and outdoor dwellings. The indoor humidity fluctuations are also lower than those of the neighbouring and outdoor dwellings. The results of the owner and participant questionnaires indicate that the renovation method is generally accepted by the residents. The carbon emissions caused by the production, transportation, and construction phases of the renovated homes are lower than those caused by the brick homes.
- (3)
- The actual project and evaluation results show that the proposed sustainable renovation method can effectively address the aging problem of rammed earth dwellings in Hunan. However, this study has some shortcomings. In the proposed renovation method, diverse measures to reduce carbon emissions, such as heating, ventilation, air conditioning system optimisation, increasing the area of green vegetation, and using renewable energy, were not completely considered. There was also no analysis of the carbon emissions in the operation and recycling phases of the renovated residential houses. These will be studied in detail in the future.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Test Points | Room/Room Location |
---|---|
A | Chess room 1 |
A1 | Exterior wall surface of chess room 1 |
A2 | Inside surface of the exterior wall of chess room 1 |
A3 | Inside surface of the inner wall of chess room 1 |
B | Bedroom 1 |
B1 | Exterior wall surface of bedroom 1 |
B2 | Inside surface of the exterior wall of bedroom 1 |
B3 | Inside surface of the inner wall of bedroom 1 |
C | Porch |
D | Bedroom 2 |
E | Chess room 2 |
E1 | Exterior wall surface of chess room 2 |
E2 | Inside surface of the exterior wall of chess room 2 |
E3 | Inside surface of the inner wall of chess room 2 |
F | Bathroom |
G | Courtyard |
H | Study room |
I | Bedroom 3 |
I1 | Exterior wall surface of bedroom 3 |
I2 | Inside surface of the exterior wall of bedroom 3 |
I3 | Inside surface of the inner wall of bedroom 3 |
J | Central room |
J1 | Exterior wall surface of central room |
J2 | Inside surface of the exterior wall of central room |
J3 | Inside surface of the inner wall of central room |
K | Bedroom 4 |
K1 | Exterior wall surface of bedroom 4 |
K2 | Inside surface of the exterior wall of bedroom 4 |
K3 | Inside surface of the inner wall of bedroom 4 |
a | Raw earth dwelling bedroom temperature |
b | Outdoor temperature |
c | Brick and concrete dwelling bedroom temperature |
d | Raw earth dwelling bedroom humidity |
e | Outdoor Humidity |
f | Brick and concrete dwelling bedroom humidity |
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Local Cultural Factors | Proportion | Remarks | |
---|---|---|---|
Cultural environment | Do you support the improvement of traditional craftsmanship to better suit modern needs? | −1: Not supportive; −1: Not very supportive 0: Neutral: 1: More supportive; 2: Supportive | |
Are you satisfied with the improved traditional rammed earth techniques? | −2: Dissatisfied; −1: Not very satisfied; 0: Moderate; 1: More satisfied; 2: Very satisfied | ||
Do you think the renovated rammed earth building can achieve harmony between traditional habits and modern life? | −2: Cannot; −1: Should not; 0: Not sure; 1: Should be able; 2: Definitely able | ||
Indoor environment | Are you satisfied with the indoor temperature conditions in summer/winter? | −2: not satisfied; −1: not very satisfied; 0: moderate; 1: more satisfied; 2: very satisfied | |
Are you satisfied with the indoor ventilation in summer/winter? | |||
Are you satisfied with the indoor lighting conditions in summer/winter? | |||
Do you think the renovated rammed earth building is convenient for your daily life? | −2: inconvenient; −1: not very convenient: 0: moderate; 1: more convenient; 2: very convenient | ||
Outdoor environment | Are you satisfied with the shape of the renovated rammed earth building? | −2: not satisfied; −1: not too satisfied; 0: moderate; 1: more satisfied; 2: very satisfied | |
Do you think the improved rammed earth buildings fit in with the existing village environment? | −2: not a good fit; −1: not too good a fit; 0: moderate; 1: better fit; 2: very good fit | ||
Do you think the improved rammed earth buildings fit in with the cultural characteristics of the region? | |||
Overall evaluation | Are you satisfied with the overall condition of the renovated rammed earth buildings? | −2: not satisfied; −1: not too satisfied; 0: moderate; 1: more satisfied; 2: very satisfied | |
Do you think the renovated rammed earth buildings can promote cultural heritage? | −2: Cannot; −1: Should not; 0: Not sure; 1: Should be able; 2: Able | ||
Do you support the promotion of the renovated rammed earth buildings? | −1: Do not support; −1: Do not support 0: Neutral: 1: More support; 2: Support |
Test Parameters | Test Instrument | Measuring Accuracy | Measuring Range |
---|---|---|---|
Air temperature and humidity | Testo 175H1 thermohygrometer | ±0.4 °C ± digit ±2% RH (2–98% RH) | −20 ± 55 °C 0–100% RH |
Wind speed | Testo 0435 thermal anemometer | ±0.03 m/s +5% of reading | 0–20 m/s |
Wall temperature | Infrared thermometer | ±1.5 °C/±1.5% | −50–950 °C |
Production Stage | Transport Stage | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Num | Building Materials | Production Factor (tCO2e/t) | Transportation Method | Transport Factor tCO2e/(t km) | Transportation Distance |
1 | Cement mortar | 0.002510 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 10.00 |
2 | Red loam soil | 0.139000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 1000.00 |
3 | Pine, wood, spruce (vertical wood grain in the direction of heat flow) | 20.887440 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 50.00 |
4 | Rock wool board | 0.002510 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 10.00 |
5 | Insulation metal profile multicavity seal Kf = 5.0 W/(m2 K) frame area 20% | 1.130000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 30.00 |
6 | 6 transparent + 12 air + 6 transparent | 0.254000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 30.00 |
7 | Wood (plastic) frame single solid door | 3.600000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 30.00 |
8 | Block tile | 0.002510 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 10.00 |
9 | Plus grass clay (ρ = 1400) | 0.139000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 50.00 |
10 | Wood chipboard | 0.139000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 100.00 |
11 | Pine, wood, spruce (heat flow direction with wood grain) | 0.126000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 40.00 |
12 | Fine stone concrete | 0.002510 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 10.00 |
13 | Compacted clay (ρ = 1800) | 0.132620 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 100.00 |
14 | Aerated concrete block B07 | 0.250000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 100.00 |
15 | Reinforced concrete | 0.126000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 100.00 |
16 | Extruded polystyrene foam board | 20.887440 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 100.00 |
17 | Light aggregate concrete clear pounding | 0.126000 | Light duty gasoline truck | 0.000334 | 100.00 |
Type | Ramming Force | Ramming Speed | Wall Effect | Ramming Effort | Corner Effect | Shrinkage | Construction Process | Ramming Times |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Traditional | 1.5 MPa | 25 h/m2 | Dense | Simple | Rough wall | 0.06% | Need tapping | three times |
Improved | 4.5 MPa | 10 h/m2 | Dense | Difficult | Dense wall | 0.03% | Need tapping | three times |
Structure | Materials | Size | Quantity | Price/RMB |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tile roof | Green tile | 300 × 240 mm | 18,043.00 | 4.15 |
Small Green Tile | 180 × 200 mm | 78,187.00 | 0.55 | |
Roof beams and bracing | Fir | 150 × 150× 4500 mm | 10.00 | 141.75 |
Fir | 150 × 150 × 5500 mm | 10.00 | 173.25 | |
Fir | 200 × 300 × 8500 mm | 2.00 | 700 | |
Fir | 100 × 100 × 3000 mm | 8.00 | 42 | |
Fir | 100 × 100 × 3500 mm | 13.00 | 49 | |
Fir | 100 × 100 × 6000 mm | 4.00 | 84 | |
Roof boarding | Fir | 100 × 15 × 5500 | 170.00 | 50 |
Fir | 100 × 15 × 4500 | 170.00 | 42 | |
Fir | 100 × 15 × 3500 | 120.00 | 33 | |
Fir | 100 × 15 × 2000 | 70.00 | 19 | |
Column in wall | Fir | Φ 200 mm, 3500 mm | 10.00 | 80 |
Goalposts | Fir | Φ 200 mm, 5500 mm | 4.00 | 100 |
Fir | Φ 200 mm, 3000 mm | 4.00 | 70 | |
Beam in wall | Φ 150 mm, 6000 mm | 4.00 | 100 | |
Φ 150 mm, 4500 mm | 4.00 | 70 | ||
Wall | Red clay | — | 50 m3 | 0 |
White Cement | — | 3.56 m3 | 750/t | |
Lime | — | 3.56 m3 | 500/t | |
Bathroom wall | Tile | — | 85 m2 | 20 |
Bedroom floor | Anticorrosion wood | 5500 × 200 × 15 mm | 61.00 | 41 |
Anticorrosion wood | 4500 × 200 × 15 mm | 45.00 | 34 | |
Anticorrosion wood | 5000 × 200 × 15 mm | 72.00 | 38 | |
Corridor | Anticorrosion wood | 5000 × 200 × 15 mm | 27.00 | 38 |
Anticorrosion wood | 4500 × 200 × 15 mm | 20.00 | 34 | |
Floor tile | Green brick | 240 × 120 × 60 mm | 4325 | 2 |
Type | Regional Culture | Index | Satisfaction |
---|---|---|---|
Cultural Environment | Support for improved ramming process | 1.04 | |
Satisfaction with improved rammed earth process | 0.94 | ||
Harmony between traditional habits and modern life | 1.03 | ||
Indoor Environment | Satisfaction with indoor temperature | Summer | 1.01 |
Winter | 0.84 | ||
Satisfaction with indoor ventilation | Summer | 1.38 | |
Winter | 1.08 | ||
Satisfaction with indoor lighting | Summer | 1.28 | |
Winter | 1.01 | ||
The convenience of daily life | 0.70 | ||
Outdoor Environment | Satisfaction with architectural style | 1.02 | |
Degree of compatibility with the existing | 1.10 | ||
village environment | 1.41 | ||
Overall Evaluation | Satisfaction with the overall situation | 1.29 | |
Promotion of cultural heritage | 1.14 | ||
Degree of support for the promotion | 1.10 |
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Zhang, F.; Shi, L.; Liu, S.; Shi, J.; Yu, Y. Sustainable Renovation and Assessment of Existing Aging Rammed Earth Dwellings in Hunan, China. Sustainability 2022, 14, 6748. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116748
Zhang F, Shi L, Liu S, Shi J, Yu Y. Sustainable Renovation and Assessment of Existing Aging Rammed Earth Dwellings in Hunan, China. Sustainability. 2022; 14(11):6748. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116748
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhang, Fupeng, Lei Shi, Simian Liu, Jiaqi Shi, and Yong Yu. 2022. "Sustainable Renovation and Assessment of Existing Aging Rammed Earth Dwellings in Hunan, China" Sustainability 14, no. 11: 6748. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14116748