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Article

Ameliorating Effects of Soil Aggregate Promoter on the Physicochemical Properties of Solonetzes in the Songnen Plain of Northeast China

by
Qiyang Fu
1,
Fanxiang Meng
1,*,
Yuan Zhang
1,
Zongliang Wang
1,
Tianxiao Li
2 and
Renjie Hou
2
1
School of Hydraulic and Electric Power, Heilongjiang University, Harbin 150080, China
2
School of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(10), 5747; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105747
Submission received: 11 April 2022 / Revised: 7 May 2022 / Accepted: 8 May 2022 / Published: 10 May 2022
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Freeze–thaw cycles cause serious soil erosion, which makes the prevention, control and management of solonetzic lands in the Songnen Plain challenging. The use of soil-aggregate-promoter (SAP) is highly favoured because of its energy-saving and efficient characteristics; however, SAP is rarely used in the improvement of solonetzic soil in cold regions. To fill this gap, we studied the effects of different experimental conditions on the physicochemical properties of solonetzes; the investigated conditions included the number of laboratory-based freeze–thaw cycles (with 0, 1, 3, and 5 cycles), initial moisture content (0%, 18%, 24%, and 30%) and SAP application amount (0 g/m2, 0.75 g/m2, 1.125 g/m2, and 1.5 g/m2). The results showed the following: (1) The soil pH value decreased significantly as the SAP application rate increased, and the effect of the initial moisture content and number of freeze–thaw cycles on soil pH was not significant. (2) SAP effectively reduced the soil electrical conductivity (EC), but a certain threshold was apparent, and the factors studied had significant effects on EC. (3) SAP effectively optimised the soil macroaggregates content and inhibited the damage posed by freeze–thaw cycles to the soil structure. These results provide an important theoretical basis for the effective prevention and control of solonetzes in the Songnen Plain of Northeast China.

1. Introduction

Solonetzes are widely distributed across more than 30 countries and regions on 6 continents [1], covering a total area of 9.54 × 107 km2, and are still expanding [2]. Among these regions, India and Pakistan contain 8.1 × 104 km2 of solonetzes [3], Russia has 7.5 × 104 km2 [4], and approximately half of the irrigated crop areas in the western United States contain solonetzic lands. In China, the total solonetz area is 3.4 × 105 km2, accounting for 25.2% of the total cultivated land area; these regions are characterised by a wide distribution range, a variety of salt contents, and complex governance [5]. Research has shown that the essence of soil salinization is soil degradation [6], which not only increases the pH value, bulk density, and EC of soils, but also weakens the infiltration and water holding capacities of soils [7]. In addition, cold-region soils are affected by freeze–thaw cycles [8]; when the soil bulk density and pH value increase, the EC and permeability decrease [9], thus further aggravating soil degradation. With rapid urbanization and global population growth causing shortages of cultivated land resources and the deterioration of the ecological environment, determining how to optimise and utilize solonetzic lands has become an urgent problem to be solved in various countries [10].
Countries around the world have been improving their solonetzic areas for a long time [11]. Early improvement methods mainly focused on physicochemical and agricultural measures [12]. However, these methods were abandoned due to their high improvement costs. Currently, the most-utilized improvement method involves applying soil amendments, and this method can greatly reduce the economic cost of land improvement while improving the efficiency. Although traditional soil amendments (e.g., industrial coproducts such as slag and gypsum) can reduce the pH value of soils [13], some studies have found that the application of traditional soil amendments alone can increase the salt content in soils, preventing a good governance effect [14,15]. To improve crop yields in solonetzic lands, biochar is also used as an organic modifier in some areas to reduce the adverse effects of salinity and alkalinity on soil function [16,17]. Although biochar is more effective than traditional soil amendments [18], the high-cost of carbon production makes biochar unsuitable for widespread use. Consequently, some scholars have conducted further research on solonetz improvement from the perspective of biology [19,20]; they applied microbial agents to optimise the soil microenvironment in solonetzic areas [21,22], improve enzymatic activity in soils and promote plant growth [23]. However, the main reasons that microbial agents cannot be applied in daily production include their high production costs and demanding transportation conditions [24].
The emergence of appeal problems has prompted land users to look for eco-friendly, low-carbon, and energy-saving soil amendments [25]. As environmental protection advocacy has grown, an increasing number of countries have vigorously promoted environmental protection and the use of energy-saving materials. At the same time, an increasing number of new modifiers have been developed along with rapid technological progress, further indicating that land users can choose from better modifiers than those available in the past [26]. SAP is a new type of linear functional polymer with a molecular weight of up to 2.1 × 107. Its molecular active substances can increase the oxygen content and water retention capability of soils, reduce the soil bulk density, effectively inhibit nitrogen and phosphorus losses from soils through leaching, and reduce the use of chemical fertilizer [27]. Compared to other applied modifiers, SAP has the advantages of low costs and high benefits [28]. However, there are relatively few applications of SAP in the improvement of solonetzic soil in cold regions [29]. On this basis, we decided to add SAP to solonetzic soils. Taking soils in the Songnen Plain as the experimental object, we simulated freeze–thaw conditions in the laboratory to research the physicochemical properties of the soils as well as the improvement effect before and after SAP treatment. We have filled the gap in knowledge regarding the application of the polymer modifier SAP in the Songnen Plain, and we expect that this study will provide a scientific reference for the benign utilization of soil amendments in the Songnen Plain, and provide a new perspective for the improvement of solonetzes.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site

The study area is located in Zhaodong city, Heilongjiang Province, Northeast China (46°02′ north latitude and 125°52′ east longitude; Figure 1). This region contains 132.5 km2 of heavily solonetzic areas in a large and concentrated region [30]. From the perspective of agricultural ecology and the social economy, this large area of solonetzic land has introduced many obstacles in local agriculture and animal husbandry activities as well as in the sustainable development of the economy, society, and ecology [31].
The study area has a temperate monsoon continental semiarid climate, an elevation of approximately 145 m [32], and soil pH values ranging from 7.5–10. The main types of salt in these soils are NaHCO3 and Na2CO3 [33]. The basic physicochemical properties of the soils are shown in Table 1.

2.2. Experimental Design

In this work, laboratory simulation experiments were designed to analyse solonetz samples under freeze–thaw cycles. A three-direction freeze–thaw circulation box was used to freeze the samples at −15 °C for 12 h, followed by thawing at 6 °C for 12 h, which constituted one freeze–thaw cycle. The samples were treated with 0, 1, 3, and 5 freeze–thaw cycles, four initial moisture contents (0%, 18%, 24%, and 30%), and four SAP application amounts (0 g/m2, 0.75 g/m2, 1.125 g/m2, and 1.50 g/m2). This was a comprehensive experiment; all factors were considered comprehensively. There were 64 treatments according to the combined effects, with each experimental group performed in triplicate. The specific experimental design is shown in Table 2.

2.3. Measurement Indexes and Methods

Soil samples were collected at the depths of 10–40 cm. The soil samples were naturally dried at room temperature, the soil masses were crushed, and the physicochemical properties were determined after sifting the soil samples through a sieve with a diameter of 0.5 mm.
After crushing, sieving, and completely drying, the 64 dried soil samples were placed in sample trays under the same specifications (100 g each). The control group (CK; S0W0T0) was not subjected to any processing; the other 63 groups were the processing groups. The independent variables in the groups were treated separately according to the arrangement and combinations described above.

2.3.1. pH Test

Three grams of each treated soil sample was placed into a test tube, and the test solution was prepared according to a soil-to-water ratio of 1:5 [34]. The test tube was placed on a high-frequency shaker to vibrate for 10 min and then allowed to stand for 30 min. A sample was taken from the upper extract, and the pH value was measured with a DZS-708 pH m.

2.3.2. EC Test

Test samples were prepared according to the pH test method. The upper extract was similarly taken, and a conductivity sensor was used to measure the EC of each sample.

2.3.3. Laser Particle Size Analysis

A Mastersizer-3000 laser particle size analyser was used to analyse the particle sizes of the soil samples. The influence of moisture content was not considered in this test because the instrument used in the test adopted a wet particle distribution measurement method. Only 16 samples had to be prepared, one of which was the blank control group (S0T0), while the other 15 were processing groups. The processed samples were placed into the particle size analyser for measurement.

2.4. Data Statistical Analysis

SPSS (IBM SPSS Statistics 22) was used for data analysis in this study. To compare the differences among the treatments, one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) and the least significant difference (LSD) test were used at a significance level of p < 0.05. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to determine whether the data conformed to a normal distribution (p > 0.05). Pearson’s correlation relationship was used to evaluate the specific relevance between soil properties and various variables (number of freeze–thaw cycles, initial moisture content, and SAP application amount). All figures were plotted with Origin 2021 software.

3. Results

3.1. pH and EC in Soil

The soil pH changes obtained for each soil sample under different initial moisture contents and SAP application rates during the freeze–thaw cycling experiments are shown in Figure 2. The pH values of the treatment groups were significantly lower than those of the control group. The statistical analysis showed a highly significant negative correlation between the SAP application amount and pH value (r = −0.928, p < 0.01; Table 3). Under the same moisture content and number of freeze–thaw cycles, the pH values of the samples gradually decreased as the SAP application amount increased, decreasing by 11.23% to 18.57%. In addition, the number of freeze–thaw cycles and initial moisture content influenced the effect of SAP application on soil pH improvement. An increase in the number of freeze–thaw cycles reduced the effect of SAP application on soil pH improvement; the higher the initial water content was, the lower the pH of the SAP-treated soil was, but the direct effects of the number of freeze–thaw cycles and moisture content on soil pH were not significant.
The variation characteristics of soil EC at different initial moisture contents and SAP application rates during the freeze–thaw cycle experiments are shown in Figure 3. Compared to the treatment group without SAP application, the application of SAP resulted in decreased soil EC values, ranging from 18.70% to 60.59%. At low numbers of freeze–thaw cycles (0 and 1 cycles), the EC values of the soil samples with SAP application first fell to a threshold value and then increased steadily as the application rate increased. In contrast, at medium to high numbers of freeze–thaw cycles (3 and 5 cycles), the soil EC values still increased with increasing SAP application at relatively low water contents and decreased with increasing SAP application at relatively high water contents. The EC values of the samples without SAP showed a steady increase as the water content and freeze–thaw frequency increased. As a whole, the soil EC values measured under low SAP application rates and low freeze–thaw iterations were generally lower than those measured at high SAP application rates and high freeze–thaw iterations; in addition, the measured EC changes in response to changes in initial moisture content were flatter than those in response to other variables. Moreover, the EC values of samples without SAP application in the treatment groups were generally higher than those of the blank group (ECS0W0T0 = 3.086 mS/cm), and the EC values of the remaining treatment groups were significantly lower than those of the blank group. The Pearson correlation analysis results revealed that the amount of SAP applied, the number of freeze–thaw cycles, and the initial moisture content were all highly significantly correlated with EC value (p < 0.05; Table 4).

3.2. Soil Particle Size Analysis

The particle size distributions of the soil samples under the different treatments during the freeze–thaw cycle experiments are shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 shows that the soil particle size of the blank group (S0T0) was concentrated within the 0–0.25 mm range, while the soil particle size distribution of the treatment groups exhibited a second peak at a size greater than 0.25 mm. This result suggests that the soil particle size distribution changed substantially following SAP application and freeze–thaw treatment, and a trend from small particles to large particles could be identified. As the SAP application amount increased, aggregates greater than 0.25 mm showed an increasing trend, while aggregates smaller than 0.25 mm showed a decreasing trend (Figure 4, Table 5). In addition, when small (0.75 g/m2) and large (1.50 g/m2) amounts of SAP were applied, the large-aggregate content (>0.25 mm) decreased slowly as the number of freeze–thaw cycles increased; in contrast, the large-aggregate content increased as the number of freeze–thaw cycles increased with the application of a moderate amount of SAP (1.125 g/m2). Table 5 shows that SAP application had a significant impact on the silt clay content and on the contents of other small (<0.25 mm) and medium aggregates (0.25–1 mm) in the soil but had a weak impact on large aggregates (>1 mm). Under 5 freeze–thaw cycles, as the amount of SAP applied increased, the proportions of silt and clay first decreased and then increased, and the proportions of silt and clay in the S1T3, S2T3, and S3T3 groups decreased by 11.35%, 17.91% and 16.12%, respectively, compared to that of the S0T3 group. In contrast, with increase in the SAP application amount, the proportion of large aggregates (>0.25 mm) significantly increased, but with increases in the number of freeze–thaw cycles, this proportion decreased (Table 5). It can be seen from these results that the application of SAP can inhibit the damage caused by freeze–thaw cycles to large particles in soil, and can promote the aggregation of small particles into larger particles.

4. Discussion

The soil pH value is an important indicator of soil health [35], and significantly affects the microbial environment surface crop growth, physicochemical properties and available nutrient content of soils [36]. Soil pH has been shown to be significantly reduced by applying different acidic soil amendments, which is similar to the results of our study [37]. The SAP additive used in this research is an acidic modifier, and OH− produced by hydrolysis of CO32− and HCO3− in the soils in the test area was the main cause of alkalinization, SAP can release acidic ions after dissolution to reduce soil alkalinity and thus improve soil quality. In addition, at the initial freeze–thaw cycling stage, the soil moisture was frozen, and the chemical reactions in the soil were slow, thus resulting in a stable soil pH value. As the temperature increased, the nitrification of microorganisms in the soils increased, and the amount of dissolved organic acids released increased, thus resulting in a decrease in soil pH [38,39,40]; these findings were also basically consistent with the results of the freeze–thaw tests performed in our study. Moreover, freeze–thaw cycles could increase the pore space to greater than 0.3 μm in soils [39], thus providing channels for the migration of soil pore water, prompting more water to enter the soil interior and contributing to the water retention effect of SAP application. Furthermore, the water conditions of the soils analysed herein played a crucial role in their pH variations, and the variability in soil water content led to different acid and alkaline ion distributions in the solid and liquid phases of the soil. In general, the pH value of acidic soils tends to increase as the water content increases [41,42], while the pH value of alkaline soils generally decreases with increasing water content [43]. However, the water content changes measured in this study had no significant effect on soil pH changes (Table 3). Relevant studies have shown that changes in water content have an impact on soil pH [44]; the observed lack of significant effect of moisture content on pH in the current study may be caused by the small change rate of the total water content of the samples [45] and the mitigation of differences in initial soil moisture content when we prepared the extract [46,47].
In addition, past studies have shown that the volumetric soil moisture content is significantly positively correlated with the salt content and EC value [48] and that it is thus feasible to use the EC value to indicate soil salinity [49]. Therefore, the soil EC value can be used as a total soil salt index, to judge the improvement effect on solonetzes [50]. Under a small number of freeze–thaw cycles, the EC values of the soil samples first decreased to the minimum value and then generally increased as more SAP was applied, indicating that SAP application could promote the activation and migration of ionic elements in the soil and contribute to increasing the EC values of some test samples compared to the blank control group. Mechanism analysis suggested that SAP may absorb water and swell, thus promoting an increase in soil pore space; this process, combined with the freeze–thaw effect, causes water-salt migration to the external soil environment, and this water-salt migration effect was more obvious when the amount of applied SAP increased [51]. This finding led to phenomena shown in Figure 3b,c. Increasing water contents and SAP application amounts led to increasingly intense salt migration in the analysed soil samples and contributed to a general increase in the EC values of both soil suspensions. However, the soil EC values of the treated groups were all lower than those of the blank group, probably due to the adsorption of a large number of fixed free salt ions during the absorption and swelling of the applied SAP [52]. In addition, as the number of freeze–thaw cycles increased (to 5 freeze–thaw cycles), the soil pores underwent secondary collapse, the soil structure stabilized, and the pore distribution was scarcely affected by the freeze–thaw action [38]; thus, the SAP application amount and initial water content dominated the soil EC trends. Under the synergistic effect of SAP, the soil pores redistributed, providing new paths for water-salt migration and not only ensuring the water-holding capacity of the soil but also reducing the salt content of the soil.
The contents and distributions of soil microparticles have important impacts on a range of physical soil properties [53]. The Songnen Plain is located in a seasonal permafrost area, and the solonetzes in the sampled area have been affected by freeze–thaw cycles for many years, resulting in compact soil with a large bulk density [19]. Moreover, the solonetzes have a high salt content, severe surface hardening, and high subsurface humidity and viscosity [31]. A total of 79.09% of the aggregates in undisturbed soil samples (S0T0) were less than 0.25 mm, of which aggregates with sizes below 0.1 mm accounted for 61.04% (Table 5). The percentage of aggregate particles smaller than 0.25 mm in the soils treated with multiple freeze–thaw treatments was as high as 99.39%. The experimental results were basically consistent with the study of Zuo et al. [39]: due to the freeze–thaw cycle, coarse soil particles are broken, and fine particles are aggregated. In contrast, all particles in the SAP-treated soils showed significant reductions in the proportion of particles smaller than 0.25 mm (Table 5), and the volumetric fraction of particles larger than 0.25 mm increased with the SAP application amount, possibly due to the aggregation of some fine particles into new coarse particles in the SAP-treated soils [54,55]. In addition, it is evident from the data in Figure 4 that the treated soils did not show obvious soil particle fragmentation as the number of freeze–thaw cycles increased, indicating that SAP has an inhibitory effect on the destructive properties of freeze–thaw cycles. On the whole, SAP has a significant effect on soil particles; in particular, it can significantly promote the aggregation effect of particles smaller than 0.1 mm and can stabilize soil properties under a relatively high content of large soil particles [56], indicating that the modifier studied in this experiment positively affected the stability of the analysed soil particles and is worthy of further promotion and in-depth study [57].

5. Conclusions

By applying SAP as a modifier to solonetzic soils in the Songnen Plain, we have concluded that SAP hydrolysis neutralized soil alkalinity, reduced soil salinity, intensified water-salt migration, and adsorbed salt in the soil suspension. SAP also effectively adjusted the soil particle size distribution and promoted the aggregation of small soil particles (Table 5), thus improving soil stability. In summary, applying an appropriate amount of SAP to solonetzic lands in cold regions can effectively adjust soil pH and EC values (Table 3 and Table 4), inhibit the damage caused by freeze–thaw cycles to the soil structure and improve stability. The current findings also show that the investigated polymer modifier has great application prospects in the improvement of cold region solonetzes: using SAP can effectively make up for the shortcomings of traditional modifiers and is of great significance to the improvement of solonetzic soil in cold areas. In addition, considering the soil improvement effect of SAP amendment, we recommend that 1.125 g/m2 (11.25 kg/ha) SAP be applied in solonetzic areas of Songnen Plain to improve the soil properties. SAP is also applicable to other regions, but the application amount of SAP to soil improvement in other regions needs to be further investigated, we hope that the joint efforts of scholars in related fields bring more practical solutions to global soil problems.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.M. and Q.F.; Methodology, Q.F. and F.M.; Formal analysis, Q.F.; Investigation, Q.F., F.M., Y.Z., Z.W. and T.L.; Resources, F.M. and T.L.; Writing—original draft preparation, Q.F.; Writing—review and editing, Q.F., F.M., T.L. and R.H.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52109055, 52179033), the Science Fund for Distinguished Young Scholars of Heilongjiang University (Natural Science) (JCL202105) and the Basic Scientific Research Fund of Heilongjiang Provincial Universities (2020-KYYWF-1044).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

We thank Xianxia Cheng for providing experimental guidance and are very grateful for the extremely informative advice of Zhen Huang.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Map of the sampling location.
Figure 1. Map of the sampling location.
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Figure 2. Variation characteristics of the soil pH values. Note: Lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05). (a–d) show pH values at 0, 1, 3 and 5 freeze–thaw cycles respectively. At the bottom of the figure, the upper row indicates the initial moisture content of each treatment, and the lower row indicates the number of freeze–thaw cycles applied in each treatment; the colours in the figure correspond to the soil pH values measured at different SAP application rates.
Figure 2. Variation characteristics of the soil pH values. Note: Lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05). (a–d) show pH values at 0, 1, 3 and 5 freeze–thaw cycles respectively. At the bottom of the figure, the upper row indicates the initial moisture content of each treatment, and the lower row indicates the number of freeze–thaw cycles applied in each treatment; the colours in the figure correspond to the soil pH values measured at different SAP application rates.
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Figure 3. Variation characteristics of soil EC. Note: Lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05). (a–d) show EC values at 0, 1, 3 and 5 freeze–thaw cycles respectively. The upper row shown at the bottom of the figure indicates the initial moisture content of the specimen, the lower row indicates the number of freeze–thaw cycles applied in each treatment, and the colours in the figure correspond to the soil EC values measured at different SAP application rates.
Figure 3. Variation characteristics of soil EC. Note: Lowercase letters indicate significant differences among treatments (p < 0.05). (a–d) show EC values at 0, 1, 3 and 5 freeze–thaw cycles respectively. The upper row shown at the bottom of the figure indicates the initial moisture content of the specimen, the lower row indicates the number of freeze–thaw cycles applied in each treatment, and the colours in the figure correspond to the soil EC values measured at different SAP application rates.
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Figure 4. Variation characteristics of soil aggregates. Note: The panels show the variation in the particle size analysis results under different treatments with the same vertical scale for each curve.
Figure 4. Variation characteristics of soil aggregates. Note: The panels show the variation in the particle size analysis results under different treatments with the same vertical scale for each curve.
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Table
Table 1. Basic physicochemical properties of the solonetz analysed in this study.
Table 1. Basic physicochemical properties of the solonetz analysed in this study.
PropertyValuePropertyValue
Bulk density (g/cm3)1.4604pH10.34
Maximum dry density (g/cm3)1.3083EC (mS/cm)3.086
Minimum dry density (g/cm3)1.0755CO32− (mmol/kg)24.80
Natural moisture content (%)23.89HCO3− (mmol/kg)13.60
Saturation capacity (%)67.33Cl− (mmol/kg)6.34
Field capacity (%)35.83Na+ (mmol/kg)42.48
Liquid limit (%)42.0Ca2+ (mmol/kg)6.11
Plastic limit (%)19.0K+ (mmol/kg)5.95
Plasticity index (PI)23.0Mg2+ (mmol/kg)4.32
Optimum moisture content17.4
Table
Table 2. Experimental design used to determine whether SAP addition optimised solonetz samples under various initial moisture contents and numbers of freeze–thaw cycles.
Table 2. Experimental design used to determine whether SAP addition optimised solonetz samples under various initial moisture contents and numbers of freeze–thaw cycles.
SAP (g/m2) (S)Initial Moisture Content (W)Freeze–Thaw Cycles (T)
0 (S0)0 (W0)0 (T0)
0.75 (S1)18% (W1)1 (T1)
1.125 (S2)24% (W2)3 (T3)
1.500 (S3)30% (W3)5 (T5)
Table
Table 3. Results of pH value correlation analysis.
Table 3. Results of pH value correlation analysis.
FactorCycle TimesInitial Moisture ContentSAPpH
Cycle times1
Initial moisture content01
SAP001
pH0.045−0.115−0.928 **1
** The correlation is significant at 0.01 (double tailed).
Table
Table 4. Results of EC value correlation analysis.
Table 4. Results of EC value correlation analysis.
FactorCycle TimeInitial Moisture ContentSAPEC
Cycle time1
Initial moisture content01
SAP001
EC0.276 **0.201 **−0.525 **1
** The correlation is significant at 0.01 (double tailed).
Table
Table 5. Statistical analysis of particle size distribution.
Table 5. Statistical analysis of particle size distribution.
TreatmentParticle Size Range (mm)
<0.10.1–0.250.25–1>1<0.25>0.25
S0T061.04 ± 0.56 a18.03 ± 0.08 a20.89 ± 0.70 a0.04 ± 0.08 a79.07 ± 0.63 a20.93 ± 0.63 a
S1T062.06 ± 0.61 b13.09 ± 0.26 b24.15 ± 0.51 b0.69 ± 0.14 b75.15 ± 0.65 b24.84 ± 0.65 b
S2T051.86 ± 0.13 c14.28 ± 2.64 b33.60 ± 2.49 c0.25 ± 0.28 a66.14 ± 2.77 c33.86 ± 2.77 c
S3T051.03 ± 0.07 c6.46 ± 0.09 c41.60 ± 0.25 d0.91 ± 0.21 b57.49 ± 0.09 d42.51 ± 0.09 d
S0T173.96 ± 0.16 a15.29 ± 0.09 a10.68 ± 0.08 a0.06 ± 0.04 a89.26 ± 0.11 a10.74 ± 0.10 a
S1T176.61 ± 0.83 b10.85 ± 0.81 b12.31 ± 0.09 b0.22 ± 0.02 a87.46 ± 0.11 a12.54 ± 0.11 a
S2T177.73 ± 1.97 b9.94 ± 1.70 b8.93 ± 0.81 c3.39 ± 0.44 b87.67 ± 0.47 a12.33 ± 0.48 a
S3T166.18 ± 1.32 c10.59 ± 0.71 b21.64 ± 0.49 d1.58 ± 2.04 ab76.77 ± 1.91 b23.22 ± 1.92 b
S0T285.01 ± 0.77 a7.98 ± 0.74 a6.95 ± 0.10 a0.07 ± 0.12 a92.98 ± 0.08 a7.02 ± 0.08 a
S1T272.99 ± 0.42 b15.30 ± 0.34 b11.57 ± 0.23 b0.13 ± 0.11 a88.29 ± 0.33 b11.71 ± 0.33 b
S2T271.16 ± 0.95 c14.83 ± 0.84 bc13.59 ± 0.10 c0.41 ± 0.03 b85.99 ± 0.11 c14.01 ± 0.11 c
S3T268.03 ± 0.44 d13.64 ± 0.54 c18.08 ± 0.42 d0.25 ± 0.16 ab81.67 ± 0.36 d18.29 ± 0.39 d
S0T390.80 ± 0.99 a8.46 ± 0.93 a0.73 ± 0.25 a0.00 ± 0.00 a99.26 ± 0.24 a0.73 ± 0.25 a
S1T371.55 ± 3.86 b16.44 ± 0.55 b10.40 ± 3.43 b1.60 ± 1.05 bc87.99 ± 4.36 b12.00 ± 4.35 b
S2T374.57 ± 1.17 b6.91 ± 0.61 c17.88 ± 0.59 c0.65 ± 0.13 ab81.48 ± 0.73 c18.35 ± 1.00 c
S3T376.16 ± 2.88 b7.10 ± 0.05 c14.29 ± 2.69 bc2.45 ± 0.51 c83.26 ± 2.90 bc16.74 ± 2.90 bc
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at p < 0.05 by one-way ANOVA.
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Fu, Q.; Meng, F.; Zhang, Y.; Wang, Z.; Li, T.; Hou, R. Ameliorating Effects of Soil Aggregate Promoter on the Physicochemical Properties of Solonetzes in the Songnen Plain of Northeast China. Sustainability 2022, 14, 5747. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105747

AMA Style

Fu Q, Meng F, Zhang Y, Wang Z, Li T, Hou R. Ameliorating Effects of Soil Aggregate Promoter on the Physicochemical Properties of Solonetzes in the Songnen Plain of Northeast China. Sustainability. 2022; 14(10):5747. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105747

Chicago/Turabian Style

Fu, Qiyang, Fanxiang Meng, Yuan Zhang, Zongliang Wang, Tianxiao Li, and Renjie Hou. 2022. "Ameliorating Effects of Soil Aggregate Promoter on the Physicochemical Properties of Solonetzes in the Songnen Plain of Northeast China" Sustainability 14, no. 10: 5747. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14105747

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