A Literature Review of the Impacts of Heat Stress on Human Health across Africa
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Scientific Mapping of Heat Stress Research
3.1.1. Trends in the Scientific Publications in Heat Stress and Human Health Research
3.1.2. The Most Productive Countries
3.1.3. Journals with Top Manuscript as per Citations
3.1.4. Country Collaboration Network
3.1.5. Institution Collaboration Network
3.1.6. Keywords Co-Occurrence Analysis
3.1.7. Network of Themes
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Reference | Corresponding Author | Year of Publication | Theme of the Study |
---|---|---|---|
[46] | Hall, SA. | 1968 | The Predicted 4-h Sweat Rate (P4SR) was used in this study to assess tolerable limits of heat stress in outdoor work using data from a training center near Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. |
[66] | Wyndham, C. | 1973 | The study assessed the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) in the gold mines in South Africa. The study indicated the curve of the probability of acclimatized men reaching dangerously high 4th-hour rectal temperatures, indicating that there is less than a one in a million chance of this occurring in acclimatized men below a WBGT of 32 °C. |
[67] | Wyndham, C. | 1973 | An experimental study in the acclimatized black mine workers in South Africa. The study results showed substantial effects of the work rate upon the body temperature if the WBGT rises above 30 °C. Intensive mining supervisors’ training is advocated for the early detection of signs and symptoms of heatstroke and associated corrective treatment underground. |
[68] | Wyndham, C. | 1973 | To compare the occurrences of the different indices for estimating the 4th-hour rectal temperature, residual variances were measured on curves fitted to 4th-hour rectal temperatures against heat stress indices from experiments on 13 highly acclimatized men subjected to 45 different combinations of 5 WBGTs. |
[69] | Wyndham, C. | 1974 | The study gives an outline of the issues related to the severity of ambient heat stress in South African gold mines where men operate underground: (1) improved acclimatization to heat; (2) identification of heat intolerant men; (3) specification of safe heat stress limits; (4) supplying mine managers with knowledge on the thresholds of heat stress at which human output begins to decline; and (5) adaptation of microclimate cooling systems for use in the gold mining industry were among the five measures suggested. |
[70] | Ellis, F. | 1976 | This research study examined and analyzed data from the British army, the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force, the Indian Armed Forces, the US Army, and forces engaged in Arab–Israeli conflicts, as well as data from South African gold mining firms, Persian Gulf oil tankers, and civilians, all of which were in the United States. The classification of heat illness, the sense of the terms used, and the effect on acclimatized and non-acclimatized staff and other disadvantaged civilian groups like the elderly and the very young were the subjects of this research. |
[71] | Kew, M. | 1976 | Heat illnesses are almost entirely limited to the gold mining industry in South Africa, where the high temperatures and humidity experienced in deep and ultradeep level mining render heat illnesses a genuine threat. When high ambient temperatures prevent heat dissipation by radiation or convection, and sweat evaporation is reduced by high humidity, heatstroke may occur. |
[72] | Martinson, M. | 1977 | Due to the heat of auto compression applied to the air as it passes down intake airways into underground workings, as well as the extensive usage of water for dust suppression since the early century, a growing number of mines have encountered hot and humid working conditions. Strenuous work in oppressive climatic conditions, on the other hand, promotes high heat stress, and, since 1924, heatstroke has become an endemic threat in some Witwatersrand mines. Although heatstroke has a strong mortality rate, the total death rate for all Witwatersrand mines has been less than 1 or 2% of the overall death rate for all industrial deaths, while the death rate on a few specific mines has been alarmingly high on occasion. |
[73] | Shearer, A. S. | 1990 | The experimental research study evaluated hydration and serum electrolyte shifts in 55 black underground gold miners who had heat exhaustion, as well as 52 surface and 50 underground employees who did not have any signs. |
[74] | Beniston, M. | 2002 | This article provides an overview of a variety of issues concerning climate change and human wellbeing. A brief description of climate change and its anthropogenic causes is given, with particular attention paid to heat stress and vector-borne diseases (e.g., malaria) in Africa, particularly in Rwanda and Zambia. |
[75] | Donoghue, A. | 2004 | An experimental study conducted over 18 years between 1983 and 2001, assessing heat illnesses in the mining industry in South Africa and Australia. The study established that heat illnesses increased during the summer months. High incidences of heat illness occurred most frequently in stone mills, metal mills, and underground metal mines. |
[76] | Ali-toudert, F. | 2005 | An experimental study assessed aspects of outdoor thermal comfort in a hot and dry climate. The study measured temperature, air humidity, and wind speed at different urban streets in Beniisguen, Algeria, during the summer of 2003. |
[77] | The Lancet | 2006 | A look at the findings of the Stern Report on extreme weather and its impact on human health and wellbeing. The study indicates the rising temperatures would exacerbate malnutrition and heat stress, as well as facilitate the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue fever in places where they are currently absent. |
[78] | Mcmullin, P. | 2006 | An analysis of the Avian Flu outbreaks that began in geese in the Chinese province of Guangdong in 1996 and spread due to intensified heat stress conditions. The virus was first related to human infection in Hong Kong in 1997 before spreading to Eurasia, Europe, the Middle East, and Africa in 2005/2006. |
[79] | Noakes, T.D. | 2008 | The study explored the reality and fiction around human heat stress in sports by analyzing previous scientific results, some of which present contradicting findings on heatstroke and other heat-related illnesses. |
[80] | Paeth, H. | 2008 | A book chapter on regional climate model simulations that projects dryer conditions, near-surface warming, and heat stress will intensify. The chapter highlights the need for more complex scenarios to assess the human influence on the African climate. |
[81] | Gautret, P. | 2009 | Using a questionnaire, an epidemiological analysis assesses occurrences of common health hazards among male and female travelers. Female travelers were found to be more vulnerable to different health threats, with coughs being the most common symptom (attack incidence of 51%), accompanied by headache, heat stress, and fever. Quite a few passengers experienced diarrhea and vomiting. |
[82] | Paeth, H. | 2009 | The research study focused on ensembles of long-term temporary climate change studies that forecast the African climate’s potential course under three scenarios. Over much of tropical Africa, the findings showed substantial surface heating and a slowing of the hydrological cycle, resulting in increased heat stress and longer dry spells. |
[83] | Hyatt, O.M. | 2010 | The research study utilized gridded data to measure occupational heat intensity for tropical and sub-tropical countries using the WBGT heat index, focusing on workplaces without cooling systems. The easily interpreted maps provide essential information for public health authorities. |
[84] | Tiller, D.K. | 2010 | The research presents the findings of a study that assessed the cumulative impact of noise and temperature on human thermal comfort and task efficiency. The results indicated that males and females have different responses to thermal and acoustic conditions. |
[85] | Scovronick, N. | 2012 | The research study measured provincial-level dose-response relationships, relative risks, attributable fractions, and mortality burdens for heat and cold through evaluating seven housing environments. The results revealed that a policy scenario prioritizing informal housing displacement would result in lower possible mortality burdens than one prioritizing the replacement of traditional dwellings. |
[86] | Bourdt, G.W. | 2012 | The study predicted the spread of Nassella neesiana in six different climate scenarios, namely eastern and southwestern Africa, North America’s northwest coast and southeastern United States, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Spain, Australia, and New Zealand more generally. Temperature increases resulted in fatal heat stress and the spread of N. neesiana. |
[87] | Myers, S.S. | 2013 | The study explored what is understood regarding the public health and operation of natural environments, such as changes in heat stress conditions. The study suggests that these changes influence human health in several respects. The study identified several gaps and limitations in previous research and suggested a more structured and rigorous approach to applied research in this area. |
[88] | Liu, K. | 2013 | The study assessed trehalose, a predominant sugar in mosquito hemolymphs, that not only provides energy but also protects the mosquito against desiccation and extreme heat stress. The study established that Anopheles gambiae expression is induced by environmental stresses, such as low humidity or elevated temperature, that result in heat stress conditions. |
[89] | Leone, M. | 2013 | The study quantified the effect of summer temperatures in southeast Mediterranean cities and compared it with European cities around the Mediterranean basin, evaluating city characteristics that explain between-city heterogeneity. Young populations in southeastern Mediterranean cities were found to be the most vulnerable to high temperatures, which creates the need to strengthen research and public health efforts in these Mediterranean countries. |
[90] | Garland, R.M. | 2014 | The review of South Africa’s White Paper. Identified potential health challenges for South Africa, such as vector- and water-borne pathogens, as well as heat stress, were assessed. The study further reviewed the national climate change and health adaptation program, which expanded on several health issues as well as associated social risk factors, including accommodation and settlements. The study revealed that one of the guiding principles for executing the strategy was community engagement, mainly because behavioral modification is likely to be necessary for adaptation and coping strategies. |
[33] | Kjellstrom, T. | 2014 | The study looks at heat stress in vast workplaces like mines, irrigation, construction, and quarries, as well as outdoor services, factories, and workshops. It is well established that occupational heat stress is becoming more of a concern, especially in the many workplaces that lack efficient cooling systems. South Africa, for example, would be the worst hit. |
[91] | Zhao, Y. | 2015 | The research uses three heat stress metrics to assess the evolution of heat stress. The research focused on 21 different general circulation models (GCMS), and it revealed that the increased vulnerability of human societies to heat stress is one of the potential outcomes of global warming with negative implications on health and labor power. |
[92] | Gordon, R.E. | 2015 | The study determined the hydration status and fluid intake of socio-economically disadvantaged male adolescent soccer players during training. The study revealed that many did not drink or drank insufficient amounts during and after training. Approximately a quarter were severely dehydrated. |
[93] | Potter, A.W. | 2015 | The experimental study used a sweating thermal manikin to measure the thermal (RCT), and evaporative resistance (RET) of the five commonly used Personal Protective Clothing (PPC) to aid in the prevention of heat stress for healthcare workers wearing PPE during Ebola outbreak response in West Africa. |
[36] | Bidassey-Manilal, S. | 2016 | The experimental study established that classrooms made of prefabricated asbestos sheeting with a corrugated iron roof and converted shipping container had consistently higher indoor temperatures than concrete classrooms. |
[94] | Pozio, E. | 2016 | The study reported that the normal cycle of trichinella taxa circulating in cold climates would be impacted by rising temperatures, declining humidity and snow cover, and increasing heat stress exposure. |
[95] | Bailey, M.S. | 2016 | This study evaluated how medical assets were deployed during a short-notice contingent activity in West Africa, which is prone to climatic conditions, including heat stress, responsible for various health problems in the region. |
[96] | Coca, A. | 2017 | The experimental research assessed humans’ physiological and subjective reactions to constant light exercise in environments close to those present in West Africa when wearing three distinct styles of PPE. The study suggests that heat stress and PPE training as well as the introduction of a work-to-rest ratio, will eliminate exhaustion and potential heat stress problems. |
[97] | Stacey, M.J. | 2018 | The role of copeptin secretion in providing knowledge about fluid balance, thermal strain, and health risks linked to imminent heat stress risks and associated heat-related illnesses was investigated in this experimental study. |
[98] | Asefi-Najafabady, S. | 2018 | According to this projection study, temperature extremes and heat threats could escalate from 7 to 269 times above current levels. The most critical rises are seen in Kenya’s north and west, as well as areas of Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. |
[99] | Newth, D. | 2018 | The global and regional changes in WBGT were calculated to assess the environmental heat stress. The results of simulations of the four representative concentration pathways (RCPS) from the coupled model intercomparison project phase 5 (CMIP5) were used in the analysis. |
[100] | Coffel, E.D. | 2018 | In this study, as measured by the WBGT, heat stress is expected to rise by a factor of 5–10 as a consequence of global temperature and humidity changes, with 150–750 million person-days of exposure. |
[101] | Ahmadalipour, A. | 2018 | The WBGT heat index was calculated using daily climate data from 17 fine-resolution regional climate models (RCMS) around the Mena zone to assess the probability of death from extreme heat stress for people over 65 years. If no climate change mitigation is introduced, the mortality risk will climb to 8–20 times that of the historical period. |
[102] | Abera, T.A. | 2018 | A 16-year time series of remotely sensed environmental evidence (2001–2016) was used to determine how the relationship of rainfall–vegetation impacts of drought conditions is aggravated by heat stress. |
[103] | Quinn, T. | 2018 | Using thermal manikin simulation and human testing, this experimental research study assessed the physiological effect and heat perception of four different personal cooling devices under impermeable PPE during low-intensity exercise in a hot and humid setting. According to the findings, using a personal cooling system in combination with impermeable PPE will help reduce the physiological and perceptual effects of heat stress. |
[104] | Ekiti, M.E. | 2018 | The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) among Mbandjock sugarcane plantation workers in Cameroon, as well as the factors that contribute to it. The prevalence of CKD was observed to be lower than the national average, owing to preventative steps taken to reduce heat stress and dehydration. |
[105] | Den Boon, S. | 2018 | During the 2014–2016 Ebola epidemic in West Africa, the usage of personal protective equipment (PPE) to shield health workers from Ebola virus disease was linked to severe heat stress and dehydration. The research suggested that recommendations be given to direct the successful use of PPE. |
[106] | Kapwata, T. | 2018 | To measure the impact of heat stress, this research looked at the connection between indoor and outdoor temperatures in a rural, suburban setting in a current atmosphere and a colder-than-expected future climate. |
[107] | Sylla, M.B. | 2018 | Heat stress threats are most remarkable in the Sahel and Western Sahara deserts from the month of June to August, where the majority of the population is at risk of dangerous heat stress, during which everybody, particularly workers, feels discomfort and is prone to heat cramps and heat exhaustion. |
[108] | Kadzere, C.T. | 2018 | Mounting climate change impacts, such as heat stress, pose multidisciplinary problems that include integrated cross-discipline study, expansion, and preparation to have holistic solutions. |
[109] | Wessling, E.G. | 2018 | Chimpanzees, one of humanity’s nearest relatives, were used in an experiment to see how much seasonal variability in energy balance or thermoregulation (dehydration and heat exposure) impacts chimps live in an extreme savanna habitat. |
[110] | Yezli, S. | 2019 | The study investigated the awareness, behavior, and experience of heat-related illnesses and how to avoid them during the 2017 HAJJ pilgrimage. The study established a lack of hydration and a refusal to use any preventative steps or adjust the HAJJ activities plan, depending on the weather. |
[111] | Moda, H.M. | 2019 | A literature review study on the consequences of excessive heat exposure and health concerns among outdoor workers as well as the related effects on productivity and occupational safety in tropical developing countries, with an emphasis on sub-Saharan Africa, where such studies are limited. Other indirect health risks correlated with increasing heat among this population include vulnerability to hazardous chemicals and other vector-borne diseases, in addition to the direct consequences of excessive heat exposure. |
[112] | Capon, A. | 2019 | The Lancet reported heatwaves are becoming more frequent, intense, and long-lasting as Earth warms. According to the report, so far this year, several countries have broken all-time high-temperature records. The month of June was the hottest month on record for Europe, with average temperatures 2 °C above usual due to an early and extreme heatwave. On June 28, France set a new national temperature high of 45.9°C. A second big heatwave in a month hit Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands July 24–25, setting fresh all-time records on two consecutive days. This year, India and Pakistan were also scorched by a sustained extreme heatwave, with temperatures in several areas exceeding 45°C for several weeks. On June 10, Delhi witnessed its hottest day of the month, with a temperature of 48°C. |
[113] | Liu, X. | 2019 | The study examined the relations between the preceding 3-month standardized precipitation index (SPI) and the number of hot days indicated by the surface air temperature (NHD-TX) and the wet bulb globe temperature (NHD-WX). The findings revealed that there could be local input between surface moisture and oppressive hot extremes, modulating the intolerable heat stress in some regions of the tropics. |
[114] | Rasilla, D. | 2019 | Due to the excess heat generated by UHI as well as poorer air quality, heatwaves pose additional threats to urban spaces. The lack of wind-driven cooling causes severe thermal stress in the city during the day. Because of the higher-than-normal volume of pollutants coming from northern Africa during heatwaves, the air quality deteriorates. |
[115] | Mastrucci, A. | 2019 | The study estimated, using the variable degree days (VDD) method, the extent of populations potentially exposed to heat stress as well as the energy demand required to meet these cooling needs, accounting for spatially explicit climate, housing types, access to electricity, and air conditioning ownership. |
[116] | Jagarnath, M | 2020 | To classify areas of possible future heat stress danger in the Durban (eThekwini) metropolitan region, the study assessed current and projected future heat risk, expressed as a heat stress sensitivity index based on high-resolution climate change predictions, as well as a social vulnerability index. |
[117] | Yengoh, G.T. | 2020 | Using data from general circulation models, the distribution of future heat stress risks based on WBGT was evaluated to see if it will impact smallholder farmers’ capacity to conduct agricultural activities. |
[118] | Cook, T.R. | 2020 | Under potential climate simulations, the research study modeled thermoregulatory responses arising from high temperatures and hot conditions that have devastating consequences on animals, contributing to mass mortalities. |
[119] | Matallah, M.E. | 2020 | In the heart of the Tolga palm grove and in different urban settlements, the analysis measured thermal comfort in the Tolga oasis complex and checked the validity of the “oasis influence” definition. The findings show that the oases palm grove has the highest rate of heat stress (Physiologically Equal Temperature (PET) index). |
[120] | Temple, D. | 2020 | This study outlined the animal welfare problems most likely to be found in extensive systems, centered on the four environmental animal welfare realms of heat stress, diet, health, and actions. In terms of climate conditions, food safety, and connectivity, comprehensive networks are incredibly complex and heterogeneous. |
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Search Topic (1st Row) | Areal Restriction (2nd Row) | Areal Restriction (3rd Row) |
---|---|---|
“Heat stress” | [AND] “vulnerability” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “human health” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “impacts” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “mortality” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “hospitalization” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “heat exhaustion” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “dehydration” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “thermal comfort” | [AND] “Africa” |
“Heat stress” | [AND] “heat stroke” | [AND] “Africa” |
Country | Articles | SCP | MCP | Total Citations |
---|---|---|---|---|
South Africa | 8 | 8 | 0 | 46 |
Germany | 4 | 3 | 1 | 271 |
United Kingdom | 4 | 4 | 0 | 31 |
United States of America | 4 | 4 | 0 | 76 |
New Zealand | 3 | 2 | 1 | 84 |
Journal Name | TC | TCPY |
---|---|---|
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA | 174 | 19.33 |
Journal of Climate | 152 | 11.69 |
Climate Research | 98 | 5.76 |
Environmental Research Letters | 55 | 13.75 |
Global Health Action | 48 | 4.00 |
Journal of Travel Medicine | 46 | 3.54 |
American Journal of Industrial Medicine | 40 | 2.22 |
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA | 38 | 4.22 |
Environmental Health Global Access Science Source | 31 | 3.44 |
Environmental Research Letters | 30 | 4.29 |
Cluster | No. of Documents | Most Frequent Words |
---|---|---|
Red | 44 | Adaptive management, air pollution, climate change, environmental exposure, environmental health, extreme, event, health hazards, health risks, heatwave, high temperature, morbidity, mortality, risk assessment, urban health, thermal stress |
Green | 23 | Adult, 80 and over, male, female, young adult, middle-aged, newborn and preschool, extreme heat, cause of death |
Blue | 14 | Heat shock response, heat stress, oxidative stress, gene expression, genetics, animals |
Yellow | 13 | Age factors, demography, risk factors, socio-economic factors, thermal exposure, vulnerable population |
Purple | 6 | Heat injury, heat stress disorder, hot temperature, humans |
Cluster (Sub-Field) | No. of Documents | Selected Top Words (No. of Links) | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Red (health hazards) | 23 | Mortality (58); health hazard (55); public health (53); risk factor (50); diarrhea (40) morbidity (36); malaria (35); disease transmission (32); mosquito (30) | Most researchers (i.e., 23 documents) have paid utmost attention to the theme of health hazard in heat stress and human health research in Africa. |
Green (vulnerability groups) | 13 | Male (52); adult (51); female (50); middle-aged (46); adolescent (47); child (40); young adult (37) | The scientific community (13 articles) has paid high attention to the most vulnerable groups affected by heat stress-related illness in Africa. |
Blue (impacts) | 12 | Heat stress (67); injury (35); heatstroke (29); thermal exposure (29); heat exhaustion (28); dehydration (22) | The scientific community has paid moderate attention to the inherent impacts of heat stress-related illness in Africa. |
Yellow (climate change) | 9 | Climate change (62); global warming (40); temperature effect (40); humidity (38); climate effect (33); climate modelling (25); thermal stress (25) | Heat stress is attributed to climate change and variability; hence, the theme draws modest attention when addressing issues relating to heat stress in Africa |
Purple (areas) | 9 | Africa (66); Middle East (40); Europe (42); Asia (34) | Approximately 9 documents paid attention to the identified areas in heat stress and human health research, with Africa leading. |
Teal (temperature variability) | 4 | Humans (69); heat (55); environmental temperature (47); hot temperature (42) | Changes in temperature have a direct impact on humans. However, the theme draws minimal attention when addressing aspects of heat stress in Africa |
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Ncongwane, K.P.; Botai, J.O.; Sivakumar, V.; Botai, C.M. A Literature Review of the Impacts of Heat Stress on Human Health across Africa. Sustainability 2021, 13, 5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095312
Ncongwane KP, Botai JO, Sivakumar V, Botai CM. A Literature Review of the Impacts of Heat Stress on Human Health across Africa. Sustainability. 2021; 13(9):5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095312
Chicago/Turabian StyleNcongwane, Katlego P., Joel O. Botai, Venkataraman Sivakumar, and Christina M. Botai. 2021. "A Literature Review of the Impacts of Heat Stress on Human Health across Africa" Sustainability 13, no. 9: 5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095312
APA StyleNcongwane, K. P., Botai, J. O., Sivakumar, V., & Botai, C. M. (2021). A Literature Review of the Impacts of Heat Stress on Human Health across Africa. Sustainability, 13(9), 5312. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095312