Components of DMZ Storytelling for International Tourists: A Tour Guide Perspective

Abstract

This qualitative study investigated the process of Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) storytelling created by tour guides. It explored the strategies that DMZ guides use and their influences at this complex site. This study investigates the training of the guides, their viewpoints on the DMZ, and the factors that influence their storytelling, taking guide status into consideration. A total of thirteen tour guides were interviewed. The findings identify various storytelling components that are used to build relationships with tourists, deliver an immersive experience, and provide the core information and regulations of the tour. Therefore, the proposed conceptual model includes three components that contribute to the creation of a memorable experience: the guide and the tourists, the guide and the site, and the tourists and the site. The findings enrich the body of literature on storytelling and could be used by travel agencies to create new training programs for DMZ tour guides and travel package group management. In addition, DMZ tours could be redesigned to increase the effectiveness of storytelling.

1. Introduction

Many people play roles in the dynamic tourism industry. For travel involving a package tour with a guide, the tour guide stays with the tourists through the entire period of travel and even escorts them to the airport on their way back home [1]. Thus, the guide’s performance is likely to influence how the tourists perceive their tour. Some researchers have highlighted the influence of guides’ work on tourist satisfaction and re-visiting intentions [2,3,4]. Empathy and communication are essential job skills for tour leaders and guides so that they can provide high-quality tour guiding and increase the likelihood of their clients rebuying a package tour. On the other hand, miscommunication and negative social relationships can negatively impact a tour’s execution and quality [5].

However, while the importance of the guide is recognized, guides are still not considered very highly within the industry. Indeed, the job is often underestimated and low-paid with poor working conditions. Such conditions may negatively impact the tour and encourage the appearance of new, untrained, and improvised guides [1].

Guides’ work is deeply social and their main tool is speech. What the guide talks about and how they express themselves are components of a special technique called storytelling. A few researchers have pointed out that storytelling is an efficient way to engage tourists and is one of the only tools that destinations have to sell themselves [6,7]. Mathisen [7] underlined the idea that the place where the tour occurs may influence storytelling and the guide’s performance. Indeed, the guide will not have the same discourse when working at a museum compared with a natural environment or if they work occasionally versus every day at the same site.

The present study focused on a particular site, the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). A border between two countries, this Cold War relic attracts many tourists, both domestic and international [8]. DMZ tourism has been investigated with regard to hospitality and tourism [9,10,11,12,13]. Previous research shed light on the ecological value of the DMZ areas [14,15]. According to Kang et al. [16], dark tourism takes place in sites touched by wars and tragedies that still influence us today. We can say that the DMZ falls into the dark tourism category. At the DMZ, travelers seek to witness the special relationship between the two sides of Korea, learn about the history of the area, admire nature, or are simply driven by curiosity [9].

The Korean Demilitarized Zone is a unique place in the world that attracts many tourists, both domestic and international. Its history, attributes, and the conduct of the different tours make the DMZ an interesting site to examine tour guides’ storytelling.

Moreover, as the DMZ stretches all along the peninsula, many other sites such as the DMZ theme train, hiking trails, parks, theme parks, or observatories can be visited in the ten districts [17]. They will not be part of this study as they do not require the intervention of a tour guide.

However, despite its uniqueness and tourism potential, the DMZ does not appeal to the interest of international researchers in the tourism field, and the studies that include tour guide’s viewpoint are still rare.

Therefore, the purpose of this present study is to investigate the guides’ storytelling attributes in the context of the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) tour. The objective of this study is to investigate the training of guides, their point of view on the DMZ, and the factors that influence their storytelling by taking into consideration the status of the guides. The results of this study can contribute in several ways. First, they may give guides a more accurate perception of their role and promote them to use more efficient strategies to increase tourists’ experience quality. Second, they may give tourism stakeholders a better understanding of the tour guide’s role and their importance in the tourism product loop. This may have an impact on the tour guide training program in South Korea.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Role of Tour Guide

According to the World Federation of Tourist Guide Association (WFTGA) (https://wftga.org, accessed on 2 December 2021), a tour guide is defined as “a person who guides visitors in the language of their choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area (WFTGA, [18]).” Previous researchers [19] defined the guide as a “pathfinder and mentor” and a “leader, educator, host, and facilitator.” Zhang and Chow [20] listed 16 roles of tour guides and analyzed the performance of tour guides in Hong Kong using the importance-performance analysis (IPA). The results indicated that important skills are problem solving, trustworthiness, and sense of humor. Moreover, tourists tend to come to guides with their complaints, problems, or confusion. Cetin and Yarcan [21] studied tour guide qualities by interviewing tour guides and tour operators rather than tourists. For tour guides, the principal qualities they have to show during a tour include good communication skills and the capacity to relay information, knowledge, and education skills.

Tour guides, tour operators, and tourists may not have exactly the same expectations about guides’ attributes and qualities in terms of priority, but knowledge and transmission of information skills are common points for those three actors of tourism. Most research in this area has examined the circumstances of traditional tour guides, often freelancers who are hired by tour operators to escort a large group of visitors. However, since it is hard to come up with an exact and complete definition of the tour guide, it seems also erroneous to put all guides in the same category. Indeed, according to Price and al. [22], multiple guides exist and can be defined by their training, the types of sites they are working on, the type of clients they have, or even the length of stay of the tourists. All of these situations necessitate a different way of working as well as different implications, interactions, and relationships with the tourists. In other words, the role is influenced by many internal and external factors. Bryon [6] explored four types of tour guide and investigated the perception they have of their job, their employer, and the tourists they work with.

Paradoxically, tour guiding is a highly regulated work in many countries, but these rules may also restrain tourism while creating a disequilibrium between supply and demand. To meet the demands of the rise in the one-day guiding market, a parallel economy has arisen. Often illegal but tolerated because it falls in a gray area of definitions and laws, more and more online specialized sites or travel agencies are offering services as locals, escorts, or “friends” to guide tourists. As Bryon [6] stated, they all have specific stories to tell to their clients.

2.2. Storytelling and Travel Destination

Storytelling is a technique that involves conveying a story in an interesting and narrative fashion [23,24,25]. Storytelling is the main tool used by guides use to communicate with tourists, introduce them to a destination, and ensure that they are fully engaged in the tour [24,25,26,27,28,29,30]. For example, Cohen [19] revealed the components of the structures and dynamics of guiding. He highlighted that the important component of a tour guide is their communicative role. Cohen divided the communicative component into four parts: the selection of artifacts and topics, the transmission of information, interpretation based on true information, and the fabrication of false information as fake sites or artifacts.

Some researchers prefer to talk about the guide in the terms of an “interpreter” and refer to storytelling as “interpretation” and as the main role of the guide [31]. Similarly, Tilden et al. [32] conducted a representative study on interpretation and claimed that interpretation is the art by which the meaning and beauty of what the visitor sees is revealed. The meaning, often hidden, has to make sense to the tourist.

Although determining the definition of storytelling or interpretation may be arduous [32], researchers agree on its importance during the tour. Oh and Lee [23] extracted four components of storytelling: “sensibility/description”, “education”, “interest”, and “authenticity”. Each of these factors influences tourists’ attitudes and satisfaction. Additionally, according to Cohen [19], communication may influence the perceived tourist experience.

Storytelling allows tourists to create a memorable experience [7]. It can be entertaining and educational at the same time. It can manage experiences, facilitate understanding and recollection, and thus create immersion. Some studies have pointed out the importance of immersion as a factor that leads to unforgettable experiences [33]. To that extent, Zátori [34], developed the “AIM model”. For the researcher, increasing tourists’ attention, engagement, and discovery are three factors that allow the guide to co-create experiences and meaning with tourists. She noted that entertainment, through humor, narration, and emotions, is essential to involve tourists and create a memorable experience. Additionally, co-creation can be only complete if tourists end this experience with new knowledge or at least a new perspective on the site and its issues.

Thus, according to Bryon [6], nowadays, storytelling tends to be less about historical facts and more about personal anecdotes; thus, it is more topical. This is in accordance with Pine and Gilmore’s experience economy [35], which states that the most successful experiences for tourists are entertaining, educational, escapist, and aesthetic. Bryon [6] stated that different types of tour guide use different types of storytelling but all try to add value to the tourist experience through education and entertainment. Additionally, maybe with the exception of entrepreneurial guides, all of the other guides pay particular attention to the sense of authenticity in their discourse, their stories, and the places they visit with tourists.

The question of authenticity seems to be recurrent in studies related to tour guides. Indeed, it is easy to understand that one of the requirements for guides is to present information that is as close as possible to the truth. However, authenticity goes well beyond this fact. Guides also want to present what they believe to be real to the tourists, and they might sometimes have recourse to fake stories. As professionals and locals, guides can establish their legitimacy and, thus, not see the veracity of their words put into question. Carù and Cova [36] explored the mechanisms that facilitate consumer immersion. They uncovered the role of the guide as one who reveals personal facts to the customer, giving them the perception of authenticity. Moving from traditional stories to emotional stories shapes the image of a genuine guide working with passion. Even if this concept of guide does not refer to tourist guides, it can be applied to the tourism field and shows the importance of using authenticity and emotions to create an immersive experience. Moreover, regarding storytelling in a dark tourism area, Horvat [37] highlighted that tour guides narrate memories just as often as facts. Even if they do not experience these memories themselves, by recounting them, guides fall within the construction of national identity. In other words, guides speak for an entire population through the narration of their own experiences. In her research, Skelin Horvat also insisted that guiding in a different language than the mother tongue may facilitate the expression of emotions when a sensitive topic is covered.

Dark tourism sites, in addition to their educational value and certain sense of excitement, allow for the creation of collective memories. The history of the site and the guide’s memories are incorporated into the tourists’ own created perceptions that they bring back with them after traveling. Indeed, tourists need to be engaged in the stories as they will later recreate them in another context [22]. Recreation of stories may be deeply linked with tourist satisfaction since, in the end, this may work as a “word-of-mouth” phenomenon, encouraging other people to come to visit the country, or at least the site.

3. Method

3.1. Research Questions

This study investigated the process of creating guides’ storytelling in the particular context of the Korean Demilitarized Zone. We studied the content of stories and the factors that may impact them. We questioned the influence of the guides’ official status and their perceptions of the DMZ site. To examine the attributes of the guides’ storytelling and the techniques they use to deliver their message, reach the tourists, and maintain their attention, this study conducted qualitative research using the constant comparative method proposed by Strauss and Corbin [38,39,40]. Strauss and Corbin [38,39] suggested that a researcher needs to collect data, analyze data, and read articles over the same period of time. These steps must be continuously repeated until the relevant results are obtained. We conducted semi-structured interviews with thirteen experienced tour guides for foreigners. As official tour guides and unlicensed guides do not have the same backgrounds in terms of culture and training, the answers were expected to be different.

3.2. Data Collection

First, the data were collected from guides working in the DMZ area. Although companies mostly hire guides, guides still have the ability to work as freelancers. Additionally, in Korea, there is a level of community spirit through which guides help each other by sharing news and information. This community spirit can be found on Internet blogs and online commmunities for tour guides. In order to reach tour guides who would be interested in participating in this research, emails were sent to travel agencies specializing in DMZ tours and messages posted on online communities. In addition, guides who were working or have worked in the DMZ were contacted through their social media profiles (e.g., Instagram and LinkedIn) without success. Two companies answered positively as well as one tour guide from an online community. Then, this study used the criterion-based snowball technique to construct its sample. The snowball technique consists of asking participants to recruit people they know and who match the criteria to participate in this study. This technique is particularly useful when the population is difficult to access [41]. Indeed, DMZ tour agencies introduced us to guides who met the research criteria.

Guides participated in one-on-one interviews that lasted thirty min to an hour. Face-to-face interviews and phone interviews were both conducted, according to the preference of each guide and the health situation due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The semi-structured interview consisted of two different parts. The first contained short questions about the socio-demographical backgrounds of the guides and basic questions about their work. These questions were easy to answer and served as “icebreakers”. The questions varied a bit depending on the profile of the guide. The second part of the interview contained two question types: three questions directly related to the research questions and probing questions to lead the guide in this speech to attain more relevant content. Those open-ended questions concerned the guide’s perceptions of the experience, role, and strategies used when guiding. Probing questions and other questions were asked following the answers of the guides.

The open-ended questions allowed the participant to answer questions fully, avoiding simple sentences. In doing so, the answers were likely to be deeper and unbiased. Thus, we were able to investigate the mechanisms and intentions involved in the storytelling of the guides in more depth. Moreover, all of the open-ended questions were asked in the same order for all guides to ensure reliability. The interviews were recorded and transcribed onto a computer. Then, NVivo software was used to organize and classify data into codes and categories. In other words, it allowed us to discover the common points that appeared in the tour guides’ stories by coding the guides’ discourse. Recurrent and similar elements were categorized using the grounded theory to identify similar patterns and produce a visualized conceptual model.

3.3. Demographic Characteristics

As mentioned above, thirteen tour guides who worked regularly in the DMZ and Panmunjeom areas participated in interviews between August and October 2020. Ten guides had more than five years of experience. They all guided international tourists, but only nine of them had a national tour guide license. Moreover, five tour guides had scholarly and professional backgrounds directly linked to the tourism industry or politics, while eight had studied another major, such as finance. Eleven guides were Korean and two were French. They were aged between 32 and around 50 years old. Detailed information about the participants can be found in

Table 1. The interviewees’ information.

Interviewee	Age	Experience	Gender	Nationality	Guide License	Experimented JSA Tour
A	38	10 years	Male	Korean	Yes	No
B	50	10 years	Female	Korean	Yes	No
C	33	2 years	Female	Korean	Yes	No
D	45	18 years	Female	Korean	Yes	Yes
E	45	6 years	Female	Korean	Yes	Yes
F	40’s	5 years	Male	Korean	Yes	No
G	40’s	6 years	Male	Korean	Yes	No
H	50’s	9 years	Female	Korean	Yes	Yes
I	36	10 years	Female	Korean	Yes	No
J	35	2 years	Female	French	No	Yes
K	32	2 years	Female	Korean	No	Yes
L	38	5 years	Female	French	No	Yes
M	33	7 years	Female	Korean	No	Yes

.

4. Results

4.1. Being a DMZ Tour Guide

To understand the creation of DMZ storytelling, this study first focused on the process of constructing stories. We questioned the resources used by guides before, during, and after a tour. The first difference related to the education received by guides. Four of the five guides who had academic or professional experience in tourism or politics were unlicensed. Three of the four unlicensed guides had a university education related to tourism or politics while the other had worked in the tourism industry before being a guide. This may give them more legitimacy and compensate for their unofficial and illegal status. On the contrary, not many licensed guides had built their knowledge on an academic base. In fact, there are few university training programs for being a tour guide in Korea. However, even if an individual has a tour guide license, the exam does not cover the modern history of Korea. This can be a disadvantage, as a knowledge modern history is important for the DMZ site. Therefore, after joining a travel agency, guides have to follow some tours led by senior tour guides.

“There was a senior tour guide in my agency so I joined his tour several times. Once, I even recorded all of his talking, but you know, it’s like, it was really helpful for me because I had no experience with taking a tour.”

(Interviewee E)

Guides usually supplement their training with some research of their own. In the category identified as “self-training”, the study identified different techniques. The first one was related to social interactions and word-of-mouth prior to starting tours. Some guides had questioned their relatives on their knowledge and experience with North Korea, the DMZ, or the Korean War. It calls into question the veracity of the facts, but it can allow a guide to add personal stories and anecdotes to his or her storytelling. Tour guides also use their previous experiences, in customer service, for example, to speak in front of a group with confidence and benevolence. However, this particularity applies to guides with working experience.

“Maybe my experience before being a tour guide. Because I was in the financial sector for 14 years and I was mostly in the customer relations. So, it was really helpful for me. I really try to determine the interests of the visitors and then make them satisfied.”

(Interviewee E)

Before, during, and after the tour, guides try to remain informed about the political situation between the two Korean areas by listening to news, reading books, and searching for information on the internet. Here, again, while self-training is important, it is preferable for guides to be critical and verify information.

“But also, I have to know the basics, right? What is the Tunnel? When was it founded? What can you see from the pavilion and what does DMZ mean? Those very logical things, I learned them from books.”

(Interviewee I)

Finally, guides add information that they have learned during other tours. They tend to learn and see new things they did not notice before.

4.2. Tour Guides’ Description of the DMZ

In the second part of this study, the content of the guides’ stories was analyzed. It was important to understand how guides perceive the DMZ and how they make sense of it. Indeed, their own image of the site may steer the substance of their stories. It appeared that the guides have different images of the site. It can be educational, as stated by the official name of the tour. Only one guide pointed this out. We tend to forget, but it is important to understand the scope of the tour. Here, we can also see the role that education plays in guiding tours.

“First, usually, we talk about the DMZ or JSA tour, but officially, it’s not a tour. Officially it is called the DMZ and JSA Orientation and Education Program.”

(Interviewee H)

The two most common areas covered are peace and war. It is interesting to see that there were no differences in the perceptions of licensed and unlicensed guides. They stated that, in the DMZ, they can feel the pain of the division caused by the war as well as viewing the area as a symbol of peace for the reunified Korean peninsula. These two perceptions can be found in the content of the guides’ storytelling.

“The DMZ and JSA is a peaceful coexistence area. Yeah, it will be a peaceful coexistence place. Not now, but someday, they will open the door. I think it’s the first step. No more control by soldiers. We can go freely, in the future. But these days, we don’t say JSA or DMZ, we say “Peace joint, Peace existence Area”.

(Interviewee H)

“The blue houses! Because it’s the most famous picture of the DMZ. The line on the floor symbolizes hope and peace.”

(Interviewee L)

Some tour guides highlighted the unique and exciting characteristics of the DMZ. As the most militarized/Demilitarized Zone in the world, there is a sense of thrill, and perhaps a certain sense of danger, from this part of the divided country, which is officially still in a state of war. Indeed, the site combines adrenaline with the experience of a hidden and forbidden place. Simply put, this unique and unknown place amazes people.

“Seeing that one country is divided is amazing. Reactions are different. For us, it’s more the history that is fascinating, but Asians find it mysterious. When you visit Panmunjeom, you can see North Korean soldiers. It’s impressive (…) Technically speaking, you cross the border during the Panmunjeom tour. It’s thrilling. Also, when North Korean soldiers look at you, it’s huge and a little scary. And when there are Chinese tourists on the North Korean side, it’s quite funny. You are looking at each other.”

(Interviewee J)

As mentioned in the previous quote by “J”, North Korea itself is often used to describe the DMZ. When guides think about this area, they picture the country and its people.

“I would like them to understand and remember that North Korea is a beautiful country. It’s not all about the dictator. It’s still a pretty country with beautiful landscapes.”

(Interviewee J)

“Having North Korea next to us is an important part, even though we don’t really talk about it. But it’s actually reality to us, so to talk about our future, knowing about North Korea and what is behind the line, the relations.”

(Interviewee E)

Only a few guides described DMZ negatively as a tourist attraction. Masking the reality of the site and thus the idea of the two Koreas’ old and new history, the DMZ can be perceived as an attraction made to attract tourists who flock to be entertained rather than educated. The strict security rules and the military presence in the JSA area as well as the stop in the DMZ shop make the experience akin to some amusement parks or a Hollywood production. This point may be a threat that guides will have to overcome.

“It looks like a tourist attraction. Everybody laughs, smiles, takes pictures (…) It looks more like a tourist place, not the real DMZ.”

(Interviewee D)

“Before the historical and cultural side of the DMZ, the site is about money first. For North Korea as well. And some tourists notice that.”

(Interviewee J)

Finally, it is interesting to note that the least popular description of DMZ is its ecological attribute despite the recent development of eco-tourism paths to visit the site. This also impacts the storytelling content, since almost no guide reported that they explain the ecosystem and eco-tourism of the DMZ to tourists.

“Also, we need more time in the DMZ. In the end, not only for information, but there are many beautiful surroundings, natural surroundings. It’s been a no human being zone for 70 years. So, I hope that the place can become like a둘레길 (walking trail), like in Bukhansan Mountain. That place could be a good walking course or trekking course. But, I hope my guests can enjoy more nature on the DMZ course. But at this moment, it’s too short to enjoy the nature. So, maybe the next theme of the DMZ, I hope, is that people can enjoy the nature or eco-tourism. Because, I mean, the tension is already gone. If we change the theme to eco-tourism, it means that the tension situation is gone. That is my goal, or my hope.”

(Interviewee B)

“But many people think only about war and missiles, they don’t know, at first, the richness of DMZ flora and fauna.”

(Interviewee J)

The constant comparative method was conducted to identify which kind of description was the most recurrent in the guides’ discourse. It also considered the official status and working area of the guides. The findings shows that both licensed and unlicensed tour guides, without any distinction, described the DMZ as a symbol of peace and hope where marks of war, pain, and division remain. In the same way, the findings indicates that hope and war were the two most frequently mentioned topics by guides working at the DMZ site only (the third tunnel and Imjingak tour) and guides who go to both DMZ and Panmunjeom. However, the guides who visit Panmunjeom talked more about war than the others. This can be explained by the fact that the tension and regulations are more intense near the border. Additionally, inside Panmunjeom, guides hand tourists over to an American soldier who takes over the tour and manage the group of tourists. The official guide becomes a simple escort.

“So, I can feel the division of my country. People say, when they go there, “Oh Korea is really divided by the line”, because they see the border line right? Some of them. And especially the building, some buildings are divided by the lines so they really feel like “Korea is really divided by the line.”

(Interviewee D)

4.3. DMZ Storytelling Content

Since tour guides have a specific concept of the DMZ site, they naturally direct their speech towards specific topics. Indeed, when they explain the site to tourists, they use different stories that can be categorized into three groups: self-introduction of the guide, facts, and regulations imposed by the site. The guides’ storytelling usually takes place inside the bus on the way from Seoul to the DMZ and lasts around one hour.

The facts category is divided into codes or sections. The first code concerns facts about the DMZ site itself. Guides explain the courses and the different attractions they are going to visit. They also descrive the creation of the DMZ and the reasons for its construction by delivering objective facts. It is interesting to see that tourists receive the biggest amount of information ahead of the visit and not on the site.

“I explain about the tour course. What stops we need to stop by. “There are 5 or 6 courses we need to stop by, so I explain the courses in detail.”

(Interviewee B)

“From Seoul to Imjingak it takes one hour. I try to give them everything within 40 min.”

(Interviewee A)

“So, DMZ is like divided, right? It’s a demilitarized zone. So, the key component will be the name, what it’s stands for, because many of the people don’t know that. And the second is how it was made, and third it is who was involved. And fourth is why it was made.”

(Interviewee K)

Then, to offer a better understanding of the creation of the DMZ, guides add details about Korean history. While some of the stories start from the end of the Joseon Dynasty, most of the guides only talk about the Japanese colonization and the Korean War. However, almost nobody stated that they talk about the modern history of Korea, for example, President Kim Dae Jung’s Sunshine Policy, despite its importance for the DMZ and the South/North Korean relationship history.

“So, I always start with the Japanese colonial time. The later period of the Japanese colonial time. I always start with the history to tell them why we are divided like this: “It started from around 1945.”

(Interviewee E)

“Like for example, the story of the thousands of cows that Hyundai CEO offered to North Korea. I learned it after several tours, not at the first one. And it’s a really important story that is related to North Korean History.”

(Interviewee J)

Another subsection of the “facts” category covers Korean society. This code includes cultural topics, political topics, information about North Korea, and stories about Korean people, divided families, North Korean refugees, and the fact that North and South Koreans are one single people.

“I spend more time talking about the reunification beliefs.”

(Interviewee B)

“A lot of people ask me about president Trump, the relationship between North Korea and America. This kind of story (…) So it’s more the lives of people, relationships, opinions about North Koreans’ lives. It’s more like the reality of life (…) my experience, what I did, how many people I met. They want to listen my experience. So, I explain what I saw, the before and after, the changings of North Korean life. I try to explain that.”

(Interviewee D)

Finally, the guides cannot avoid regulations. They constantly have to explain and repeat to tourists the different rules that must be observed in the strict DMZ. They talk about landmines, photography restrictions, the fact that tourists cannot walk away from the group, and more than everything, they talk about the time restrictions.

“The last 20 min, I need to give them the regulations and all that. First of all, it’s the time. It’s the time. The most important. I think it is like “Now we are going into a military restricted area and there are regulations and all that. So, at every stop, we have a very limited amount of time and all that”. Number two is photo regulations. “The thing is that this regulation is always changing depends on the military authority. So sometimes, this place is ok to take pictures at, but not this place. This one, I will inform you again before we get off the bus.” Number three: “please do not disappear by yourselves.”

(Interviewee A)

All of the guides follow the same model and order when they share their stories. On the bus going to the DMZ site, they first introduce themselves and talk about the site and its background history. Then, they explain the rules that must be followed. During the tour, they explain, with varying degrees of detail, each attraction while recalling the regulations. Then, they focus on Korean society and Korean people. These topics are not without importance, and talking about them at the end of the tour may be efficient. Indeed, tourists may remember those topics more easily than other neutral facts. Emotional content about people is easy to understand and has universal significance, and the impact of emotional stories can last for a long time.

Some differences depending on the official status of a guide were identified. Licensed tour guides tended to speak more about Korean society and regulations, while unlicensed tour guides stated that they speak about DMZ facts, history, and North Korea. Licensed tour guides may be more confident and have more experience in playing on emotions and may diverge from the basic script and objective facts. This point is also be discussed with the key components of storytelling. In the same way, non-official guides may focus on objective facts to ensure their legitimacy. They must not give any false information to ensure their place as tour guide. Finally, it should be noted that guides do not talk much about politics, a topic that is inseparable from the DMZ history. When they talk about the division of the country, it is always from a sad, emotional point of view, more than based on strong political opinions. Guides provided assurance that they can talk freely during the tour, but they may unconsciously censor themselves to avoid any conflict with tourists.

4.4. Factors That Influence Guides’ Storytelling

This study also explored the factors that directly influence the construction and modification of stories. Without these factors, guides would perhaps follow the same script over and over, and each tour would be similar. However, it is important to understand that these factors may influence guides’ storytelling positively or negatively. After coding and categorizing the guides’ interviews, three main categories of factors were uncovered: the DMZ site itself, factors related to the guide, and those related to tourists.

Regarding the DMZ site, some guides described their relationships with the other people working at the site, such as the bus driver and the soldiers. These working relations can be positive or negative and can influence the working conditions of the guides, but they seem to have no real impact on the construction of storytelling. In the same way, a guide shared some discomfort about the food. During the tour, lunch is included, but inevitably, some tourists will not like the meal. The guide needs to make additional effort to find something to eat for that particular person in the group. However, even if this point is important in the tour guide’s work, it refers to the tour guide’s qualities and not their storytelling directly.

“So, if I take longer, the bus driver will get mad at me.”

(Interviewee A)

“But some people, I mean some tourists, are not allowed to hear these stories. Sometimes soldiers, when they talk, underestimate some nations or a particular gender. Some are not well educated about the attitude they should have with tourists, about how to speak or explain history. They don’t know, before coming to JSA, about the guiding job. When they arrive at the Camp Bonifas, they don’t even imagine that they will become a tour guide. So that can happen. So, I need to explain what the soldier has said.”

(Interviewee H)

On the contrary, the constant evolution of the DMZ and its regulations, especially its time regulations, has an important influence on the creation of storytelling. As the history of DMZ is not fixed in the past, tour guides have to adapt and update their stories according to the current situation and political and international relations. Additionally, as the DMZ tour only lasts half a day, the guides are always in a hurry. Time regulation is a huge challenge, as guides seem to struggle to construct their stories in the given time and are often working under pressure and stress.

“Because it’s a sensitive military zone, some places can be restricted all of a sudden, without notification. Sometimes there is a shutdown or some parts of the DMZ are closed. So, in that case, I change my storytelling according to that situation. First, I explain to them about the current situation and why we can’t visit some parts of the DMZ. Then, I have more stories about places we can visit.”

(Interviewee G)

Tour guides can also, consciously or unconsciously, change their storytelling according to their interests or their mood during a particular day of the tour. Questions about the guides’ opinions, perception of legitimacy, and salary were also asked as well the fact that the tour is not given in their mother tongue. However, guides try to be as professional as possible, so this does not have a significant impact on their storytelling compared with other factors.

“Hmm political opinion matters. Yeah, so I think it depends… very old guides, what they are telling and what I am telling could be a bit different. Like, for example, I think the video we are watching at the DMZ is the Korean government view. It is also South Korea propaganda, I think. Yeah. So, political opinions matter, so some guides will describe North Korea as pure evil, but I don’t. I don’t say that. Well, I say that it’s a fact that they attacked us first. That is a fact, but I try to be more in the middle. I don’t just say, “They are evil, we are good”. I don’t say it like that.”

(Interviewee C)

Finally, the tourists also influence the guides’ storytelling. Some guides talked about the attitudes of the tourists and the size of the group. However, the biggest influence comes from the interests and nationalities of the tourists. This shows that tour guides care about their clients and try to provide them with the best service they can, without inciting unpleasant emotions in visitors. They talk about things that may interest them, testing out different topics and scenarios to find the most effective approach. They also try to avoid some topics that are negatively related to the history of the countries where the tourists are from.

“But every day, actually, it’s a little bit different, because on some days, people listen very carefully and are so interested in my explanations, they ask me a lot of questions. So, it makes me happy and more energetic. I explain a lot in a more enthusiastic way. But some days, tourists are not very interested and some of them sleep or have no reaction. So, it makes me a little depressed because I’m a person, right? Haha. So, I try to explain the history, the facts, but sometimes I explain a little bit less than normal haha.”

(Interviewee D)

Finally, both licensed and unlicensed guides reported that the same factors influence their storytelling: the current situation of the DMZ, the tight schedule of the tour, and the nationalities and interests of the tourists.

4.5. Key Components of DMZ Storytelling

The last dimension that this study explored to understand the creation of tour guides’ storytelling was the techniques used by the guides. The findings of this study identified seven components used by tour guides and tourists in DMZ areas during the DMZ tour.

The first component is empathy. This refers to the attention and care that guides give to tourists. They make sure that foreigners understand the site well and feel safe during the tour, even if this implies a certain level of self-censorship from the guides who avoid certain topics. Indeed, the subcategories of empathy are the “facilitation of tourists’ understanding”, which Mathisen (2012) defined as a guide’s main quality, the will to “reassure tourists” and “self-censorship”.

“Because we have various people coming from different countries, when I explain, I try to speak slowly in English to be sure that everyone can understand.”

(Interviewee G)

The second component is the interactive component. Guides create a link with tourists and interact with them. They try to understand, guess, and “match tourist interests” and make them “fully engaged in the tour” by stimulating them. For Best (2012), initiating audience participation is a way to assure their engagement in the tour.

“In short, I want to get them to use their five senses. That, I think, is more impactful. If I take them into the bunker, you know, if they can see a soldier and shake hands with him and talk to him. So it’s not just me talking. They use as many as senses as possible—sight, smell, hearing… If they use their senses, they can remember the story more.”

(Interviewee F)

The third component is personal storytelling. Guides often talk about things related to themselves and about their personal lives or opinions. Indeed, many guides talk about their family who come from the North, their grandparents who experienced the Korean War, or their opinions about North Korea or reunification. Within their stories, they also add some information about previous tours, such as the reactions of tourists or their personal experiences.

“I didn’t have any personal things to show to the tourists, but I would bring up some of my personal stories like… I lived very close to Paju, and in my room, I was able to listen to the North Korea radio. So, when I was young, I often listened to it. So, my mom was like… My mom is an old generation where they had an education of like “anti-North Korea”, right? So I was like listening to it out of curiosity, but my mom was like, “No, you shouldn’t be doing that. The KCIA will catch you and you can go to jail”. So, I told them those kinds of stories and people were very interested in them”.

(Interviewee K)

“When we are in the train station, there is a Siberian map and while showing the map, I talk about the future of Korea and the past, as well as my own opinion and vision.”

(Interviewee G)

The fourth is the entertainment component. Guides use techniques to entertain tourists. Again, entertainment is often mentioned in studies about storytelling as an indispensable component [7,34]. To divert tourists, guides “draw tourists’ interests”, use “humor”, try to “deliver an original content”, such as talking about “emotive stories,” and show “enthusiasm”. According to Christie and Mason [42], enthusiasm is one of the most important characteristics of an effective speaker.

“I do mix a lot of humor in the stories because the tourists are not here to take history lessons. They are tourists.”

(Interviewee G)

“Showing our enthusiasm… It’s the most important thing when you guide. Managing to tell a story while making things interesting. Not being too soporific by only giving basic facts. I recently read a review that said that the guide was really enthusiastic, informative, and lovely until the end and they loved that.”

(Interviewee J)

“If they don’t Google a lot or use YouTube, I can talk about some hidden stories (…) I want to tell some unusual stories. Everybody knows that North Korea has nuclear weapons. But there are some hidden stories, for example, after the Korean War was provoked, North Korean refugees were delivered by Americans. And during that time, five babies were born but they weren’t with their parents. So, actually, the American commanders who named the babies only knew the Korean word Kimchi. So, they called them Kimchi 1, Kimchi 2… and, afterwards, they got all adopted. It’s interesting right? Learning the daily life stories.”

(Interviewee I)

The fifth component is authenticity. Guides expressed a wish to deliver “real content”—real facts about the DMZ and the real lives of Koreans. Through their voice, guides express the opinions of Korean people, and while doing that, they gain legitimacy and become part of the “national identity.” Although the concept of authenticity is often discussed in the literature, it is an important component of storytelling that ensures tourists’ immersion.

“Well, if somebody asks me a question, I think I have to answer that. And, plus, I think it gives them a better understanding of what Korea is by telling them honestly. And they actually appreciate that. There are some tour guides who avoid that because they just want the tourists to be happy. They never talk about the negative side.”

(Interviewee F)

“So, actually the tourists are very interested to see that. How the Koreans feel when they are at the DMZ area. And, actually, I told them that it was my first time seeing North Korea. People are so fascinated about that so that kind of helps, you know. It’s like giving them another kind of information.”

(Interviewee K)

The sixth component of guide storytelling is education, which was studied by Oh and Lee [23]. Here, guides only deliver facts in the most objective manner and without real interactions with tourists. Additionally, they often rely on someone else, such as a soldier or another guide, to explain facts, regulations, or to take responsibility for the tour. Thus, the three subsections are named “delivering facts”, “relying on a third party”, and “rhetorical questions”.

“I tried to deliver facts. If I wanted to give them opinionated thoughts, that would be my own opinion, my own story. I wanted to just deliver facts and if they have their own opinion, then that’s fine. Yeah, but I wouldn’t change the story.”

(Interviewee K)

“So, I repeat the rules that the guide says. But the guide doesn’t guide all the way through once we are in the camp, for the Panmunjeom tour. There are also military police.”

(Interviewee L)

Additionally, guides use many tools to add material and value and help tourists to make sense of what they are experiencing. Most of them use “examples and comparisons”, while only a few create their “own tools” such as a portfolio or bring digital devices with pictures, maps, and sounds. Additionally, the DMZ provides some “tools on-site”, such as maps, videos, or photo exhibitions. However, again, not many of them reported the use of on-site tools.

“About Korean history… I think it may be difficult to understand and maybe not all foreign tourists are interested in listening to it. So, if I can, I try to make some comparisons between their own country’s history and culture and Korean history and culture.”

(Interviewee M)

“I always bring some maps of the DMZ area, and now smartphones are very convenient. So, I let them see some pictures of North Korea.”

(Interviewee D)

The seventh component is the authorative component. The unique characteristic of the DMZ, as a military area, is the authoritative component. To encourage tourists to listen and follow the rules, guides use “intimidating words”, “imperative tense”, and “repetitions”. These are the sub-categories of the authoritative component.

“Sometimes I need to bluff, but just in order to control them, in a manner.”

(Interviewee A)

“So, we need to push them: “Let’s go! Time to go! No more pictures.”

(Interviewee H)

“I really have to repeat again and again.”

(Interviewee I)

The most recurrent components were entertaining, empathetic, interactive, and informative techniques. However, few differences were identified between licensed and unlicensed guides. While unlicensed tour guides seemed to use more entertaining, informative, and personal components, licensed tour guides were more focused on empathic and entertaining techniques. This is supported by the results, which show that unlicensed guides talk more about facts and licensed guides more often cover topics related to Korean society and people—stories full of emotions. Storytelling is understood as a practice that creates value during a tour [7] and educates and entertains tourists by getting them involved in a memorable experience. DMZ tour guides seem to also have the will to create meaningful and unforgettable memories with tourists in a quest to gain mutual relationships.

“So, the meaning is not what I give, the meaning is how they take it.”

(Interviewee A)

“Emotionally, we share our memories with them. If they knew some different things before coming to the DMZ that they figured out about the DMZ, I talk to them as a Korean, as someone who lives in a divided country, that’s my goal.” )

(Interviewee B)

4.6. A proposed Conceptual Model

By uncovering these categories, the following model appeared. Tour guides, travellers, and the DMZ areas are important actors during DMZ tours. The 7 components are shown in Figure 1. Through empathic and interactive components, guides build relationships with the tourists. Personal, entertaining, and authentic stories allow the delivery of an immersive experience. Educative and tools constitute the core tour information and authoritative storytelling shapes the instructions and regulations. These themes gravitate around the three actors of the DMZ and their mutual relationships. Storytelling evolves between the tour guide and tourists.

5. Discussion

5.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications

This study explored the process of storytelling creation by DMZ guides by analyzing the storytelling style, contents, and components that influence it. DMZ storytelling focuses on using emotions to deliver an immersive and unforgettable experience. To do so, the guide helps tourists to make sense of what they see and tries to establish a relationship, a special link, with them. When the guides perform in the DMZ, they talk about diverse topics, from the history and description of the site to the regulations surrounding it. They particularly focus on introducing Korean society and the lives of Koreans. Compared to unlicensed guides, who may have less responsibilities, licensed guides take more time to explain the regulations. Interestingly, when they talk about political topics, they only cover the reunification of Korea or the divided families. They can share the general perceptions of Koreans with tourists, but most guides think it is challenging to talk about politics and share their own opinion. They are aware of the importance of political topics related to the DMZ but try to avoid them, sometimes unconsciously, and prefer to share emotions over political ideas. In the same way, guides face few challenges during the tour. The uniqueness of the site, which is not fixed in the past, obligates guides to continuously update their stories and adapt the tour to unpredictable situations. Additionally, the tight schedule of the tour stresses guides who need to present all their stories and perform their duties in a short period of time. Finally, guides always adapt the content of their storytelling to the tourists’ nationalities and interests. Significant effort is required to take care of tourists and bring them satisfaction.

Tour guide work is a complex work area that requires different skills, which can make the task arduous. Guides are supposed to provide relevant information about the country and/or the place visited, take care of the tourists while providing a sense of security, and ensure flexible guidance of the tour that meets time limits and entertains the clients. All of these roles underlie the attributes that tour guides are supposed to have.

Moreover in Korea, there is no training for guiding, group management, or understanding tourists’ needs. Through experience, guides follow their informative script less, but rather, add jokes, original stories, and answer tourists’ questions to ensure their engagement during the tour. Additionally, empathy and emotions, which are usually found in the construction of memories from dark tourism sites, are used. Moreover, licensed and unlicensed tour guides use different techniques to share their stories, but all of the components employed lead to the creation of a memorable experience through entertainment and emotions.

Finally, the DMZ is a war-related tourist site, but its image has evolved from a sad area to a peaceful area, and this study shows that tour guides are following this trend. However, the topic of nature is not yet emphasized, even though the government is willing to promote eco-tourism in the DMZ [10,43]. In the same way, when guides claimed that they talk about original stories, the analysis of the content showed that the same stories often come out, despite the richness of the DMZ site.

The theoretical implications of this study are the proposal of a new model about guides’ storytelling and the addition of knowledge to the literature. Additionally, this study highlights the role of tour guides in providing a high-quality travel experience and, thus, shows the importance of conducting studies about tour guides. It may lead to new lines of research, such as research on the tour guide training system in Korea.

The practical implications occur on four levels. First, tour guides may gain a better understanding of their practice. They may develop new strategies to improve tourist immersion, experiences, and satisfaction. Travel agencies may then develop new training on a variety of DMZ areas, which may diversify tour guides’ storytelling, as well as training related to group tour management. They could also work with the bodies in charge of DMZ tours to develop more flexible tours. This will give the guides and tourists enough time to enjoy the site. Additionally, the guides stated that the popularity of the DMZ is a negative factor that impacts the schedule. New regulations could be established to avoid crowds. The last practical implication concerns the government who could rethink the tour guide certification to focus on storytelling techniques. It could also cooperate with guides and travel agencies to agree on DMZ discourses to adapt and promote.

Second, storytelling needs to consider the evolving characteristics of the DMZ. The development of the DMZ as a tourist site started in the 1960s, though it did not evolve in a linear way, influenced by the political situation of South and North Koreas. Additionally, as a highly symbolic place for South Korea, the image of the DMZ moved from a dark tourism site to a peace tourism site [10]. While the DMZ forum, created in 1997, aims to protect the wildlife of the site and promote an eco-tourism, the government recently launched a new tourism project called “road of peace and hope”, opening walking trails all along the border.

Third, tourists need to have flexible travel itineraries because the authoritative components of storytelling. For example, international tourists can choose their program when they book the tour through travel agencies but Koreans need to register with the National Intelligence Service of Korea. DMZ organized tours are strictly regulated, with a special focus on the “Joint Security Area (JSA)” or “Panmunjeom”). Tours for international visitors are set up by travel agencies, which received authorization from the United Nations Command. The DMZ tours are planned in advance, tightly timed and can be cancelled without notice. Foreign groups are picked up at a specific place in the center of Seoul, and go to the site by bus, escorted by a tour guide. For tours including the visit of the JSA area, tourists are required to follow particular rules and listen carefully to the guide’s instructions. The official tour guide accompanies them inside the military camp, where a soldier takes over. In other words, the soldier guides the visitors inside the JSA area instead of the official guide. If needed, interpreters can also be part of the tour. Then, in addition to these tours, a special tour is offer to tourists who can meet a North Korean defector. Therefore, tourists meet several people who will guide them in their own way.

5.2. Limitations and Further Research Suggestions

The results of this study, however, have certain limitations. First, the study focused on a particular tour, a one-day tour for foreigners at the Korean DMZ. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalized. The construction of storytelling may differ for other sites and other types of tours, especially regarding the authoritative and authenticity components. Indeed, the authoritative component is heightened due to the militarized character of the site. Moreover, guides may not express the national identity when they guide Koreans, or may do so differently. In the same way, the storytelling content may be different for the Korean public. Finally, to improve this research, observations of guided tours could be used to obtain information. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, access to the DMZ was impossible. Additionally, not many guides were available, as they had to find a way to survive the damage to their career field. If the answers had been quite uniform among the licensed guides, the study would have required more unlicensed guides to compare the differences between licensed and unlicensed tour guides. Therefore, future studies should shed light on DMZ tour guides’ storytelling based on the different characteristics of tour guides. Moreover, examining the impact of COVID-19 on tour guide storytelling and delivery will be important in the future.